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STANDARD HISTORY 



OF 



NEW ORLEANS. LOUISIANA 



GIVING A DESCRIPTION OF THE NATURAL ADVANTAGES, NATURAL HISTORY IN 
REGARD TO THE FLORA AND BIRDS, SETTLEMENT, INDIANS, CREOLES, MUNICIPAL 
AND MILITARY HISTORY, MERCANTILE AND COMMERCIAL INTERESTS, BANKING. 
TRANSPORTATION, STRUGGLES AGAINST HIGH WATER, THE PRESS. 
EDUCATIONAL, LITERATURE AND ART, THE CHURCHES, OLD BURYING 
GROUNDS, BENCH AND BAR, MEDICAL, PUBLIC AND CHARIT- 
ABLE INSTITUTIONS, THE CARNIVAL, AMUSEMENTS, CLUBS, 
SOCIETIES, ASSOCIATIONS. ETC 



EDITED BY 

HENRY RIGHTOR 



THE LEWIS PUBLISHING COMPANY 
CHICAGO 

190O 



INDQIEO 



A 



COPYRIGHT, 1900 

BY THE LEWIS PUBLISHING CO. 

CHICAGO 

' O 3. 






PREFACE, 



IT is the aim of the present volume to supply a work which shall 
deal with the history of New Orleans not alone in its broadest 

sense of civic development, but as well in respect of those some- 
what more intimate and, in a sense, personal details which, though 
not properly a part of the history of the municipality, possess an 
ever-widening bearing upon that history and entitle them to the per- 
petuity of print. If there be deficiencies in the volume, they are to 
be attributed to this very ambition, for the minutiae referred to is 
endless, and it is inevitable that the proper estimate should not always 
have been placed upon the multiplicity of detail confronting the writ- 
ers. The book will, nevertheless, contribute its mite, and if it enrich 
the history-literature of the State only to the extent of providing an 
accurate and reliable volume with sources of information accessible 
by means of a carefully prepared index, the labor expended upon it 
shall not have been lost. It is hoped that what the value may lack in 
uniformity and symmetry, by reason of the number of writers engaged 
upon it, with the resultant diversity of views, may be compensated 
by the earnestness which has inspired the composition of the various 
chapters. Original records have been consulted wherever accessible 
and every writer has given a personal attention to the revision of 
proof-sheets. The chapters upon sugar and rice have been added 
because these industries have been of exceptional importance in the 
city's commercial history. 

The writers and the editor are indebted, for invaluable assistance 
and advice in directing to sources of information, to Mr. William 
Beer, Librarian of the Howard and of the Fisk Free and Public 
Libraries. 

The Editor. 



ill 



CONTENTS. 

CHAPTJ':!; 1. Page 

Colonial Times 7 

CHAPTER II. 
The Indians of Louisiana 30 

CHAPTP:H III. 
Advantages of New Orleans .37 

CHAPTER IV. 
Municipal Government 78 

CHAPTER V. 
Military Vid 

CHAPTER VI. 
Fight Against High Water 171 

CHAPTKR Vll. 
The Creoles 184 

CHAPTER Vlll. 
The Medical History of New Orleans 303 

CHAPTER IX. 
History of Education in New Orleans 32G 

CHAPTER X. 
Old Burial Places 256 

CHAPTER XL 
The Press 267 

CHAPTER XII. 
Transportation 286 

CHAPTER XIIL 
Secret Orders 315- 



Ti CONTENTS. 



CHAPTER XIV. • p^. 

The Nature of Bird Life at New Orleans 335 

CHAPTER XV. 
Literature and Art 361 

CHAPTER XVL 
Flora of Louisiana 389 

CHAPTER XVII. 
The Bench and Bar of New Orleans 394 

CHAPTER XVIII. 
Public Buildings and Charities 417 

CHAPTER XIX. 

The Amusements of New Orleans 463 

CHAPTER XX. 
The Churches 480 

CHAPTER XXI. 
Manufactures 511 

CHAPTER XXII. 
Commercial and Mercantile Interests 538 

CHAPTER XXIII. 

Banking and Finance STS 

CHAPTER XXIV. 
Clubs and Kindred Organizations 606 

CHAPTER XXV. 
The Carnival 629 

CHAPTER XXVI. 
The Sugar Industry 646 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 



CHAPTER I. 



COLONIAL TIMES. 

The Feench and Spanish Dominations. By Alcke Fortier, ~D. Lit., Pro- 
fessor OK Romance Languages in Tulane University of Louisiana, 
President of the Louisiana Histokicae Society. 



L— EXPLORATIONS AND SETTLEMENTS. 

I.A SAI.LE, IBERVILLE, AND BIENVILLE. 

THE history of LoHisiana begin.? in reality with the expedition of Robert 
Cavelier de La Salle down the Mississippi River in 1682. That heroic 

man was born at Roiien in Normandy, and formed the project of explor- 
ing to its mouth the great river discovered by Hernando de Soto in 1541, and 
rediscovered in 1673 by Father Marquette and Louis Joliet. La Salle went 
(o Canada, saw Governor Froiitenac, obtained his apjiroval of his plans, and re- 
turned to France, where he secured privileges from King Louis XIV. He 
arrived at Quebec in 1G78, and immediately made preparations for his under- 
taking. Henri de Tonty, the chivalric Italian, was La Salle's most trusted 
companion and the principal historian of the expedition. 

Before 1682, La Salle had been unsuccessful in his efforts to reach the 
Mississippi, but had displayed wonderful constancy and courage. On February 
6, 1682, he entered the mighty stream from the Illinois River, and on April 
9, he reached the Gulf by three passes into which the river divided itself. La 
Salle erected on the shore a cross, and a column on which were inscribed the 
name and the coat of arms of the King. He named the coimtry Louisiana, in 
honor of the French monarch, and took possession of the vast territory watered 
by the Mississippi and its tributaries, in the name of Louis XIV. 



8 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

La Salle returned to Canada, and from there went to France, where he 
was well received by the King, who gave him the means to undertake the coloni- 
zation of Louisiana. He started from La Rochelle, on July 4, 1684, with a 
&.mall fleet of four vessels, commanded by Beaujeu and containing 250 persons, 
liesides the officers and the crew. After having stopped for a time at San 
Domingo the fleet, reduced to three vessels, arrived at a large river emptying 
into the Gulf of Mexico. It was thought to be the Mississippi, and Beaujeu 
returned to France leaving to La Salle the brig La Belle. The explorer built 
a fort, which he called St. Louis, on the bay of St. Bernard or Matagorda, and 
his brig having been wrecked in a storm, he resolved to return by land to 
Canada, in order to obtain help for his colony. He was accompanied by his 
brother, his nephew, and a few companions, among whom was Joutel, who has 
related the expedition. In 1687 the heroic La Salle was murdered by some of 
his own men, and the colony established in Texas was destroyed by the Indians. 

After the failure of La Salle's expedition, France was not, for several years, 
in a condition to make another attempt to colonize Louisiana. By the Revolu- 
tion of 1688 James II. was expelled from England, and Louis XIV. undertook 
to replace on his throne the Stuart monarch. There was a war which lasted 
for nearly ten years, and which ended in 1697, by the treaty of Ryswick. 
Then arose a favorable opportunity for plans of colonization, and the man who 
knew how to take advantage of the occasion was Iberville, a Canadian sailor 
who had greatly distinguished himself in the wars against the English. He 
offered to form a settlement in Louisiana, and the plan was favorably received 
by the King and his minister, Pontchartrain. Iberville started from Brest on 
October 24, 1698, with two frigates and two freight ships, and at San Domingo 
was joined by the Marquis de Chateaumorant in command of a war vessel. On 
January 25 the fleet anchored before the island of St. Rosa, but the Spanish 
governor of Pensacola did not allow the French to enter the harbor. They set 
sail again and cast anchor before the Chandeleur Islands. Iberville landed on 
Ship Island, built some huts there and went with his brother Bienville to explore 
the coast of what is now Biloxi and Ocean Springs. He found the country 
beautiful and was well received by the Indians, and built, a little later, a fort 
on the eastern shore of the Bay of Biloxi. 

Before building his fort, however, Iberville had started, on February 27, 
with his brother Bienville, to look for the mouth of the Mississippi, and had 
succeeded in discovering the hidden river on March 2, 1699. The two brothers 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. g 

went up the Mississippi, as far as the country of the Houmas, near the mouth 
of Red River, and had no doubt about their being on La Salle's river, when they 
found, among -the Bayougoulas, a letter from Tonty, who had gone down the 
Mississippi in search of La Salle, at the time of the last expedition of the great 
explorer. At the place where is now the town of Baton Rouge, Iberville saw a 
tall may-pole on which the Indians had hung offerings of fish and game, and he 
called the place Baton Rouge. Near by was a small river or bayou named 
Manchac, and Iberville entered it and reached again his fleet at Ship Island, 
after having passed through two lakes and a bay, which he called, respectively, 
Maurepas, Pontchartrain, and St. Louis. Bienville returned by way of the 
Mississippi. 

Iberville sailed for France in May, 1699, after having sown the seed from 
which Louisiana was to grow. He gave the command of the colony to Sauvole, 
a brave and capable young French officer, who has left an interesting account 
of the difficulties attending the establishment of the colony. The coast on the 
Mississippi Sound is beautiful, with its white sand and magnificent trees: 
oaks, magnolias, and pines, but the land is not fertile. The colonists, besides, 
for several years, paid little attention to tilling the ground and counted for sub- 
sistence on the provisions sent from France. 

Iberville did not abandon his infant colony, but returned to it in the begin- 
ning of 1700. He again went up the Mississippi with Bienville, and with 
Tonty, who had come from Canada to meet the French. Iberville went as far 
as the Natchez country and ordered a fort which he called Rosalie to be built 
there. He built also a fort fifty-four miles from the mouth of the river and 
called it Maurepas. He gave the command of it to Bienville, who stayed there 
until the death of Sauvole in August, 1701, when he became governor of Louis- 
ana at the early age of twenty-two. 

Iberville returned once more to Louisiana at the end of 1701, and remained 
until March, 1702. He had the seat of the colony transferred to fort St. Louis 
de la Mobile. Iberville, the father of Louisiana, died in 1706 at Havana, 
whither he had gone to prepare an expedition against the English in the Caro- 
linas. His death was a great blow to the colony, which was left with very little 
support from France. Bienville was obliged several times to scatter some of 
his men among the Indians, who treated them kindly. Penicaut, the carpenter, 
has given a charming description of his stay among the Natchitoches. He tells 
us how he tried to teach French to two Indian maidens, and how one of his 



lo STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

Gonipanions, a violinist, taught the young 2)eople to dance the stately minuet of 
the court of yersailles. 

In spite of Bienville's efforts to make the colony prosper, he was superseded 
in 1708, and a new governor, de Muys, was sent to Louisiana. The latter died 
on tTie way, and the new commissary general, Diron d'Artaguette, sent such a 
favorable report to the French government about Bienville that the young 
governor was kept at the head of the colony, which he had governed ad intenm, 
after the death of de Muys. 

France had been brought to great distress by the war of the Spanish suc- 
cession undertaken by Louis XIV. to place his grandson, the Duke of Anjou, 
on the throne of Spain, which had been bequeathed to the latter by Charles II. 
Marlborough and Prince Eugene had defeated the armies of the French in 
several great battles, and the country was saved from a shameful peace only by 
the battle of Denain, won by Villars in 1712. It was no easy matter to maintain 
colonies when the kingdom was in danger, therefore, in 1712, Louis XIV. was 
glad to transfer Louisiana to a wealthy banker named Crozat, for a period of 
fifteen years. The colony, at that time, contained a population of about 380 
l>ersons, scattered, says Gayarrc, over an immense territory and protected by 
five forts : at Mobile, at Biloxi, on the Mississippi, at Ship Island, and Dauphine 
or Massacre Island, near Mobile. 

In 1710 Lamothc Cadillac had been named govern >r. He was the founder 
of Detroit and had given proof of ability and courage, but in his new position 
he failed completely. He seemed to have lacked tact in his dealings with the 
Indians, and the first Xatchez war broke out in 1716. The Xatchez were an 
intelligent race and had strange customs. They adored the sun and kept a fire 
burning perpetually in their temple. Their chief was called the Great Sun, 
and the succession was in the female line. In 1716 the Xatchez rose against 
the French, and Bienville, who was second in command in the colony, was sent 
affainst them. As he bad onlv a few men with him, he resorted to a stratagem 
which we could hardly approve at present and made the Indian chiefs fall into 
a snare. He put two of them to death and made terms with the others. He 
also built Fort Rosalie, of which the site had been chosen by Iberville. 

Ill 1716 Lamothe Cadillac was recalled, and de I'Epinay named governor. 
In 1717, however, Crozat gave up liis charter. He believed that he would have 
a prosperous trade V-ith tlie Spaniards in Mexico, but had failed in this and had 
been restricted to an unprofitable trade with the Indians. The council of 



STANDARD IIISTOBY OF NEW ORLEANS. ii 

marine decided to maintain the colony and declared : "That it is too con- 
siderable an enterprise to be confided to a single individual ; that it does not 
?nit the King to take charge of it himself, inasmuch as His Majesty cannot enter 
into all the details of commerce, which are inseparable from it ; therefore, the 
best to be done is to choose a company strong enough to support this enterprise." 

Louisiana was transferred, with a population of about 700 souls, to the 
Company of the West or of the Indies. The latter was to have almost absolute 
control over the colony for twenty-five years, enjoying a monopoly of trade, 
naming the governor and other officers, except the members of the Superior 
Council. The company obligated itself to send to Louisiana six thousand 
whites and three thousand blacks. The famous John Law, director general of 
the bank of France, was the president of the company. 

At the end of Crozat's regime, Saint-Denis had laid the foundation of the 
toAvn of K'atchitoches and had gone to Mexico, where he had had a number of 
romantic adventures, and had married a beautifiil Mexican girl. 

II._THE BEGINNINGS OF NEW ORLEANS. 

THE WESTERN COMPANY AND THE NATCHEZ WAR. 

As soon as the organization of tlie Western Company was completed three 
ships were sent to Louisiana. They carried soldiers and sixty-nine colonists, and 
as Gayarre says, "caused the hope of better days to revive in the colony." Bien- 
ville was appointed governor for the second time, and in 1718 rendered to 
Louisiana the greatest service possible by laying the foundation of the present 
city of NeAv Orleans. 

The following extract from Father Charlevoix's Historical Journal is in- 
teresting, as it is probably the first letter written from New Orleans that has 
come down to us. It is addressed to the Duchess of Lesdig^iieres, and is taken 
from the "Historical Collections" of B. F. French. 

" New Orleans, January 10, 1722. 

" I am at length arrived in this famous city, which they have called la 
NouveUe-Orleans. Those who have given it this name, thought that Orleans 
was of the feminine gender ; but what signifies that ? Custom has established 
it, and that is above the rules of grammar. 

" This city is the first, which one of the greatest rivers in the world has 
seen raised on its banks. If the eight hundred fine houses and the five parishes, 
which the newspapers gave it some two years ago, are reduced at present to a 



12 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

hundred barracks, placed in no very great order; to a great storehouse, built of 
wood ; to two or three houses, which would be no ornament to a village of France ; 
and to the half of a sorry storehouse, which they agreed to lend to the lord of 
the place, and which he had no sooner taken possession of, but they turned him 
out to dwell under a tent ; what pleasure, on the other side, to see insensibly in- 
creasing this future capital of a fine and vast country, and to be able to say, not 
with a sigh, like the hero of Virgil, speaking of his dear native place consiniied 
by the flames, and the fields where the city of Troy had been, but full of a well- 
grounded hope, this wild and desert place, which the reeds and trees do yet al- 
most wholly cover, will be one day, and perhaps that day is not far off, an 
ojiulent city, and the metropolis of a great and rich colony. 

" You will ask me, madam, on what I found this hope ? I found it on tlie 
situation of this city, at tliirty-three leagues from the sea, and on the side of 
a navigable river, that one nuiy come up to this place in twenty-four hours ; on 
the fruitfulness of the soil ; on the mildness and goodness of its climate, in 
?)0° north latitude; on the industry of its inhabitants; on the neighborhood of 
Mexico, to which we may go in fifteen days by sea ; on that of the Havana, 
which is still nearer : and of the Ena-lish colonies. Need there anvthina; more 
to render a city flourishing ? Rome and Paris had not such considerable be- 
ginnings, were not built under such happy auspices, and their foimders did not 
find on the Seine and the Tiber the advantages which we have found on the 
Mississippi, in comparison of which those two rivers are but little brooks." 

Although New Oi-leans, in 1722, was composed only of "a hundred barracks," 
and about 200 inhabitants, Bienville wisely foresaw its great future and tried, 
as early as 1719, to have the seat of government transferred to the town on the 
Mississippi. The Superior Council, however, did not share the views of the 
governor, and decided to transfer the seat of government from Mobile, near 
Dauphine Island, to Biloxi, which, having been burned by accident, was aban- 
doned for Xcw Biloxi, on the other .«ide of the Bay. 

In 1722 tlie news reached Louisiana of the failure of Law's bank, due to 
an exaggerated emission of paper money based on no tangible security. The 
colonists feared that Law's failure would interfere with the affairs of the 
Western Company and induce it to neglect Lcaiisiana. Such was not the case, 
for there soon arrived in the colony three commissioners charged with the ad- 
ministration of the affairs of the company. The commissioners, in 1723, 
allowed Bienville to make Xew Orleans the capital of Louisiana. On January 
25, 1723, Pauger, the engineer, made an important report concerning the mouth 
of the river, saying that "he found that ships drawing fourteen, fifteen feet of 
water, and even more, could pass there easily." 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 13 

Owing to the failure of Law's bank the financial affairs of the colony were 
in a wretched condition. The paper money was almost worthless and was or- 
dered to be exchanged for cards, which were soon as worthless. Another result 
of Law's faihire was the establishment on the Mississippi River, at a short dis- 
tance from N'ew Orleans, of about foiar hundred Germans, who had been sent to 
the Arkansas country, but had been compelled to go to Sew Orleans. From 
these settlers came the name of German Coast. 

On February Ifi, 1724, Bienville was ordered to return to France to ren- 
der an account of his conduct. From the foundation of the colony there had 
existed serious dissensions between the superior officers in command, and Bien- 
ville's enemies were once more successful, as they had been in 1708, in their 
intrigues against him. During his second administration Bienville had taken 
Pensacola in 1719 (i-eturned to Spain in l72o), had undertaken a war against 
the !N"atchez and had defeated them, had issued the Black Code, and had entered 
into negotiations by which the LTrsuline nuns were to come to Louisiana to in- 
struct the girls in the colony. 

I take the liberty to quote here from my "Louisiana Stiidies" the 
following extracts referring to education in colonial times in Louisiana : 
" The hundred huts mentioned by Father Charlevoix soon became spacious man- 
sions, which, althoiigh rough looking and unwieldy, contained in their poorly 
furnished rooms and wide halls elegant gentlemen and ladies and charming 
children. The parents had been educated in France. Where were the little 
ones to be instructed ? The wealthy inhabitants sent their sons to the colleges 
of the mother country, but could girls be separated from their mothers, and what 
was to be done with the sons of the poor ? A worthy Capuchin monk, Father 
Cecil, opened a school for boys near his church, and was the first teacher in 
Louisiana. As for the teachers for girls, Bienville thought of the soeurs grises 
of his native Canada ; but having failed in that direction, he consulted Father 
Beaubois, superior of the few Jesuits at that time in Louisiana, and was advised 
by him to procTire the services of the Lh-suline nuns. A treaty was signed on 
September 13, 1726, between the nuns and the company of the Indies, and Bien- 
ville, although he was no longer governor when the Ursulines arrived in Louisi- 
ana, is entitled to the honor of being the founder of the first girls' school and of 
the first hospital in the colony." The hospital was also to be under the charge of 
the Ursulines. 

The nuns, twelve in number, left Lorient, on February 22, 1727, and 



r 



14 STAXDAIU) IlISTUnr OF NEW ORLEANS. 

reached 'New Orleans on August 7, 1727. Their superior was Mother Tranche- 
pain, and among the sisters was the talented Madeleine Hachard, to whom we 
owe a charming description of the journey of the nuns, and of Xew Orleans in 
1727. 

Governor Perier, Bienville's successor, went to meet the nuns on their 
arrival, and they were given as a residence Bienville's house, where they stayed 
until 1734. They moved then to their convent on Conde street, later Chartres 
street, now the palace of the archbishop of New Orleans. 

The plan of the new to^vn had been made by chief engineer de la Tour, 
about whom Dumont says in his Memoir (B. Y. French, "Historical 
Memoirs") : 

" The Sieur de la Tour was no sooner arrived at the place, then consisting 
only of some unimportant houses, scattered here and there, formed by voyageurs 
who had come down from Illinois, than he cleared a pretty long and wide strip 
along the river, to put in execution the plan he had projected. Then, with the 
help of some piqueurs, he traced on the ground the streets and q\iarters which 
were to form the new town, and notified all who wished building sites to present 
their petitions to the council. To each settler who appeared they gave a plot 
ten fathoms front bv twenty deep, and as each square was fifty fa'thoms front, 
it gave twelve plots in each, the two middle ones being ten front by twenty-five 
deep. It Avas ordained that those who obtained these plots should be bound to 
enclose them with palisades, and leave all around a strip at least three feet wide, 
at the foot of which a ditch was to be dug, to serve as a drain for the river water 
in time of inundation. The Sieur de la Tour deemed these canals, commimicat- 
ing from square to sqiuire, not only absolutely necessary, but even, to preserve 
the city from inundation, raised in front, near a slight elevation, running to 
the river, a dike or levee of earth, at the foot of which he dug a similar drain." 

Governor Perier arrived in New Orleans in 1725. During his administra- 
tion a great war with the Indians took place. The Chickasaws had never been very 
friendly to the French, and the iffatchez seemed restless. Bienville had asked 
for more troops, and Perier repeated the request when he became governor, but 
without success. The Indians were led to attack the French by the greed and 
injustice of the commandant at Fort Rosalie, Ohepart. This vile man ordered 
the Natchez to abandon one of their finest villages, the White Apple, in order 
that he might establish a plantation there. The Indian chief succeeded in 
obtaining, or rather in buying, a delay from him, but the Natchez, henceforth, 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 15 

ihonght that their safety lay in destroying the French at Fort Rosalie. On 
Xovemher 28, 1729, the savages snrprised the fort, massacred 200 men and took 
prisoners a iiumher of women, children, and negro slaves. 

On hearing of this disaster Perier made active preparations to attack the 
ISTatchez. Lesneur induced the Choctaws to ally themselves with the French, 
and Perier sent Major Loiihois with the main hody of troops to co-operate with 
Lesiieur. The savage auxiliaries of the latter, however, refused to wait for 
Loubois's detachment, and attacking the ISTatchez by surprise, killed a number 
of them and recovered .51 French women and children, two men, and one hun- 
dred and six slaves. The Choctaws then dispersed. 

The !Natchez intrenched themselves strongly and resisted for some time 
successfully the attacks of Louhois. Finally they offered to surrender their 
prisoners, more than two hundred in number, provided the siege were aban- 
doned. These terms were accepted, but the Indians, not trusting the French, 
managed to escape, leaving their prisoners behind. Some of the Natchez sought 
refuge among the Chickasaws, while the greater part, led by the Great Sun, 
retired upon a mound on the Black River. 

Governor Perier received some reinforcements from France, and on 
November 15, 1730, he departed with 650 soldiers, including the militia, and 
350 Indian warriors, for the Black River. In this expedition he succeeded in 
bringing back to New Orleans, on February 5, 1731, 427 captives, including 
the Great Sim and several chiefs. These Avere sent to San Domingo by Perier 
and sold as slaves. He had previously allowed to be burned in New Orleans, as 
a warning, foiir men and two women. 

The tribe of the Natchez, now reduced by one-half, was in the summer of 
1731 nearly annihilated by the brave Saint-Denis, the commandant at Natchi- 
toches. What remained of the tribe was adopted by the Chickasaws, and the 
Natchez lost their name. Such was the fate of these Indians, whom Le Page 
du Pratz praises highly, and who seem to have been far superior in intelligence 
to the other tribes in Louisiana. 

The Natchez war had occasioned heavy expense to the Western Company 
and had delayed the growth of the colony, therefore the Company begged the 
King to allow them to surrender their charter. Their petition was granted, 
and Louisiana became again, in April, 1732, a royal province. It had pros- 
pered considerably during the fifteen years it had been under the control of 
the Western Company. The population in 1732 was 5,000 whites and 2,000 



i6 STAXDARD HISTORY OF XEW ORLEANS. 

blacks, and trade and agriculture were flourishing. At this period of history 
ends the colonization of Louisiana. The seed sown by Iberville had friictified, 
and in sjiite of many vicissitudes, the colony- planted at Biloxi in 169D, was to 
become the great State of Louisiana, and Bienville's town of one hundred huts 
was to become the metropolis of the Southern States of the American Union. 



III.— THE CHICKASAW WAE, AND THE TEEATY OF FON- 

TAINEBLEAIT. 

VAUnKEUIL AND KESLEREC. 

Bienville was reappointed governor in 1732, and the colonists wore de- 
lighted to see him again, but the last administration of that distinguished man 
was marked with great disasters in the wars with the Indians. The tribes 
seemed to have been somewhat dissatisfied with Perier, and the latter's successor 
had a hard task in his dealings with the Indians. We shall follow here 
Dumont's account of the war with the Chickasaws. 

We have seen that the remnant of the Natchez tribe, after their defeat by 
Saint-Denis, were adopted by the Chickasaws. In 1734 Bienville asked for 
the surrender of the fugitives, but met with a refusal. He, therefore, prepared 
to attack the Chickasaws. This tribe was the most warlike in the colony, and 
had always manifested some hostility against the French. Bienville sent to 
the Illinois country a convoy of five boats, one loaded with powder and the 
others with goods, but the commander, Leblanc, left the powder in the Arkansas 
country, M-ent to the Illinois, and sent for the powder. On the way back the 
powder was taken by the Indians, and all the Frenchmen in the boat were killed 
or taken prisoners. Leblanc transmitted the orders of the governor to the chev- 
alier d'Artaguette, commandant of Fort Chartres, and younger brother of 
the commissary Diron d'Artagniette. The latter was again, at that time, in 
Louisiana, and was now on bad tenns with the governoi-. The orders to d'Arta- 
guette were to meet Bienville in the Chickasaw country, by May 10, with what- 
ever troops he could gather. 

Bienville started from Mobile, by the river, on April 1, 1736, and, on April 
20, the army arrived at a place called Tombigby. There they were joined by 
the Choctaw auxiliaries. Having been detained by rains at Tombigby until 



STAXDARD IIISTOUY OF NEW ORLEAXS. 17 

Mav 4tli the exijedition started again, ami on May 25tli reached a place distant 
seven leagues from the Chickasaw village. They found the Indians in a strongly 
fortified post, and, although Bienville's troops, both regulars and militia 
attacked the fort with great bravery, they were repulsed with heavy loss, as 
they had no material for a siege. Bienville ordered the army to retreat, and 
returned to jSTew Orleans, where he heard of the sad fate of d'Artaguette. 

The commandant at Fort Chartres had obeyed his chief's orders, and had 
marched into the country of the Chickasaws. Having arrived there before 
Bienville, and not being supported by the main army of the French, he was 
defeated by the Indians and forced to surrender. D'Artaguette, Vincennes, 
Father Senac, a Jesuit missionary, and a number of other Frenchmen were 
burned at the stake. The unhappy fate of young d'Artaguette struck the inuig- 
ination of the colonists, and his name has become connected with a proverb in 
Loi:isiana. In speaking of something very old one says: "Vii'ux cornme du 
iemps d'Artaguette," "as old as the time of d'Artaguette." 

Bienville was very anxious to avenge d'Artaguette's death and to regain 
his military renown. He did not believe, however, that he had suiScicnt troops 
to conquer the Chickasaws and he applied to France for reinforcements. The 
chevalier de Beauharnais, governor of Canada, was ordered to send troops to 
assist Bienville, and a body of marines arrived from France, commanded by 
the chevalier Louis d'Ayme de Noailles. The exi>edition was conveyed by the 
Mississippi, then called St. Louis Kiver, to Fort St. Francis on the St. Francis 
Eiver, and from there to the Margot Kiver, now Wolf River. The army built 
a fort called Fort Assumption, near the present city of Memphis, and received 
at that place large reinforcements. The Sieur de la Buisoniere, successor to 
the unfortunate d'Artaguette at Fort Chartres, captain de Celoron, and lieuten- 
ant de St. Laurent, "followed," says Dumont, "by thirty cadets, sent by the 
governor of Canada, with a great number of Canada Indians." 

" The army of Bienville," says Judge Martin, "numbered about 1200 white 
troops, and double that number of Indian and black troops." For some unac- 
countable reason the troops remained at Fort Assumption, at some distance from 
the Indians, from .\ugiist, 1739, to March, IT-tO, without attacking the enemy. 
The provisions failed, sickness broke out in the camp, especially among the 
soldiers recently arrived from France, and Bienville resolved, instead of con- 
quering the Chickasaws, to grant them peace, if they asked for it. He accord- 
ingly sent Celoron, Avith his thirty Canadian cadets and his Indian allies, to 



1 8 STANDAED HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

advance against the Chickasaws. The hatter, believing that the whole arniv of 
Bienville was marching to attack them, begged for peace and presented the calu- 
met to Celoron. This commander promised peace, and Bienville ratified the 
treaty in April, 1740. He gave presents to his Indian allies and dismissed 
them. The army now returned to New Orleans, after destroying Forts As- 
sumption and St.. Francis. The Chickasaws were never conquered, and they 
and the Natchez fugitives contiimcd to commit depredations. There was, how- 
ever, no open war with them after Bienville's unsuccessful expedition. 

We have given in detail the war with the Chickasaws, as it was the last 
expedition undertaken by Bienville. We feel great sorrow at the failure of his 
last two campaigns, and we cannot understand his apparent mismanagement of 
the war, as prior to 1736, he had been very successful in his dealings with the 
Indians. Mortified and grieved at his failure, Bienville asked to be relieved 
of his conmiand, and on j\Iay 10, 174.'), he returned to France. He was then 
sixty-two years old and had been about forty-four years in the colony. We V 
shall see later the Father of New Orleans in Paris, trying, in his old age, to 
prevent the transfer of his cherished Louisiana to the rule of Spain. 

Bienville's successor, the IMarquis de Vaudreuil, was a real grand seigneur, 
and he has always been remembered in Louisiana for his elegant manners and 
his sumptuous entertainments. One of his first acts was to keep up the enmity 
between the Chickasaws and the Choctaws. Red Shoe, a Choctaw chief, gave 
Vaudreuil great trouble by his restlessness and duplicity. He sided one day 
with the English, another day with the French, and was ever ready to receive 
money or provisions from either party. He was the cause of a civil war among 
the Choctaws, and was finally killed by the party friendly to the French. The 
different Indian tribes harassed the colonists considerably during Vaudreuil's 
administration, and among the persons killed by the savages in 1748 was the 
unfortunate dancing master, Baby, whose loss was deejily mourned in New Or- 
leans. 

Vaudreuil belonged to aji influential family and obtained from the French 
government a large increase in the number of soldiers to serve in Louisiana. 
He imdertook an expedition against the Chickasaws in 1752, but accomplished 
little besides burning and devasratiiig their country. The marquis, however, re- 
mained in high favor at court and wa^; promoted in 17.t.') to the governorship of 
Canada. There he displayed great ability and courage in the French wars with 
the English. 



STANDARD HISTORY OF SEW ORLEANS. 19 

Bossn, a captain of marines, wrote from New Orleans, on July 1, 1751, 
'ihat Governor Vandreuil received most hospitably the troops which had come 
■from France. He speaks of the inhabitants of Louisiana and says : "One calls 
Creoles those who are born of a Frenchman and a Fi*enchwoman or of a Euro- 
pean woman. The Creoles, in general, are very brave, tall and well made ; they 
liave many dispositions for the arts and the sciences; but as they cannot culti- 
vate them perfectly on account of the scarcity of good teachers, the rich and 
considerate do not fail to send their children to France, as to the first school 
in the world, in all things. As to the sex which has no other duty to perform 
but that of i^leasing, it is born here with tliat advantage and has no need to go 
to Europe to seek the deceitful art." 

As to New Orleans, Bossu says: "That town is situated on the banks of 
Llie Mississippi, one of the largest rivei's in the world, since it waters more than 
eight himdred leagues of known countries. Its pure and delicious waters flow 
for forty leagues, in the midst of a number of plantations, which form a charm- 
ing sight on its two banks, where one enjoys abundantly the pleasures of hunt- 
ing, of fishing, and all the oth'er delights of life." 

Bossu regrets very much tiie departure of Vaudreuil, and mentions the 
Litter's successor, Kerlerec, in no flattering terms, saying: "lie has qualities 
of heart very different from those of his predecessor; but this new governor 
may give as an excuse that ho did not come so far only for a change of air." 
It was during Kerhsrec's administration that Villiers, an officer at Fort Chartres 
of the Illinois, avenged the death of hi: Itrother Jumonville, who was killed at 
liie Great Meadows in April, IT.j-f. \'illiers attacked Colonel Washington at 
Port Necessity and oonipellt'd him to surrender on July 4, 17.5-1. 

During tlic administration of Kerlerec there were violent disputes between 
iiim and his commissary ordonnateur, Rochemore, and the colony not only made 
no progress, but seemed to be retrogradiiig. The unsuccessful wars of Louis 
XV. hardly allowed any help to be given Louisiana, and the unwise financial 
policy of tlie government caused great distress in the colony by the instability 
of tlie currency, ^vhether copper coin, or note or card money. In June, 1761, 
Rochemore was replaced by Foucault, who was soon to play an important part in 
(lie history of Louisiana. 

The Seven Years' War ended disastrously for France in Europe, Canada, 
and India, and the wretched and corrupt administration of Louis XV. caused 
France to lose all her colonies in America and nearly all in India. The loss of 



20 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

Canada, as Gayarre expresses it so well, "caused a painful emotion in Louisiana, 
which was bound to it by so many ties, and which, for such a long time, had 
formed a dependency of Canada. A vague presentment made the colonists fear 
a change of domination. Indeed, on K^ovember 13, 1762, the King of Spain 
accepted, by a secret treaty, the gift which the King of France made to him of 
Louisiana." 

Louis XV. ceded "by the pure effect of the generosity of his heart" 
H- * * "^]j ^Yie country known by the name of Louisiana as well as New 
Orleans, and the island in which that town is situated." The King of France 
was desirous to give to his cousin of Spain a proof of the great intei'est he took 
in his welfare, and was touched by the sacrifices made by his Catholic Majesty 
to bring about peace. This shameful treaty was signed at Fontainebleau by 
Grimaldi for Spain and Choiseul for France. It is a pity that the latter affixed 
his signature to such a disgraceful State paper. Choiseul was one of the few 
able ministers of Louis XV., and he had, by his "Family Compact," imited all 
tTie different branches of the Bourbons, and made France powerful again in 
Europe, in spite of Rosbach and other defeats. When Madame Du Barry 
caused the fall of Choiseul in 1770, the doom of the monarchy was sealed, and 
Louis XV. could truly say: "After me the deluge." 



IV.— THE REVOLUTION OF OCTOBER, 1768. 

III.LOA, AUBEY, AND I.AFRENIEEE. 

The treaty of Fontainebleau was kept secret, and, on February 10, 1763, 
the shameful treaty of Paris was signed. Louis XV. ceded to Gi-eat Britain, 
by article 7, the river and port of Mobile and all the possessions on the left 
bank of the Mississippi, with the exception of the town of New Orleans and the 
island in which it is situated. Spain, in its turn ceded to Great Britain 
Florida, called later West Florida, with the fort of St. Augustine and the bay of 
Pensacola, and all the country to the east and south-east of the Mississippi 

The King of France continued to act as possessor of Louisiana, as the 
treaty of Fontainebleau was still kept secret. On June 29, 1763, d'Abbadie 
arrived in New Orleans with the title of director general, and Kerlerec returned 
to France where he was thro^m into the Bastille on his ai-rival in Paris. In 



STANDAED HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 21 

1764 d'Abbadie obtained for Braud an exclusive privilege to establish a printing 
press and to sell books in the colony. Braud's press was soon to be of great 
value to the colonists in their heroic struggle in 1768 against Spanish oppres- 
sion. 

In October, 1764, d'Abbadie received an official communication from the 
French court announcing the cession to Spain. Louisiana was to pass from the 
domination of Louis XV. to that of Charles III. If it had not been the fact 
of their being handed over like cattle by one master to another, the Louisianians 
should have felt relieved to be no longer the subjects of the infamous King who 
had been the cause of so many disasters to France. Charles III., of Spain, was 
a far better man and an abler ruler than the Bourbon at Versailles. 

On February 4, 1765, d'Abbadie died, much regi'etted by every one in 
Louisiana, and Aubry succeeded him as commandant or governor. The name 
of the latter is imfortunately connected with the saddest event in our historj'. 
When the colonists heard in October, 1764, of the cession to Spain, they were 
thrown into consternation and despair. They were greatly attached to France, 
and a number of them had left the part of the province ceded to England, in 
order to remain Frenchmen. A meeting was held in New Orleans of delegates 
from every parish, and Lafreniere, the attorney general, made a speech in which 
he suggested that a petition be sent to the King begging him not to give them 
away to another nation. The colonists were not aware of the infamy of the 
King, and they hoped that he would be touched by their expressions of devotion 
and love. Jean Milhet, the wealthiest merchant in New Orleans, was sent to 
France as the representative of the Louisianians. 

As soon as Milhet arrived in Paris he went to see Bienville, who was then 
eighty-four years old. This venerable and distinguished man called with Mil- 
bet on Choiseul, M-ho received them kindly, but did not allow them to see the 
King. Milhet failed in his endeavors, and Bienville had the sorrow to see his 
beloved Louisiana become a Spanish province. Milhet announced his failure 
to his compatriots, but the latter had begun to hope that Spain would not take 
possession of the colony. On July 10, 1765, however, Don Antonio de Ulloa 
wtote from Havana to Aubry that he had been appointed governor of Louisiana, 
and he arrived in New Orleans on March 5, 1766. 

The Spanish King had certainly not appeared very anxious to take posses- 
sion of his new dominion. More than three years had elapsed, from the date 
of the secret treaty of Fontainebleau, by which France had ceded Louisiana to 



2 2 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

Spain, before a Spanish official appeared in the colony, and when that official 
did arrive he came nearly alone and did not assume authority in a piiblic 
manner. However, Aubry recognized him as the representative of the King 
of Spain, and issued orders in the latter's name. Ulloa had with him only two 
companies of infantry, composed of ninety men, and the French soldiers in 
Louisiana refused to enter the service of Spain, claiming that the time of their 
enlistment had expired. The Spanish governor, therefore, delayed taking pos- 
session officially until he should have more troops to sustain his authority. 

The condition of affairs was very unfortunate ; for Ulloa's orders, issued 
through Auhi-y, did not api>ear binding on the inhabitants, and merely irritated 
ihem. Such was the case, especially with an ordinance dated September 6, 
1766, by which no merchants were allowed to sell their goods in the colony 
before they had submitted their prices to the inspection of "just and intelligent" 
persons, who would judge whether the prices asked were excessive or not. The 
jnerehants of Xew Orleans protested against this ordinance and begged the Su- 
]>erior Council not to allow it to be enforced before they could be heard on the 
bubject. It is evident that the inhabitants were opposed to every act of Ulloa's 
nnd to the cession to Spain. The governor was a man of merit, a distinguished 
scientist, but lacked tact as a ruler of people opjiosed to a change of domination, 
and who should have been treated with the greatest gentleness. Ulloa treated 
tlie inhabitants with haughtiness and acted certainly in a strange manner, when 
he remained at the Balize, at the mouth of the ilississippi, for seven months, to 
await his Peruvian bride, and never went once in the mean time to New Orleans. 
The colonists were justified in not submitting to his rule and in asking for his 
withdrawal from the country. 

Jean Milhet returned froui I" ranee at almnt that time, and the narrative 
of his failure caused in the colony an excitement which brought about the great 
event known as the Iu'volntio)i 'if ITfiS. Lafveiiiere was at the head of the 
movement, and chief among his lieutenants were Villere, Marquis, Caresse, 
Noyan, Milhet, Doucet, ifazent. Petit and Boisblanc. At a meeting held in 
Xew Orleans Lafreniere made a magniiicent speech, of which our historian, 
Gayarre, says: "There is a passage in Lafrcniere's address of which Louisi- 
ana may well be proud, and of which she can boast, as spoken by one of her chil- 
dren, in 1768, before the voice of 1776 was heard. In proportion, said he, 
to the extent boHi of commerce and population, is the solidity of thrones: both 
are fed bv liberty and competition, which are the nairsing mothers of the State, 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 23 

of which the spirit of monopoly is the tyrant and stepmother. Without liberty 
there ai-e but few virtues. Despotism breeds pusillanimity, and deepens the abyss 
of vices. Man is considered as sinning before God only because he retains his 
free will." 

After hearing Lafreniere's bold and eloquent words, 560 of the most influ- 
ential inhabitants signed a petition asking the Superior Council to expel Ulloa 
from the colony. Immediately all the inhabitants took up arms. The Germans 
were led by Villere and the Acadians by Marquis, and from all the parishes 
brave and resolute men assembled in New Orleans. The Superior Council, on 
October 29, 176S, ordered Ulloa to show his powers or to leave the colony of 
which he pretended to be governor. He withdrew on board a ship at anchor 
in the river, but at daybreak some young men who were returning from a wed- 
ding, cut the cables of the vessel on which was Ulloa. The Spaniard was thus 
exjjelled and a revolution had taken place. 

Brand, the King's printer, printed a long memoir of the planters and mer- 
chants of Louisiana, about the event of October, 1768. It is one of the most 
important and interesting documents in our history. The colonists do not prove 
their case fully against Ulloa, but one sees in their memoir their bitter opposi- 
tion to the rule of Spain, to the rule of the foreigner. Their spirit was patri- 
otic, and the Louisianians of to-day should admire their feelings and be proud 
of their heroism. Foucault and Aubry played an unenviable part in these 
events and may be considered informers, although the commissary Foucault was 
one of the participants in the revolution. 

On December 14, 1768, the inhabitants petitioned the Council to order the 
expulsion of the Spanish frigate, which had remained in the river, and the 
frigate finally left the country on April 20, 1769. The colonists had been most 
persistent in their opposition to everything Spanish. Aiibry, the representa- 
tive of the French King, protested against these acts of violence, but the Louis- 
ianians still hoped to induce Louis XV. to remain their sovereign. They sent 
again to France as delegates St. Lette and J^e Sassier, who were not more suc- 
cessful than Milhet had been formerly. It was now known that Louis had dis- 
owned forever his subjects in Louisiana, and the latter thought of proclaiming 
a republic on the banks of the Mississippi. "Tliere is no doubt," says Gayarre, 
"but that the colonists would have eagerly adopted this form of government, had 
it been possible at tlie time, for it must be recollected that from the earliest ex- 
istence of the colony, almost all its governors had uniformly complained of the 



24 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

reirablican spirit whic-li tliej had observed in the inhabitants." Our ancestors 
were evidently mistaken in their noble efforts, and their plans were but a dream, 
for how M'ere they to resist the power of the King of Spain, with a population 
of 12,000 souls, of whom half were slaves ? "But," says Gayarre again, "they 
nevertheless bequeathed to their posterity the right of claiming for Louisiana 
the merit of having been the first Eiiropean colony that entertained the design 
of proclaiming her independence." 

When the news of the event of October, 1708, was known in Spain, it was 
decided to leave the country, decided to remain. On August 18, 1769, the 
was to be maintained and that troops would be sent to subdue the rebels. Don 
Alejandro O'Keilly was appointed governor and captain-general of the pro- 
vince of Louisiana, and he arrived at the Balize, on July 23, 1769, on a frigate, 
accompanied by twenty-eight transports, having 4,500 soldiers on board. The 
news of O'Reilly's arrival was carried to K^ew Orleans by Don Francisco 
Bouligny and was received with great consternation. "Resistance," says Mar- 
ti*n, "was spoten of." The inhabitants decided to send three representatives 
to O'Eeilly in order to tell him that they had decided to abandon the colony and 
wished no other favor from him, but to be allowed two years in which to pre- 
pare for iheir departure. The Spanish governor received very politely the 
delegates, who were Lafreniere, Marquis, and Milhet, and assured them, says 
Martin, "that all past transactions would be buried in oblivion, and all who had 
offended should be forgiven." The delegates reported O'Reilly's word to their 
countrymen, and all were quieted. Those who had already taken up arms and 
gone to jSTew Orleans returned to their homes, and a number of persons who had 
decided by the council of the King that the authority of Eis Catholic Majesty 
Spanish troops landed on the levee at New Orleans, and the same afternoon the 
French flag was lowered from a mast in the Place d'Armes, and the Spanish 
flag took its place. O'Reilly attended a Te Deum in the cathedral, and Spain 
took thus formal possession of Louisiana. 

v.— THE RULE OF SPAIIs'. 

o'reu.ly, unzaga^ and galvez. 

General O'Reilly asked of Aubry a narrative of what had taken place in 
October, 1768, and the French governor had the weakness or the cowardice to 
act as informer against his own countrymen. Nothing required that he should 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 25 

give any information to O'Keilly. As soon as the latter had taken possession 
of the province, in the name of Spain, Aubry's duties as governor ceased, and 
he should have tried to protect men whose sole crime was that they had made 
earnest efforts to remain Frenchmen. Posterity must certainly judge Aubry 
severely for his conduct in 1768 and until his departure from Louisiana in 
1770. O'Reilly seemed unwilling for several days to take any action with re- 
gard to the events leading to UUoa's expulsion, when suddenly, at the end of 
August, 1769, he caused to be arrested, Lafreniere, Foucault, Noyan, and Bois- 
blanc, members of the Superior Coimcil, and Brand, the printer, while these 
gentlemen were at his o\\ti house attending his levee. Shortly afterwards, Mar- 
quis, an officer in the troops, Doucet, a lawyer, Petit and Mazant, planters, Jean 
and Joseph Milhet, Caresse, and Poupet, merchants, were arrested. 

Joseph Villere, whom O'Reilly wished also to arrest, was on his plantation 
on the German Coast, and was about to go to the English possessions when he 
received a letter from Aubry saying that he had nothing to fear fi'om O'Reilly 
and that he could come to New Orleans in perfect safety. Bossu, who was a 
contemporary of Villere, relates the latter's death in the following manner: 
"M. de Villere, confiding in his assurance (Aubry's), descended the river to go 
to New Orleans. What was his surprise, when on presenting himself at the 
barriers, he saw himself arrested I Sensitive to this outrage, he could not mod- 
erate his indignation. In a first transport, he struck the Spanish officer who 
commanded the post. The latter's soldiers threw themselves upon him and 
pierced him with bayonets. He was carried on board a frigate, which was at 
the port, and died a few days afterwards." Judge Martin gives a different ac- 
count of Villere's death, but Bossii's narrative is more likely the true one. 
Champagny, also a contemporary of Villere, gives about the same account as 
Bossu and praises highly the patriotic Louisianian. 

Let us now see what was the fate of Villere's companions. Foucault 
claimed that as he was acting as an officer of the King of France he was account- 
able only to that monarch for his actions. He was sent to France, where he 
was at first thrown into the Bastille, but afterwards released and given an office 
in the East Indies. Braud claimed that, being the official printer, he was bound 
to print whatever Foucault, the commissary, ordered him to print. He was 
discharged. The other prisoners denied the jiirisdiction of O'Reilly's court 
and argued that they had committed no act of insubordination against Spain, 
as Ulloa had never exhibited his powers. The tribunal, however, condemned 



26 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

Petit to imprisonment for life, Mazant and Doucet to imprisonment for ten 
years, Boisblanc, Jean Milhet and Poupet to imprisonment for six years. They 
were all transported to Havana and imprisoned in Moro Castle. Lafreniere, 
N^oyan, his son-in-law, and a nephew of Bienville, Caresse, Marquis and Joseph 
Milhet were condemned to death and ordered to be hanged. As, however, no 
one could be found to act as hangman, the five heroic men were shot by Spanish 
soldiers on October 25, 1769. 

The following lines from Judge Martin's ''History of Louisiana" are very 
Important when we consider the judicial and impartial mind of the author : 
"Posterity, the judge of men in power, will doom this act to public execration. 
iN'o necessity demanded, no policy justified it. Ulloa's conduct had provoked 
the measures to which the inhabitants had resorted. During nearly two years 
he had haunted the province as a phantom of dubious authority. The efforts of 
the colonists, to prevent the transfer of their natal soil to a foreign prince, orig- 
inated in their attachment to their own, and the Catholic King ought to have 
beheld in their conduct a pledge of their future devotion to himself. They had 
but lately seen their country severed, and a part of it added to the dominion of 
Great Britain ; they had bewailed their separation from their friends and kin- 
dred; and were afterwards to be alienated, without their consent, and subjected 
to a foreign yoke. If the indiscretion of a few needed an apology, the common 
misfortune afforded it." 

Judge Martin is right. Nothing can excuse O'Reilly's cruelty. Spain 
was powerful enough to be generous, and Charles III. would have pardoned 
those men, whose sole crime was to have loved liberty and France, the country 
which had placed the Spanish crown upon the brow of Philip) V., the father of 
Charles III. 

O'Reilly abolished the Superior Council and substituted to it a Cabildo, 
composed of six perpetual regidors, two ordinary alcades, an attorney-general- 
syndic, and a clerk. The Cabildo was presided over by the governor in person. 
The laws of Spain were also substituted to those of France, and O'Reilly issued 
a number of ordinances on subjects concerning the province of Louisiana and the 
city of Xew Orleans. He returned to Spain in the summer of 1770, leaving a 
name which has been handed dowTi to posterity for execration. Aubry, who may 
be called O'Reilly's accomplice, perished in 1770 by shipwreck in the Gironde 

River. 

Don Luis de Unzaara succeeded O'Reillv as governor, and his administra- 



STAyDAJW HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 27 

tion was mild and paternal, as well as that of every Spanish governor after him, 
to the end of the Spanish Domination. The winter of 1772 was extremely 
severe, and in the summer following there arose a hnrricane which did great 
liavoc on the sea coast. During Unaaga's administration the War of the Ameri- 
can Kevolution began, and the governor of Louisiana gave help to the colonists 
in their struggle for independence by conniving at the purchase in New Orleans 
of arms and ammunition for the Americans. Unzaga acted also with great wis- 
dom in not applying too strictly the regulations by which the trade of the in- 
habitants of Louisiana were contined to a few Spanish ports. He tacitly allowed 
some trade with the English colonists. He was a man of liberal ideas and acted 
with tact and moderation at the time of the celebrated quarrel between the 
French and Spanish Capuchins, which Gayarre has related in such an interest- 
ing manner in liis History of Louisiana, where we learn to love good Father 
Dagobert. 

On February 1, 1777, Don Bernardo de Galvez entered on his duties as 
governor, and his heroism and admirable character rendered the Spanish Domin- 
ation popular. Galvez was about twenty-one years old and belonged to an in- 
fliiential famil}-. His father was Viceroy of Mexico and his uncle President of 
the Coimcil of the Indies. At the beginning of his administration more freedom 
was allowed the colonists in their commerce with Spain and other countries, and 
aid was openly given the American Revolutionists. Their agent, Oliver Pol- 
lock, received from Galvez about seventy thousand dollars to buy arms and am- 
munition. Spain declared war against Great Britain on May 8, 1779, and on 
July 8, 1779, the American subjects of Charles III. were authorized to take part 
in the war. Galvez resolved immediately to capture Baton Kouge. On Aiigust 
27 he left 'Rew Orleans on his expedition. He had a small fleet, composed of 
one schooner and three gunboats, and an army of 1,430 men, including veterans, 
militiamen, eighty free men of color, recruits and 160 Indians. Galvez cap- 
tured Fort Manchac on the way and arrived at Baton Kouge on September 7. 
His army was anxious to take the fort by storm, but the Spanish governor would 
not risk the lives of his men uselessly and resolved to open trenches and besiege 
the place. On September 21, 1779, the English commander surrendered the 
fort at Baton Bouge and also Fort Panmure at Natchez. During the whole 
campaign the Creoles behaved with distinguished gallantry. The expedition of 
Galvez against Baton Bouge inspired Julien Poydras, who wrote an epic poem 
on the exploits of the heroic young governor. Poydras's poem is the earliest 



28 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

work in the French literature of Louisiana, and on that account it is very in- 
teresting. The author, however, is better known in our history as a statesman 
and a philanthropist than as a poet. 

After the capture of Baton Rouge in 1779, Galvez left New Orleans in 
January, 1780, to undertake the conquest of Mobile. He sailed from the 
Balize on February 5, with an army of 2,000 men, and in spite of a terrific storm 
which greatly hampered and delayed him, he landed his army on the eastern 
point of Mobile River. General Campbell, the English commander at Pensa- 
cola, might have destroyed the Spanish army had he attacked them with a large 
force in their disorganized condition. He allowed Galvez, however, to erect six 
batteries and to capture Fort Charlotte before the English army appeared. The 
fall of Fort Charlotte, on March 14, 1780, gave Mobile to the Spanish, and Pen- 
sacola was now the only important town in the possession of the British in 
Florida. 

Galvez determined to capture Pensaeola, and went to Havana to obtain re- 
inforcements. He sailed from Havana on October 16, 1780, but lost some of 
his transports in a storm, and returned to Havana on jSIovember 16. He sailed 
again on February 28, 1781, says Judge Martin, "with a man-of-war, two frig- 
ates and several transports, on board of which were fourteen hundred and fifteen 
soldiers, a competent train of artillery and abundance of ammunition. The 
fleet was commanded by Don Joseph Cabro de Jrazabal." 

The troops were landed on March 9 on the Island of St. Rosa, and Galvez 
asked Jrazabal to cross the bar with his fleet. This the commodore was unwill- 
ing to do, as his own ship had got aground on attempting to cross the bar. Gal- 
vez, therefore, resolved to cross the bar with the small fleet under his immediate 
command: the brig Galvezton, commanded by Rousseau, from New Orleans; 
a schooner commanded by Riano, and two gimboats. The governor went on 
board the brig, and his small fleet crossed the bar, in spite of a brisk firing from 
the English. Jrazabal allowed then his fieet to cross, and this was done with 
success, Galvez remaining in a boat in the midst of the firing until the last ves- 
sel had anchored in safety. 

Fort George, which protected Pensaeola, was attacked by the fleet and by 
the land troops from Mobile and from New Orleans. Owing to an accident, the 
blowing up of a magazine in one of the redoubts, a passage was opened in the 
fort, and the English commander capitulated on May 9, 1781. By this capitula- 
tion the province of West Florida was acquired by Spain. The wars of Galvez 



STANDARD IIISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 29 

had been most brilliant, and did great honor to him and to the troops from Lou- 
isiana. The latter, by defeating the British at Baton Kouge, at Mobile and at 
Pensacola, aided the Americans and reallly took part in the glorious war waged 
for American independence. 

While Galvez was distinguishing himself at Pensacola and was conquering 
a province for Spain, the inhabitants near Natchez raised the British standard, 
besieged Fort Panmure and captured it. They had counted on the defeat of 
Galvez at Pensacola, but when they heard of his success they feared the fate of 
O'Eeilly's victims, and determined to emigrate to Georgia. They started with 
their wives and children, and after great sufferings some of them succeeded in 
reaching Savannah. Ih August, 1780, Louisiana was visited by a dreadful 
hurricane, and disastrous immdations took place. The inhabitants suffered also 
from the loss of the trade carried on by the British traders on the Mississippi, 
and Galvez obtained from the Spanish government important privileges for the 
commerce of the province. The governor, says Gayarre, " had recommended 
that Loiiisiana be granted the privilege of free trade witli all the ports of Europe 
and America. But neither the Court of Madrid, nor the spirit of the age, was 
disposed to go so far." 

The following extract from Judge Martin's "History of Louisiana," quoted 
also by Gayarre, is highly important : 

"The preliminary articles of peace between Great Britain, France and 
Spain were signed at Paris on the twentieth of January, 1783. 

"The definitive treaties between Great Britain, the LTnited States and 
Spain were signed at Paris on the third day of September. 

" By the first, the King of Great Britain acknowledged the indeijendenee 
of the United States, and recognized as their southern boundary a line to be 
drawn due east from a point in the river Mississippi, in the latitude of thirty-one 
degrees, north of the equator, to the middle of the river Apalachicola or Cata- 
ouche; thence along the middle thereof to its junction with Flint river; thence 
straight to the head of St. Mary's river, and thence down along the middle of St. 
Mary's river to the Atlantic Ocean. 

"The description of this line is important, as it became the dividing one 
between the possessions of Spain and the United States." 

"By the eighth article it was expressly provided that the navigation of the 
Mississippi, from its source to the gulf, should forever remain free and open to 
the subjects of Great Britain and the citizens of the United States. By the sec- 



30 STAXDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

end, Great Britain warranted the province of West Florida, and ceded that of 
East Florida to Spain." 

The -winter of 1784 was extremely severe; so much so, that on February 
13, 1784, "the Avhole bed of the river, in front of New Orleans, Avas filled np with 
fragments of ice, the size of most of which was from twelve to thirty feet, with a 
thickness of two to three. This mass of ice was so compact that it formed 
a field of four hundred yards in width, so that all communication was interrupted 
for five days between the two banks of the Mississippi." 

The conduct of Galvez, in the war against the British, was so highly appre- 
ciated in Spain that he was made lieutenant-general, .and in 1785 captain-gen- 
eral of the Island of Cuba, of the province of Louisiana and of the two Floridas. 
The same year he succeeded his father as viceroy of Mexico, where he died in 
1794, aged thirty-eight. Like his predecessor, IJuzaga, he had married a Creole 
lady, a native of Louisiana, of French origin. Galvez is certainly one of the 
most romantic and chivalric characters to be seen in the history of colonial Lou- 



YL— THE RULE OF SPAIN. 

MIRO, CAEONDELET^ AND GAYOSO DE LEMOS. 

By a census taken in 1785, we see that the population of New Orleans was 
4,980 souls, and that of the whole province, 32,114. In 1785 Don Estevan Miro 
succeeded Galvez as provisional governor, and in 1786 he received his commis- 
sion of governor, civil and military, of Louisiana and West Florida. He issued 
then his hando de huen gohierno, which was a proclamation equivalent to the in- 
augural address of our American governors. He had, in 1785, received the com- 
mission of Juez de Residcncm, or Judge of Residence, to inquire into the acts 
of Governor Unzaga. In the jurisprudence of Spain residence designates an 
inquiry into the official conduct of a functionary who is no longer in office, 
whether by death or otherwise. 

In 1785 a number of Acadian families came to Louisiana and settled chiefly 
among the other Acadians who had arrived in 1765 and had established them- 
selves on the Mississippi, on Bayou Lafourche, and in the Attakapas country. 
Some of the Arcadians went to Terre-aux-Boeufs, where were the Islenos, or Ca- 
nary Islanders, whom Galvez had brought over in 1779. 



STANDARD IIISTOEl' OF NEW ORLEANS. 31 

During Miro's administration the growing poAver of the United States be- 
gan to alarm Sjiain, and Navarro, the intendant, suggested that the dismember- 
ment of the West be attempted, and Judge ilartin says that there existed in the 
western country no less than five pai'ties, with the following views: 

"The first was for independence of the United States, and the formation 
of a new republic, unconnected with them, which was to enter into a treaty with 
Spain. 

"Another party was willing that the country should become a part of the 
province of Louisiana, and submit to the admission of the laws of Spain. 

"A third desired a war with Spain, and the seizure of New Orleans. 

"A fourth plan was to prevail on Congress, by a show of preparation for 
war, to extort from the cabinet of Madrid what it persisted in refusing. 

"The last, as vninnatural as the second, was to solicit France to procure a 
retrocession of Louisiana, and extend her protection to Kentucky." 

All these plans gave rise to a number of intrigues, to the end of the Spanish 
Domination in Louisiana, and Governor Miro and his successors were busily en- 
gaged in planning a policy which might check the encroachments of the already 
powerful Americans. The Spanish governors were wise and able statesmen, 
but in spite of all their efforts the Mississippi river was soon to become an 
American stream, from its source to its mouth. 

The progress of New Orleans was checked, on March 21, 1788, by a terrible 
conflagration which destroyed nearly nine hundred buildings, among which 
were the cathedral, the convent of the Capuchins, the arsenal and the public 
prison. A census taken in 1788 showed a considerable increase in population 
in three years. New Orleans was found to have 5,388 inhabitants, and the 
whole province, 42,611. In 1789 the foundation of a new cathedral was laid. 
The church was built by the munificence of Don Andres Almonester, who was 
soon afterwards buried there, near the principal altar. The cathedral of 1789 
was pulled doAvn in 1850, and a new edifice was erected. 

Charles III. died on December 14, 1788, and was succeeded by Charles IV., 
a weak and incompetent king. Soon after his accession Father Antonio de Se- 
della was sent by his spiritual superiors to Louisiana as a representative of the 
Inquisition, with the purpose of introducing this tribunal. Governor Miro, 
however, had the commissary of the Inquisition arrested at night, put on board 
a vessel and taken to Spain. Father Antonio de Sedella returned later to Lou- 
isiana and became a great favorite with all. "Pere Antoine," as he was fondly 
called, will long be remembered in New Orleans. 



32 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS.' 

In 1791 an insurrection of the negroes brok out at San Domingo, and many 
excellent people took refuge in Louisiana. Some opened schools, and a troupe 
of comedians from Cape Frangois opened a theatre in New Orleans. French 
was almost entirely the language of the inliabitants of the colony, and the Span- 
ish language, Miro reported, was hardly used except in courts of justice in New 
Orleans. In the Spanish school there were only a few children, while in the 
French schools there were four hundred students. Miro's administration ended 
in 1791; he returned to Spain, where he became mariscal de campo, or lieuten- 
ant-general. He was not as brilliant as Galvez, but he was firm and gentle and 
highly honorable. He followed the example of Unzaga and Galvez, and married 
a native of Louisiana. Many of the Spanish officials were likewise conquered 
by the charming Creole girls. 

The Earon de Carondelet succeeded Miro on December 30, 1791, and was 
also an able official. His administration was marked by a number of internal 
improvements, among which may be mentioned the lighting of New Orleans and 
the employment of watchmen. To meet these charges, "a tax of one dollar and 
twelve and a half cents," says Martin, "was laid on every chimney." The new 
governor continued Miro's policy with regard to allowing trade between Phila- 
delphia and New Orleans, in spite of contrai-y instructions from Spain. The 
Spanish government finally approved this measure. 

The great events of the French Kevolution exerted an influence in Louisi- 
ana, and the colony was tlirown into considerable agitation by the news of the 
execution of Louis XVI. on January 21, 1793. The republican spirit of the 
Louisianians was aroused, and sympathy with the French republic was openly 
manifested. Carondelet had six individuals arrested and sent to Havana, where 
they were imprisoned for twelve months. 

In order to guard against any insurrection or any foreign attack, the gov- 
ernor had new fortifications erected around New Orleans. Forts, redoubts, bat- 
teries and palisades were erected, and deep ditches were dug. The friendship 
of the Indians was also secured by an offensive and defensive treaty made with 
the Chickasaws, the Creeks, the Talapouches, the Cherokees and the Alibamons, 
and twenty thousand Indians, it was thought, could be opposed, if needed, to the 
Americans. 

On December 8, 179-1, another conflagration did immense harm in New 
Orleans, but fortunately the new cathedral, built by Don Andres Almonester, 
was not destroyed. In the year 1794 "Le MonUeur de la Louisiane" was pub- 



SrANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 33 

lished ; it was the first newspaper in Louisiana, and its appearance indicated 
that new ideas were penetrating the colony. Indeed, French Jacobins, in Phil- 
adelphia, circulated in Louisiana an address in which the colonists were urged 
to establish an independent government. At the same time the French minister 
to the United States, Grenet, endeavored to prepare an expedition in the West 
against the Spanish possessions. His principal agent in Kentucky was Auguste 
de la Chaise, a native of Louisiana, and a man of great intrepidity and energy. 
Genet's schemes, however, were frustrated by Washington, and Carondelet began 
again to intrigue for the separation of the West from the United States. 

The year 1794 was marked by the cultivation of the sugar cane by Etienne 
de Bore, whose plantation was about six miles above New Orleans. The sugar 
cane was introduced by the Jesuits in 1751, and Mendez and Solis, of Terre-aux- 
Boeuf s, were the first to cultivate it on a large scale. They made syrup from the 
juice and a liquor called taffia. The indigo plant was attacked by an insect, and 
the chief crop of the colonists failed. Etienne de Bore resolved to undertake to 
cultivate the cane and to manufacture sugar. His friends and relatives at- 
tempted to dissuade him from his enterprise, but he persevered, and in 1795 he 
made a crop of sugar which brought twelve thousand dollars. Bore's success 
was a great event, and the sugar cane was afterwards cultivated extensively in_ 
Louisiana. 

The Baron de Carondelet conceived the plain of digging a navigable canal 
in the rear of the city, communicating with Bayou St. John, and with the help 
of the inhabitants the canal was completed in 1796. The Cabildo named it 
"Canal Carondelet," in honor of the energetic governor. 

On October 20, 1795, a treaty was signed between the United States and 
Spain, and Monette mentions the most important articles in his "History of the 
Valley of the J\[ississippi" as follows : 

"The second article stipulates that the future boundary between the United 
States and the Floridas shall be the thirty-first parallel of north latitude, from 
the Mississippi eastward to the Chattahoochy river; thence along a line running 
due east, from the mouth of Flint river to the head of St. Mary's river, and 
thence down the middle of that river to the Atlantic Ocean. The fourth article 
stipulates that the middle of the Mississippi river shall be the western boundary 
of the L^nited States from its source to the intersection of the said line of denuir- 
cation. The King of Spain also stipulates that the whole width of said river, 
from its source to the sea, shall be free to the people of the United States." 



34 STAKDABD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

On October 13, 1795, there happened a curious incident in Louisiana: a 
French privateer, "La Parisienne," captured the Balize and held it until Oc- 
tober 21, 1795. In the year 1796 Carondelet succeeded in having the city of 
New Orleans lighted and patrolled. He had eighty lamps placed in the streets 
and formed a police force of thirteen serenos or watchmen. It seems that his 
project mentioned above had not yet been realized. 

In 1796 the French general, CoUot, visited the colony, but Carondelet had 
him arrested. He treated him with great politeness in jSTew Orleans, and sent 
him to the Balize, where the general was glad to embark for Philadelphia, after 
a stay of nearly two months at the mouth of the Mississipi>i. 

In 1797 Carondelet was appointed president of the Koyal Audience of 
Quito, and left Louisiana, which he had governed with great ability. During 
his administration in 1794, says Judge Martin, "the Pope divided the bishopric 
of Havana, and the provinces of Louisiana, East and West Florida were erected 
into a distinct one. Don Louis de Penalvert, provisor and vicar-general of the 
Bishop of Havana, was called to the new see, and established his cathedral in 
jSTew Orleans." 

The Baron de Carondelet was succeeded by Don Manuel Gayoso de Lemos 
on August 1, 1797. In 1798 the Duke of Orleans visited New Orleans with his 
brothers, the Duke of Montpensier and the Count of Beaujolais. These princes 
were then in exile, and no one could have predicted that the Duke of Orleans, 
who was a fugitive from his country in 1798, would become King Louis Philippe 
in 1830. 

Governor Gayoso de Lemos died on July 25, 1799. The military adminis- 
tration was assumed by Col. Francisco Bouligny, and the civil and political ad- 
ministration by Don Jose Maria Yidal. The Spanish governors of Louisiana, 
after Gayoso de Lemos, were Casa Calvo, from 1799 to 1801, and Salcedo, from 
1801 to 1803. We shall now relate how France took back Louisiana from Spain, 
and how Napoleon sold the colony to the United States. 



ViI._THE TREATY OF ST. ILDEPHONSO, AND THE CESSION TO 

THE UNITED STATES. 

We have just said that Casa Calvo was governor of Louisiana in 1800. In 
that year a great event was preparing for the colony, and Bonaparte was the man 
who was to bring it about. After his glorious campaigns of 1796 and 1797 he 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 35 

had gone to Eg;v-pt, and, in spite of the dcstriic-tioii of his fleet at Aboukir, he had 
won great victories, and had returned to France in 1799. On the 18th Brumaire 
(ISTovember 9, 1799), lie overthrew the Directory and established the Consulate. 
The first consul accomplished even greater exploits than General Bonaparte, and 
his campaign of 1800 is really wonderful. He collected a large army and threw 
it suddenly over the Alps into Italy, and at Marengo, on June 18, 1800, he 
crushed the Austrian army. Peace with Austria soon followed the battle of Ma- 
rengo, and there was a fair prospect of making peace with England. The First 
Consul wished then to revive the colonial empire of France, and he thought of 
Louisiana, which h'ad been ceded to Spain by Louis XV. On October 1, 1800, 
by the treaty of St. Ildephonso, the King of Spain, Charles IV., retroceded 
Louisiana to France on condition that the Duchy of Tuscany be given to the 
Duke of Parma, who would receive the title of King of Etruria. The dvike was 
the son-in-law of Charles IV., and the Spanish Bourbon, for a selfish purpose, 
returned to France the gift made to Charles III. by the French Bourbon, Louis 
XV., the most selfish and corrupt of Kings. The treaty was kept secret, as peace 
had not yet been signed with England. 

In June, 1801, Don Juan Manuel de Salcedo arrived in Louisiana to suc- 
ceed Casa Calvo as governor. Preliminaries of peace were signed between 
France and England on October 1, 1801, and the treaty of cession of Louisiana 
to France became known in the United States. The news caused great excite- 
ment in the West and in the colony itself. Kobert E. Livingston was sent as 
minister to prance in 1801, and, together with Rufus King in London and Pinck- 
ney in Madrid, attended to the Louisiana matter. The French government gave 
no definite information about the subject, but when the peace of Amiens was 
signed between France and England on March 25, 1802, the First Consid began 
to prepare for the occtipation and government of Louisiana. Livingston, how- 
ever, continued his negotiations, and on September 1, 1802, he predicted, in a 
dispatch to Madison, then Secretary of State, that ultimately the United States 
would obtain possession of Louisiana. He had a conversation with Joseph Bona- 
parte, in which he suggested that Louisiana be returned to Spain, and the Flori- 
das and Xew Orleans be given to the United States for the debt due by France. 
The First Consul did not send his expedition to Louisiana during the year 1802, 
and the agitation about the question became so intense that President Jefferson, 
in a message to Congress on December 15, 1802, called attention to the cession 
of Louisiana to France, and in January, 1803, James ilonroe was sent to that 



36 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

country as envoy-extraordinary. In Congress some of the members were 
in favor of violent measures ; that is to say, they favored taking possession of 
jSTew Orleans by force, as that port had lately been closed to the Americans. 

In the meantime, Livingston continued urging on the French government 
the policy of selling to the United States New Orleans and the Floridas, and 
finally Tallyrand asked, "What we would give for the whole ?" Negotiations 
with Tallyrand were not successful, and on April 13, 1803, Bonaparte sent Barbe 
Marbois, his Secretary of the Treasury, says Livingston, to refer again to the 
Louisiana matter. The First Consul, according to Marbois, was willing to give 
the whole country to the United States for one hundred millions of francs. The 
reason of this offer of Bonaparte's was that the treaty of Amiens was about to 
be broken, and the great general who ruled over France knew that he would not 
be able to retain Louisiana in case of war with England. He was, therefore, anx- 
ious to sell Louisiana, as he was in need of money for his coming war with Great 
Britain. 

The treaty of cession to the United States was signed on April 30, 1803. 
The Americans were to pay eighty millions of francs, of which twenty millions 
■were to be assigned to the payment of the debt due by France to the citizens of the 
United States. Article 3 of the treaty was prepared by Bonaparte himself, and 
the Louisianians should be gi-ateful to him for having provided with so much 
foresight for their future happiness. The article is as follows: "The inhabi- 
tants of the ceded territory shall be incorporated in the union of the United 
States and admitted as soon as possible, according to the principles of the Federal 
Constitution, to the enjoyment of all the rights, advantages and immunities of 
citizens of the United States, and in the meantime they shall be maintained and 
protected in the free enjoyment of their liberty, property and the religion which 
they profess." 

The first Consul added, says Marbois : "Let the Louisianians know that we 
part from them with regret ; that we stipulate in their favor everything that they 
can desire, and let them, hereafter, happy in their independence, recollect that 
they were Frenchmen, and tliat France, in ceding them, has secured for them ad- 
vantages which they could not have obtained from an European power, however 
j)aternal it might have been. Let them retain for us sentiments of affection, and 
may their common origin, descent, language and customs perpetxiate the friend- 
ship." Bonaparte said also: "This accession of territory strengthens forever 
the power of the Ignited States, and I have just given to England a maritime 
rival that will sooner or later Iniiiible her pride." 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 37 

The sale of the province to the United States was communicated to the Brit- 
ish government, and in reply, says Gayarre, Lord Ilawkesbury said: "I have 
received His Majesty's commands to express to you the pleasure with which His 
Majesty has received this intelligence." England was satisfied, but Spain was 
not, and the Spanish minister protested against the transfer to the United States. 
Livingston and Monroe had done more than they had been asked to do when 
they agreed to buy from France the whole of Louisiana. 

The question now came up whether the Floridas were included in the ces- 
sion, and the American negotiators contended that Louisiana extended, at the 
time of the cession to France in 1800, to the Perdido river. The treaty with the 
United States stipulated as follows: "The colony or province of Louisiana is 
ceded by France to the United States, with all its rights and appurtenances, as 
fully and in the same manner as they have been acquired by the French Republic, 
by virtue of the third article of the treaty concluded v/ith His Catholic Majesty 
on the 1st of October, 1800." There was an obscure point in the treaty, the 
Florida question, and the First Consul made the remark "that if an obscurity 
did not already exist, it would perhaps be good policy to put one there." Presi- 
dent Jefferson informed Congi-ess of the treaty on April 30, 1803, and after 
long discussions the treaty was ratified and a bill was passed for the government 
of the' new territory. 

While the events leading to the purchase of Louisiana were taking place in 
France, Laussat, the colonial prefect, arrived in New Orleans, on March 2G, 
1803. He announced the cession from Spain to France, and received, in an- 
swer to his proclamation, an address from a number of planters and one from the 
merchants of New Orleans. In those addresses the Louisianians expressed their 
joy on "resuming the glorious name of Frenchmen," but they paid a handsome 
tribute to the Spanish administration, which, from the departure of O'Reilly in 
1770, had been most kind to the inhabitants of the colony. There was some anx- 
iety felt on account of the supposed doctrines of the French Revolution, which 
might be introduced into the province, but there is no doubt that the great major- 
it}' of the Louisianians, at that time, were delighted to become Frenchmen again. 

On November 30, 1803, Laussat received in the Cabildo building from the 
Spanish commissioners, Salcedo and Casa Calvo, the keys of New Orleans, and 
was put in possession of the province. On the same day he abolished the Ca- 
bildo, and appointed a mayor, two adjuncts and a municipal coimcil composed 
of ten members. It may be interesting to give the names of the men who 



38 STAXDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

formed the first city council of Isew Orleans : Etienne de Bore, mayor ; Pierre 
Derbigny, secretary; Destrehan, first adjunct; Sanve, second adjunct; Livau- 
dais, Petit Cavelier, Villere, Johns, M. Fortier, Donaldson, Faurie, Allard, Tu- 
reaud and John Watkins, members of the council. Labatut was treasurer. 

Laussat had already received notice of the cession of Louisiana to the United 
States, and was appointed a commissioner to deliver the province to the Ameri- 
cans. On Tuesday, December 20, 1S03, Louisiana was formally tranferred to 
the United States, and possession was taken in the name of the American Repub- 
lic by General Wilkinson and W. C. C. Claiborne, the commissioners appointed 
by President Jeiferson. The event took place on the balcony of the Cabildo, 
where is now the Supreme Court of Louisiana, and this building should forever 
be held sacred by all Louisianians as having been the cradle of free and American 
Louisiana. 

"No authentic census of the inhabitants of the province," says Judge j\Iar- 
tin, "since that of 1788 is extant, but one made for the Department of State, by 
the consul of the United States at ISTew Orleans, from the best documents he 
could procure in 1803, presents the following result: In the City of Xew Or- 
leans, 8,056; in the whole province, 49,473." 

In the beginning of 1804 the Spanish ambassador at Washington made 
known to the United States government that the King of Spain renounced his 
protest against the cession of Louisiana to the United States. The act of trans- 
fer was thus officially recognized by Spain. The French and Spanish Domina- 
tions had passed forever, and the Louisianians were henceforth to be independ- 
tnt citizens of an independent countrv'. 



CHAPTER II. 



THE INDIANS OF LOUISIANA. 

Pon THE Standaed History of New Orleans. Bv Professor John R. 
FiCKLEN, Professor of History in Tulane University. 

BEFORE beginning this short history of the Indians in Louisiana from 
early times down to tlie twentieth century, it may be well to remind the 

reader that during the period of exploration and settlement in the seven- 
teenth and eighteenth centuries the province of Louisiana had much wider boun- 
daries than the present state of that name. It was generally understood to em- 
brace the whole Mississippi Valley, from the Rockies to the Appalachian range, 
and from the Gulf to the borders of Canada. For the earlier period, therefore, 
in order not to exceed the limits of space imposed upon the writer, it will be nec- 
essary to confine ourselves to those Indian tribes that lived within what is now the 
State of Louisiana, or who, by their proximity to the present state, came into 
contact, or more often into conflict, with the early settlers on the lower Missis- 
sippi. 

Of these tribes it is impossible to give a satisfactory ethnological grouping. 
Some of them, like the Chickasaws and the Choctaws, spoke practically the same 
language; but others, like the Natchez, though living not far away, spcAe so 
strange a dialect that they are always classified apart from their friends and 
neighbors. Of late years much has been done in the investigation of the lan- 
guages of the Southwestern Indians, and many old errors have been corrected ; 
but at best language is not a sure test of race kinship, and the problem of settling 
the origin and the kinship of these Indians has reached no satisfactory solution. 

From the time of the earliest voyages on the Mississippi, however, we have 
interesting accounts, more or less contradictory in detail, of the life and manners 
of these Indians, and are able to form a fairly clear idea of what advance towards 
civilization the various tribes had made. We know that they diilered consider- 
ably, one from another, in language and habits. There may have been a com- 
paratively -wide gulf separating the man-eating Attakapas from the intelligent, 



40 STAXDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

semi-civilized Natchez, with their cultivated fields, their temples sacred to the 
worship of the sun, and their altars ablaze with perpetual fires. Le Page du 
Pratz, the earliest historian of Louisiana, who lived among the Natchez in 1720, 
is never weary of praising their virtues, and says: "It is a great mistake to 
apply the name of savage to men who know how to make a very good use of their 
reasoning powers, who think justly, and whose conduct is marked by generosity, 
prudence, and good faith." Yet the Natchez themselves, though it has been 
claimed for them that they were as far superior to the tribes that dwelt around 
them as the Athenians were to the rest of the Greeks, followed many of the su- 
perstitious rites of savagery, and occupied a far lower grade in social evolution 
than the Aztecs that Cortez found in Mexico. 

It is easy to exaggerate the virtues of these children of the forest ; it has 
proved still easier to exalt the virtues of the early explorers by painting the 
Indian in the darkest colors. It is well to beware of such extremes. At first 
view the Southern Indians were disposed to regard the Europeans as demi-gods, 
and to bow down and worship them ; but from the day that De Soto swept over 
a part of this continent, killing and enslaving with ruthless barbarity the natives 
he encountered, until finally he perished on the banks of the great river he had 
discovered, the Indians began to understand that their visitors with the pale 
faces could be guilty of gross injustice and oppression, and deserved more often 
their hatred than their worship. Indeed, the modem reader who follows the nar- 
rative of that wonderfxd march cannot escape the conviction that in many of the 
best qualities of human nature the red man was superior to the Spaniard of that 
day. It may be that the tradition of how the followers of De Soto fled down 
the Mississippi pursued by the vengeance of the Indians along its banks was 
handed down from father to son among the natives, and influenced the conduct 
of later generations when the French began to settle in Louisiana. 

At first, however, the French found the Indians for the most part hospitable 
and disposed to welcome them to the land, especially when they were conciliated 
Y/ith a rich array of scarlet cloth, knives and trinkets. But before very long 
it was discovered that the Indian knew nothing of the total alienation of the 
land. The land belonged to the tribe, and their only conception of selling it was 
that it should be occupied in common by themselves and their white brethren. 
It was a very long time before the Indians of the United States grasped the idea 
of land possessed in fee simple ; and when the full force of the idea dawned upon 
them, and when they realized that for a few blankets and glass beads, they had 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 41 

bartered awav their birthright in perpetuity, the more warlike tribes were dis- 
posed to expel both Englishman and Frenchman from the country. To this 
misunderstanding as a source may be traced many — tliough not all — of the early 
Indian wars and massacres. It is noteworthy that the Hudson Bay Company 
in Canada, though it was trading with the Indians for two hundred years, never 
Lad a war on its hands. The reason is easy to guess. It established trading 
posts over the country, but never tried to monopolize the land.* 

It has often been remarked that if the early settlers had found the Indians 
imited or capable of union in a great confederacy it Avovild have been impossible 
for the infant colonies to survive. But the natives were not living in that ideal 
condition, which the philosophers once believed the state of nature to be, and to 
which they were anxioiis to restore mankind. The various tribes, like the old 
cities of Greece, were often at bitter enmity with one another, and by seckiug 
the friendship of the Europeans to exterminate their enemies they opened the 
way for the advance of the white man. Tonti tells us that when he and La Salle 
first penetrated to the mouth of the Mississipjii in 1682 they came, not far above 
the Delta, to the village of the Tangibaos (Tangipahoas), but it had been utterly 
destroyed by a hostile tribe, and they beheld quantities of dead bodies piled one 
upon another. It was a spectacle, he says, which made them all shiver ; but mi 
their way up the river they stopped at the village of the Quinipissas, and here, 
the Indians proving treacherous, "We contented ourselves," he says, "with killing 
a few of them, and carrying off their scalps as a trophy. These we presented to 
the chief of the ISTatchez, who was not displeased to recognize the scalps of his 
inveterate enemies." 

This incident shows how ready the early explorers were to adopt the ways 
of the natives. Doubtless a review of the relations of the French with the In- 
dians would prove that they found the savages ready to requite good with good 
and evil with evil, and that neither by precept nor by example did they endeavor 
to raise the standard of conduct to the Christian ideal of returning good for evil. 
An. exception must be made, however, in favor of the Catholic missionaries. 
From the time that Pere Marquette made his voyage dowm the Mississippi, de- 
claring that he was gTeatly pleased at the prospect of risking his life in order to 
carry the gospel of peace and good-will among the heathen savages, until the 
death of Abbe Kouquette in our own day, the Catholic missionaries labored nobly 



• See Winsor's America, Vol. I. 



42 STANDABD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

to soften the manners and reform the lives of these wayward children of the for- 
est; and it may he that their work was not without fruit. At first, however, the 
natives were so unprepared to receive the message that the teaching of the good 
fathers resulted in nothing more than a veneering of religion, which, taken on 
as a cloak of hypocrisy, made the latter condition of their disciples worse than 
the first. Father Davion, who taught among the Tunicas, was asked by Du 
Pratz what progress his zeal had made among the natives. With tears in his 
eyes, he replied that, notwithstanding the profound respect these people showed 
liim, it was with the greatest difficulty that he had managed to baptize some in- 
fants who were at the point of death. The adults, he added, excused themselves 
from embracing his religion, saying that they were too old to accustom them- 
selves to regulations so difficult to observe. The chief, however, since he had 
killed the Indian doctor who had attended his sou in the sickness that caused the 
young man's death, had resolved to fast every Friday for the rest of his life, and 
even attended morning and evening prayer. The women and children, also, 
came regularly, but the braves did not come often, and took more delight in ring- 
ing the bell of the chapel. 

WTiat the missionaries must have had especially to struggle against was the 
lex talionis that the French adopted in their dealings with the natives. An 
eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth, was the only rule that it was thoiight possible 
to observe. They often burned their Indian captives as the Indians burned 
theirs, thus giving full recognition to the custom among the savages. One is not 
astonished at the failure of Father Davion, when one reads in Du Pratz the fol- 
lowing incident : During Perier's administration (about 1727) a party of these 
same Tunicas, who were at that time assisting the French against the Natchez, 
having captured a Xatchez woman, brought her to ISTew Orleans as a i>resent to 
the governor. Perier, however, abandoned her to her captors, and, binding her 
to a frame, they put her to death by slow torture, "in order to show the French 
how they treated the enemies of their friends." The execution took place in 
front of the city, near the levee. ISTo one interfered, but in spite of the suffering 
the woman luiderwent, in spite of the ingenious torture to which the Tunicas sub- 
jected her, she shed not a tear. With Indian stoicism she met her fate, and 
was content to prophesy the speedy destruction of her tormentors — a prophesy 
that was fidfilled a few days later, when the ISTatchez, under the guise of smoking 
the peace calumet vnih the Tunicas, approached their village and nearly anni- 
hilated them. 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 43 

In reading of such liorroi-s one cannot help reflecting that if the French had 
adopted the conciliatory methods that were so successful under Roger Williams 
in Rhode Island and William Penn in Pennsylvania the province ■would have had 
a very different history, l^ot only would the lahors of the missionaries have 
been facilitated, but it would not perhaps have been necessary for the historian 
to record the T^atchez massacre of 1729 and the disastrous wars waged against 
the Chiekasaws. Peace, rather than the dread of Indian scalping pai-ties, might 
have hovered over the early settlements in the colony. 

Loiiisiana is dotted over with a great number of earth and shell moimds, 
which have proved of gi'eat interest to archfeologists. The Museum of Tulane 
University, thanks to the energy and scientific zeal of Professor George E. 
Beyer, has an important collection of skulls, pottery, etc., gathered from the ex- 
cavations of these mounds. 

The shell mounds seem older than the earth mounds, but both belong to a 
prehistoric age, and it is much disputed whether they were constructed by the 
ancestors of our Indians or by a distinct race. The natives who were questioned 
by the early explorers on this subject were unable to say when, for what purpose, 
or through whose agency these mounds came into existence. Professor Beyer, 
Avho has explored both the shell and the earth moimds, believes that the latter 
were used as dwellings, and were originally constructed as a place of refuge in 
case of high water. Incidentally, however, they were used for sacrificial and 
burial pvirposes. An examination of the slaills and pottery that have been 
brought to light forces on him the conclusion that the builders were a race distinct 
from our Indians and related to the Caribs of the Antilles. The shell mounds 
seem to be merely the heaps of debris or middens left by an ancient race that 
used to migrate for a season of each year to the shores of the sea and lakes to en- 
joy the shell fish with which they aboimded. 

Keeping ourselves, therefore, within historic limits, let us consider the prin- 
cipal tribes which, at the time that New Orleans was founded (1718), dwelt 
within the present State of Louisiana, or sufficiently near to have constant inter- 
course with the Preneh. Portunately for this period we have brief descriptions 
of the various tribes in the pages of Le Page du Pratz, who, as was said above, 
lived in Louisiana for a number of years, and was much interested in the Indians. 
Wliile his descriptions must be corrected in parts, they are the most complete 
that have come down to iis. Most of his statements may be verified by reference 
to the explorations made among the Indians by Bienville, the founder of 'New 
Orleans. 



44 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

Du I'ratz first calls attention to the fact that many of the Indian ti'ihes rep- 
resented on tlie old maps had cither been destroyed by smallpox or had taken 
refuge among other trilies, and, by amalgamation, had lost their identity. Of 
those dwelling in the sonthern part of the Mississippi Valley in his day he cites 
the following: 

1. At the lieadwaters of the Pascagoula river in Mississippi was the tribe 
of Chatkas or Choctaws (Flat Heads). They derived their name from the cus- 
tom of compressing the foreheads of their infants, but, as this ciistom was found 
among other Indians, l)u Pratz is at a loss to say why this should be the distinct- 
ive name of the tribe.* The Choctaws were so numerous that they were said 
to be able to put 25,000 ( !) warriors in the field. Until some of the divisions 
of the tribe fell under English influence, they were the friends and allies of the 
French, often joining them in their expeditions against the Natchez and other 
tribes. 

2. One Imndred and twenty miles to the north of the Choctaws were the fa- 
mous Chickasaws, a fiei'ce, warlike tribe, which allied itself with the English, 
and constantly defied the arms of the French. Bienville found it impossible to 
subdue them or to force them to surrender the Natchez, when the latter took 
refuge among them. "The Natchez have come to us for refuge," was their noble 
response, "and they cannot be surrendered." Both the Choctaws and the Chicka- 
saws, MS we shall see, emigrated in the present century to the Indian Territory, 
where, forgetting their former enmity, they now dwell side by side. 

3. To the west of Mobile, which was as yet the capital of Louisiana, dwelt 
a small tribe of Pascagoulas (meaning "bread nation"). They had only thirty 
lodges, and among them had settled some Canadians, who lived with them like 
brothers. 

4. Three miles from the present site of New Orleansf had lived a small 
band of Colapissas (properly Aquelou-pissas, or "nation that hears and sees") ; 
lint they had moved farther north to the banks of the lake. Their deserted vil- 
lage was seen by Iberville on his first voyage Tip the Mississippi. 



*The writer is informeti hy Dr. McGee of the Bureau of American Kthnology that Choc- 
taw or Chahta is not originallv an Indian word. It is derived from the Spanisli Chata (flat), 
and it was applied by the Spaniards to these Indians possibly on account of their flattened skulls. 
As the tribe had no general designation for itself, it seems to have gradually adopted this alien 
name. 

"f There is an old tradition tliat the site of New Orleans was originally occupied by a band 
of Indians named Tchoutchounias; but this tribe seems to have had its home on the Yazoo 
river. 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 45 

5. On the left bank, about sixty miles above the city, was the tribe of 
Houmas (or Red Indians). Though the neighborhood of the French and the 
immoderate use of brandy are said to have had an injurious effect upon the Hou- 
mas, they dwelt here for many years. As Iberville ascended the river he saw on 
the bank a tall May-pole, painted red and hung with offerings of fish and game. 
Tliis pole (baton rouge) marked the boundary between the hunting grounds of 
the Houmas and a neighboring tribe. From it the capital of Louisiana derives 
its name. 

6. Opposite to the mouth of Red river were Father Davion's Tunicas, a 
small tribe that had proved so friendly to the French that the King of France had 
conferred upon their chief the title of General of the Red Armies, and had sent 
him a silver medal attached to a blue ribbon, and a gold-headed cane — ^Jaoiiorable 
marks of favor, which gave inexpressible delight to the savage heart. 

7. Above the Tunicas was the famous tribe of Natchez, Avho have been 
mentioned as the most enlightened of all the tribes with which the French came 
in contact. Not only did the Natchez win the regard of Du Pratz, but they 
aroused at a later period the enthusiasm of the distinguished Frenchman, Cha- 
teaubrand, who resided witJi tlicm for a while.* Claiborne, with a natural 
reaction from the eulogies of tliese authors, declares that there was nothing to 
distinguish them from other savages; but neither this writer -nor Father Charle- 
voix seems to do the Natchez justice. Though friendly to the French at first, 
the anger of these Indians was aroused by the ill treatment of a commandant 
at Fort Rosalie near their villages, and they arose to the massacre of the French. 
When an attempt was made to punish them, they took refuge in Northern Lou- 
isiana, and stood at bay on Sicily Island, in Catahoula parish. Here the French 
attacked them in 1731, but many of the warriors slipped away in the night time, 
and after doing all the damage they could in Loiiisiana they slipped across the 
river, where the hospitality of the Chickasaws bade them welcome. 

On the west bank of the Mississippi the Louisiana tribes were generally 
smaller and less important than those Ave have mentioned. Some of them lived 
so quietly that the French knew them only by name, while a few of them are to be 
found to-day not far from the liaunts where they were first visited by the white 
man two hundred years ago. 

8. On the west bank, between the river and Barataria Bay, Avere bands of 
Tchaouchas and Ouachas. Tlie Onachas Avere quiet and inoffensive; but after 



* Chateaubriand's sojourn among the Natchez, however, is doubted b_v some modern critics. 



46 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

the Natchez massacre, when it was feared that New Orleans itself would be 
overwhelmed by a general uprising of the Indians, Governor Perier sent down a 
small army of negroes, who fell upon the Ouachas and destroyed them — men, 
women, and children. Perhaps the Tchaouchas wei-e involved in their ruin, for 
no further mention is made of either tribe. 

9. On Bayou Lafourche, near Donaldsonville, was a tribe of Chetimachas 
(a Choctaw word meaning "possessing vessels for boiling"). A number of 
these Indians are still to he found on Grand river and Bayou Teche. In 1703 
they killed a priest named St. Cosme, who had fallen into their hands ; and, to 
avenge his death, Bienville persuaded a band of Indians composed of Biloxis, 
Natchez, and Bayougoulas to attack them. The Chetimachas were so nearly de- 
stroyed that the remnant of the tribe was glad to make peace with the French 
and live apart. Many of them, however, were taken prisoners by the Indians 
and sold as slaves to the French. In general, the Indians proved so sullen and 
unruly as slaves that the French preferred the more docile negro ; but du Pratz, 
who bovight a Chetimacha girl to serve as cook, praises in the highest terms her 
faithful services. He even declares that when her tribe offei'ed to purchase her 
freedom she refused to leave him — a rare instance, if it is true. Du Pratz also 
maintains that the Chetimachas were kindred of the Natchez, but modern investi- 
gators hold that at least in language these two tribes were not related. 

10. Along the coast of the west were the Attakapas. The name means "man- 
eating," from Choctaw, hlttolc, a person, and uppa, to eat. It was believed that 
they were in the habit of eating the bodies of their enemies. Thinking that they 
must have another name for themselves, du Pratz, without venturing into their 
neighborhood, made many inquiries about them ; but he was never able to dis- 
cover any other appellation than Attakapas. They seem to have been the only 
tribe in Louisiana addicted to cannibalism; but in Texas, as late as 1S3S, the 
same custom prevailed. General Albert Sidney Johnston relates that while pur- 
suing, with friendly Tonkaways, some Lipan horse thieves in Texas, they came 
upon a gigantic brave, who, on foot, long outstripped his pursuers. At length, 
finding his enemies closing around him, he turned, and defiantly shouting 
"Lipan!" rushed among them to certain death. Next day his Indian allies told 
General Johnston that they had cooked the Lipan, and asked him to dinner, nor 
could they be made to understand his abhon-ence at feasting on the flesh of an 
enemy. 

Du Pratz tells us that the French remonstrated with the Attakapas on the 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 47 

wickedness of eating their fellow-creatures, and that they pi-omised to give up 
the custom — a promise which they faithfully kept as far as he could learn. 

11. Above La Fourche was a small tribe of Bayougoulas, perhaps near the 
present town of that name. Their name is derived from two Indian words, signi- 
fying "those living near the bayouc," or rivulet. Iberville and Bienville visited 
this tribe, and found them living in comfortable cabins, and actually raising some 
chickens, which they had evidently obtained from the Spaniards. Some twenty 
years later they had been absorbed by other tribes and had seemingly lost their 
identity. 

12. Above Pointe Coupee were the Opelousas, whom du Pratz calls the 
Oque-loussas, or Black Water Indians. They were so named because they dwelt 
on two little lakes whose water appeared black from the quantity of leaves at 

the bottom.* 

13. Above the rapids of Eed river were a little tribe of Avoyels. These 
made their living by bringing cattle and horses from the Spanish settlements 
and selling them to the French. In consequence horses became so cheap in Lou- 
isiana that they could be purchased for twenty francs a piece. 

14. On Eed Eiver, one hundred and fiftv miles above the Avoyels, were 
the Ilfatchitoches. They were a numerous band, and occupied about two hundred 
lodges. ISTear them was the French post of the same name, at which they and 
many other tribes traded freely. 

1 5. Still higher up on the Eed was the powerful tribe of Cadodaquioux or 
Caddos, from whom Caddo Parish derives its name. The remains of this tribe 
are found at the present day in Indian Territory. 

16. Before I)u Pratz's time there had been a band of Ouachitas on the 
Washita, but the Chickasaws had nearly destroyed them in one of their raids, and 
the remnant of the tribe had taken refuge among the Caddos. 

17. In the present parish of Tensas there had been a tribe of Tensas. 
They were visited by La Salle in IGS'i, and again by Iberville in 1700, but in 
Du Pratz's time they had emigrated to the neighborhood of Mobile. At a later 
day they were destined to return to Louisiana. These Indians had a religion 
similar to that of the Natchez, and worshiped the Sun in a great temple, where 
three priests kept alive the sacred fire as a symbol. 

Such is a brief account of the principal tribes that lived in Southern Louis- 
iana at the beginning of the eighteenth century. Besides these there wer;- 



'Dr. Sibley thinks that the word means '•black head " or " black skull." 



48 STANDAED HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

bands of Indians of a nomadic character, who. visited Louisiana for brief spaces 
of time, either on war expeditions or in the peaceful pursuit of the fur trade. 

Let us now turn to a brief consideration of the salient characteristics of 
these Southern Indians. The tribes that have been mentioned seem to have had 
fixed habitations, and to have been engaged in agriculture, or rather horticulture, 
as well as in hunting and fishing. The braves, taking for themeslves the exciting 
sports of hunting and fighting, spent their time when at home in smoking or in 
apathetic idleness, varied from time to time by the excitement of a tribal dance. 
The squaw thought it no disgrace to till the fields, and to raise the corn, the po- 
tatoes, and the pumpkins for the family larder. ISTay, she would have regarded 
with contempt a husband that took her place at these occupations. Moreover, 
the early colonists who accepted the hospitality of the natives, found that the 
women were no mean cooks, and could prepare appetizing dishes of sagamite — 
corn meal boiled in water and mixed with the fat of the deer or bear — or of 
meat barbecued at their open fires. One of the favorite entrees, however, v/as a 
roasted dog, specially fattened for the feast. Father Marquette relates that, 
when he was making his voyage do-\^Ti the Mississippi, the Indians on one oc- 
casion served up to him as a special treat a roasted dog, but when they saw his 
aversion to such a dish, they promptly brought some buffalo meat, and tlie chief 
put into the mouth of his guest the choicest morsels. 

When Bienville foimd provisions running short in his early settlement 
i:.n Mississippi Sound, he allowed some of his men to take up their residence 
among the neighboring Indians. Here they easily accommodated themselves 
to the wild life of the woods, and were often reluctant to return to the civiliza- 
tion of the forts. Tlie liunting, tlie dancing aroimd the fire at night, the free- 
dom from irksome duties proved only too fascinating. In truth the colonists 
showed much greater capacity for imcivilizing themselves, and falling into savage 
ways, than the natives possessed for adopting the civilization of the white man. 
It has often been remarked that the Indian's adaptability did not seem to ex- 
tend much beyond the appropriation of the white man's vices. From the very 
first tlie fire water exercised its potent influence over the savage, and Colonel 
Stoddard, who was stationed at Natchitoches during the early years of the nine- 
teenth century, deplores the wild orgies of the Indians when they visited that 
post ; just as, many years later, Abbe Eouquette Avas shocked and grieved to see 
the drunken Choctaws rioting through the streets of New Orleans. 

We have already spoken of tlie noble efforts of the Catholic missionaries to 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 49 

inculcate in the savage breast the principles of their religion, and of the slow 
progress they made in awakening the simple minded natives to an appreciation 
of the truths they came to preach. Some of the tribes, the Choctaws especially, 
already believed in a "Great Spirit, the Giver of Breath," but their conception 
of the attributes of such a deity was so dim and vague that it had no influence on 
their lives. Of the religious beliefs of the other tribes with which the French 
came in contact we know little, except of the Natchez and the Tensas. Both 
these tribes, as has been said before, had temples to the Sun, and had established 
a kind of priestly caste who attended to the sacred fire. The Natchez told Du 
Pratz — so he says — that they believed in a spirit "infinitely great, that has made 
all that we see or can see ; He is so good that He could do no evil to any one, even 
if he wished it." This Deity had made all things, including man, by His will ; 
but there were, also, little spirits that could have made the beautiful things in 
nature. They did not worship the Great Spirit, becaiise it was unnecessary to 
propriate a deity that could do them no harm. The air, however, they said, was 
full of evil spirits with a chief at their head more wicked than they ; and all evil 
spirits they were careful to win over for fear of the harm they might do. 

This is what Du Pratz relates. One cannot help feeling that he has adapted 
the words of the Natchez to his own preconceptions. It is more likely that, as 
Le Petit, one of the Jesuit fathers, tells us, the Natchez were simply worshipers 
of the Sim. Their great chief was called the Sim, and he in turn called the sun 
his brother. As soon as that luminary appeared in the heavens, the chief would 
salute it with a long howl, and wave his hand from east to west, directing what 
course it should travel.* 

Closely connected with their religion were superstitious rites often of the 
most terrible character. For instance, when Iberville visited the Tensas in 
1700, near what is now St. Joseph, it so happened that the Sun Temple had just 
been set on fire by lightning. The priest called upon the women to bring their 
infants to appease the angry god. The French were horrified to see three of 
these innocents cast into the flames, and had they not protested vigorously, and 
aided in putting out the fire, the horrible sacrifice would have continued. 
Among the Natchez, also, it was the custom, when one of the Suns or chiefs, died, 
to strangle a number of children and adults to serve as attendants upon the de- 
ceased in the spirit world. As it was considered an honor to perish with the 
chief, the French found it very difficult to persuade the Natchez to abolish this 
custom. 



• Cl.iiborne's History of Mississippi. 



so Sr AX I) All I) HISTORY OF XEW ORLEANS. 

AmoBg all tliG tribes great respect was shown to the jugglers or medicine 
men. These prepared themselves for their profession by a fast of nine daj's, 
during -".vhich, with lond cries and beating of drums, they called upon the Spirit 
to receive them as medicine men. With much quackery, there was doubtless min- 
gled much knowledge of hygienic herbs. We know that the Indians of the west 
still prepare a liquor that, when drunk at the snake dance, renders the venom of 
the rattler innocuous. Du Pratz. who was several times ti-eated by the medicine 
men, believed that he had received great benefit from their ministrations, and 
came to prefer them to the French surgeons that had settled in the colony. 

In their grand powwows with the French, the Indians often exhibited grear 
sagaeity,and sometimes extraordiiuii'v powers of eloquence. Their languages con- 
tained no abstract terms, but they employed similes and metaphors drawn fvoM 
nature, with an approju'iatcness that was often the admiration and envy of their 
listeners. If Lanier is right in saying that the metaphor is born of love rather 
than of thought, Ave may conclude that the Indian was in loving sympathy with 
nature, and learned much from her teachiiigs. Those among the natives whose 
office it was to interpret the treaties, had often trained their memories to such a 
point that they would repeat word for word long speeches made by ]irevious 
speakers, before pronoiincing their ovm discourses. IVIany of the Indian ova- 
tions that have come down to iis, even with due allowance for the additions and 
improvements of the interpreters, illustrate the great gifts of the most practised 
speakers among them. An Indian chief, Avho was anxious to visit President 
Jefferson, said to Major Stoddart : "If I coiild only see my great Father, and 
obtain from him some word declaratory of justice to my nation, it would be like 
tlie beams of the sun breaking through a cloud after a storm." 

Du Pratz was present when a baud of Chetimachas came to smoke the pipe 
of peace with Bienville. After the calumet had been presented and smoked in 
turn by the chief men of the assembly, the chief arose, and spoke with "wonder- 
ful grace of gesture and majesty of mien." The following extract from his 
speech is translated from the French of Du Pratz: '"'Formerly the sun was red, 
tb.e ways were filled with briars and thorns, the clouds were black, the waters 
Avcre troubled, and stained with our blood. Our women wejjt without ceasing, 
our children cried affrighted, the deer fled from lis afar, our houses were aban- 
doned, our fields were waste, we had nought to fill our stomachs, and our very 
l>ones began to appear. But to-day the sun is warm and bright, the sky is clear, 
the clouds have gone, the ways are pleasant to walk, the waters are so clear that 



STANDARD HISTORY OF XEW ORLEANS. 51 

we behold our images therein. The deer has returned to its haunts, our women 
dance iiutil they forget to eat, our children leap about like young fawns, the 
heart of the whole nation laughs with joy to see that to-day, Frenchmen, Ave 
shall walk along the same path, the same sun will shine upon us; our tongues 
will speak the same word, our hearts will beat as one; we shall break bread to- 
gether like brothers. Will that not be pleasant to behold ( What sayest thou, 
O chief of the pale faces V 

In their family life the Indians of Louisiana seem to have generally been 
happy and contented. The marriage bond was a loose one, and divorce was per- 
missible at the option of either party, without the aid of court or lawyer. Yet 
during the eight years that Du Pratz stayed among the Xatchez, he heard of 
only one case of separation. The women were, of course, in a state of subjection 
to their husbands, which would not be tolerated in this age of sexual equality. 
It was possible to find squaws that had been deprived of their ears or noses for 
some real or fancied olfence given to their lords and masters, but family brawls 
were rare. 

Generally speaking, the Avhites formd the natives to be dangerous enemies. 
When their resentment had once been aroused, tliey were capable of any treach- 
ery to accomplish their vengeance. For the captive taken in war, wheu he was 
not reduced to slavery, or adopted into the tribe, they could invent the most ex- 
quisite tortures, and in these, brave and squaw alike participated. From the 
stoical indifference of their victims, however, they were seldom able to evoke 
anything but the death song, which was shouted as long as life lasted. Even 
the women, as we have seen in the case, of the Natchez squaw burned at Xew 
Orleans, were capable of heroic deaths. 

But if they were often bitter enemies, the natives showed themselves no less 
callable of abiding friendships. Even if it be untrue that they were never the 
iirst to break a treaty of peace, the tribe would alwaj-s maintain that any infrac- 
tion of their agreements was due to the impulsive young braves whom the sager 
heads could not restrain. 

All the early writers agree that if an Indian committed homicide within the 
tribe, and the council condemned him to death, he never tried to evade the 
penalty. There was no imprisonment, no bail; the condemned went free, but 
punctual to the day appointed, he apjjeared to meet his fate without a munuur. 
If the homicide were committed outside of the tribe, the relatives of the deceased 
would endeavor to avenge the murder. Martin relates that in a quarrel between 



52 STANDARD HI STORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

a Choctaw and a Colapissa, the latter slew tlie former, and fled to Xew Orleans. 
The relatives of the Choctaw pursued the murderer, and requested the governor, 
the Marquis of Vaudreuil, to surrender him. An attempt was made to buy off 
their vengeance with presents, but they steadily refused to be satisfied with any- 
thing but a life for a life. In the meantime the murderer escaped, and his old 
father came forwai'd to offer his own life for that of his son. To this the Choc- 
taws consented, and when the old man had stretched himself out on the trunk of 
a tree, a Choctaw severed his head from his body at one blow. This instance of 
paternal affection, adds Martin, was afterwards made the subject of a tragedy 
by Leblanc de Villeneuve, an officer of the French troops in Louisiana. 

It has been stated above that the Choctaws generally remained the friends 
of the French. Some bands of them, however, falling under English influence, 
attacked the settlements above New Orleans, and finally came in conflict with 
some French soldiers near the city. This was in 1748, and it is said to have 
been the last Indian battle fought in this neighborhood.* The French were vic- 
torious, and the Choctaws took refuge on the shores of the lake. Doubtless the 
Indians of St. Tammany Parish are descended from this wandering band. 

IJUKKsG THE SP.Us^ISH nOJIINATION. 

In the year 1764 news reached New Orleans that the whole province of 
Louisiana west of the Mississippi, together with the island on which the city 
stood, had been transferred by Louis XV. to the King of Spain. When the 
Spanish government finally took possession, the French were at peace with the 
Indians. In 1753, Governor Vaudreuil had made war on the Chickasaws, the 
Qld enemies of the French ; but, as in the campaignis of Bienville, these Indians, 
long iu league with the English, bad defended themselves with their usual suc- 
cess. With the rest of the tribes, the French carried on an active trade at 
JSTatchitoches and other posts, and the chiefs were conciliated by handsome pres- 
ents to prevent them from trading with the English colonies or in any way com- 
bining against the French. 

The Spaniards ptirsued the same sagaciotis policy. When the brilliant 
young Spanish governor, Galvez, made war on the British in 1780, and captured 
the forts at Baton Rouge and ISTatchez, he was accompanied by some 160 Indians, 
drawn from the "German Coast" and other districts in Louisiana. Quoting 



» Claiborne's History of Mississippi. 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. S3 

from the Madrid Gazette of that day Gayarre states that "these Indians showed 
themselves, for tlie first time, alive to the voice of humanity, and abstained from 
doing the slightest injury to the fugitives that they captured; nay, they had im- 
proved so much as to carry in their arms to Galvez, with the most tender care, 
the children who had taken refuge in the woods with their mothers. This change 
in their habits was due to the influence exercised over them by Santiago Tarascon 
and Joseph Sorelle, under whose command they had been placed." 

In 1783 all Florida was ceded to Spain, and a year later we find Governor 
Miro holding a great congress of the Indians, first at Pensacola and later at 
Mobile. The Talapouches, the Chickasaws, the Choctaws, the Alabamas, and 
other smaller tribes were entertained with a magnificence that was characteristic 
of the Spanish government. Treaties of commerce and alliance were ratified ; 
costly gifts were distributed, and the savage warriors grunted their approval of 
everything Spanish and their hatred of everything American. Even after this 
love feast, however, we find McGillivray, the half-breed chief of the Talapouches, 
seeking a pension from tlie American government to supplement the one he was 
enjoying from the Spaniards. 

The sixth article of the treaty concluded at Mobile, as given by Gayarre, 
seems to show tliat the Indians had experienced a great change of character, or 
had adopted a different policy from tliat which distinguished them sixty years 
before. ^\'e find them declaring that, in conformity with the humanity and 
generous sentiments cherished by the Spanish nation (words that seem to indi- 
cate a parallel change in Spanish heart or policy since the days of De Soto), they 
renounced forever the custom of raising scalps or of making slaves of white cap- 
tives. Such prisoners, in imitation of the usages of civilized nations, were to 
be either exchanged or yielded uj) to ransom. 

The trade in peltry had now become very profitable, yielding at least twenty- 
five per cent, gain to the Spanish government, and strict regulations were made 
to prevent the traders from defrauding or alienating the natives. 

It is interesting to note that when, some years before this period, CReilly 
became governor he found that the colonists, under the French regime, had been 
permitted to purchase from the natives some of their Indian prisoners of war, 
thus saving them from death by torture. O'Reilly, however, whatever he may 
have thought of negro slavery, declared that the practice of reducing Indians to 
slavery was "contrary to the wise and pious laws of Spain, but that the present 



54 i<TANl)ARD IIISTOBY OF NEW ORLEAyS. 

owners might hold their slaves until the Avill of the sovereign was known."* We 
Ijear nothing more of the matter until the year 1793, when the mild Baron Ca- 
rondelet was governor of Louisiana. Suddenly the Indian slaves rose up and 
demanded their freedom. But Carondelet did not adopt the views of O'Reilly. 
Tie wrote to the king that it would be dangerous to free the Indian slaves, as well 
as ruinoiis to their masters. Emancipation should be either positively refused 
or delayed and discouraged. The baron added that the efforts of the Indians to 
obtain their freedom were doubtless aided and abetted by secret agents who 
wanted to stir up trouble in the privincet A little later there w^as a slave in- 
surrection in Louisiana, which had to be put down with a stern hand; but there 
is no record of the Indian slaves having had a share therein. As the negro slaves 
were preferred for their docility, doiibtless the number of Indians suliject to in- 
volimtary servitude was never very large. 

UTJEING THE NINETEENTH CENTUEY. 

The cession of Louisiana, at the beginning of the nineteenth century, by 
Spain to France and by France to the United States did not, as far as the pres- 
ent writer can learn, aifect the fortunes of the Indians living in the southern 
part of the vast territory. They doubtless found little difficulty in adapting 
themselves to the new order of things, and they may have viewed the introduc- 
tion of American control with as little enthusiasm as did the Creoles themselves. 

The various tribes or bands of Indians, and the districts in which they were 
to be foiTud at that period, are given by two writers who were residents of the Ter- 
ritory of Orleans during the first decade of the nineteenth century. These were 
Judge Martin, one of our early historians, and Dr. Sibley, of Natchitoches. 
Their accounts, though differing a little in detail, serve to supplement each other. 

In his report, published by the United States government in 1806, Dr. Sib- 
ley divided the Indians of the territory into two classes : 

1. Those who had migrated into the territory within the memory of men 
tlien living. These included the Alabamas, the Appalaches, the Conshattas, the 
Tensas, the Tunicas, Biloxis, Pascagoulas, and Pacanas. 

2. The natives, e. g., the Caddos, the Natch it oehes, the Adaize, the Ope- 



•See Gayarre's Spanish Domination. 

t No further mention of emancipation is to be found in Gayarre; but Dr. Siblej, writing in 
iSo6, says the Indian slaves had been emancipated by the Spaniards. 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 55 

loiisas, the Attakapas, the Choctaws, the Panis, the Hoiimas, and, he might havo 
added, the Chetimachas. 

The Iloumas were in their old home ou the left bank of the river, about sev- 
enty-five miles above the city. They numbered about sixty persons. The Ala- 
bamas, numbering about one hundred persons, were in the Opelousas district. 
The Appalaches, in small numbers, had settled on Bayou Eapide. The Conshat- 
tas, three hundred and fifty in number, were on the banks of the Sabine river, 
or in that neighborhood. The Pacanas were on Calcasieu river. The Tensab 
had returned from Mobile and settled on the Red. The Tunicas, numbering about 
sixty, were above Pointe Coupee. There were Choetaws, Biloxis, and Pasca- 
govilas in Rapides, on Bayou Crocodile and Bayou Boeuf. The Caddos were in 
their old home, and were able to put a hundred warriors in the field. Below 
them were the j^atchitoches, who numbered one hundred souls. Xear them was 
a small band of Adaize. The Opelousas, in the district of the same name, num- 
bered only forty men. Martin states that the Attakapas on Bayou Vermilion 
were nearly extinct, but Dr. Sibley says they still numbered a hundred souls. 
On Bayou Teche and on Bayou Plaquemine were a number of Chetimachas. 
Four or five hundred families of Choetaws, says Martin, were scattered through 
the Ouachita country, and. if the Spaniards had permitted, many more would 
have come over to the west bank of the river. 

It will be seen that of the tribes mentioned by Du Pratz some were in their 
old haunts, others had disappeared, while a few new tribes had migrated into the 
territory. 

The history of the Louisiana Indians during the nineteenth century may 
be briefly told. Under the American rule the trading post at ^Natchitoches con- 
tinued for a long period to be an important point of rendezvous for the Indians 
in upper Louisiana ; and they brought thither, as in the old days, the fruit of 
the chase to exchange for the goods of civilization. Some of the tribes, of a 
more peaceful character, resorted to agriculture, and so far forgot the art of war 
that some of the chiefs used to express to Major Stoddard their regrets that the 
young men were growing up with no skill in battle, and even suggested that it 
might be necessary to provoke hostilities in order that they might obtain the 
needed instruction. 

In the course of time the Chickasaws and the Choetaws in Mississippi were 
persuaded to leave their lands and to migrate to the Indian Territory. Here, 
forgetting their old enmity, they settled side by side and became prosperous 



56 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

farmers. As large slave o\vners, they sympathized during the Civil War with 
the Southern Confederacy, and gave help to the Southern cause. In 1890 the 
Choctaws still numbered 10,017, and the Chickasaws, 3,129. 

In Louisiana the number of Indians seems to be gradually declining. By the 
census of 1880 there were 848 scattered through more than ten parishes of the 
state, while in 1890 there were only 628 in about the same number of parishes. 
Besides bands of Caddos, Alabamas and Biloxis, there is a small tribe of Tuni- 
cas in Avoyelles Parish, near Marksville, who are said to keep up tribal organi- 
zation in an irregular fashion. 

At Charenton, in St. Mary's Parish, there is still a band of the ancient 
Chetimachas, who maintained their tribal organization until 1879, when their 
last chief died. As in olden times, they are very quiet and inoffensive, devoting 
themselves to agriculture and the making of ingeniously woven baskets. In 
some cases the children of the tribe have attended the public schools, and the 
adults have exercised the right of suffrage. In January, 1900, the tribe brought 
suit in New Orelans for the recovery of some lands that had been sold to resi- 
dents of St. Mary's Parish by certain members of the tribe without permission 
of the majority ; but the efforts of their lawyer to prove the sale unlawful were 
tm successful. Among these Chetimachas there is a large admixture of white, 
but not of negro, blood. 

In St. Tammany Parish there still lingers a band of Choctaws. Many 
years ago they aroused the interest and sympathy of Abbe Adrien Rouquette, 
the poet-priest of Xew Orleans. When he died in 1887 he had devoted some 
thirty years of his life to missionary work among these Indians, and it is said 
that he met with great success ; at least, he won the love and respect of the sav- 
ages. They gave him the name of Chatah-Ima, or Choctaw-like — a name of 
which he was so proud that afterwards he used it as a no)n de plume in his writr 
ings. When he was dying in 'Rew Orleans the friendly savages brought him 
many little offerings, and around his bier they sat in silent grief for the loss of 
their white father. 

From time to time some members of this tribe are to be seen in the markets 
of New Orleans selling their pounded sassafras for gomho filet. They always 
sit in a group apart from the bustling Creoles and Americans around them, as 
if there were no amalgamation possible with this white race that for more than 
two himdred years has been forcing the red man to retire before the onward 
march of its civilization. 



STANDARD HISTORY OP NEW ORLEANS. 57 

In Louisiana the Indian is doubtless destined to gradual extinction. 
Hemmed in by the more enterprising i>ale faces, his longing for free range of hill 
and dale is stifled. He has ceased to try to adapt himself to his new envii-on- 
ment ; not for him are the arts of civilization. In Louisiana he stands a shad- 
owy figure handed down from the past, and his gradual disappearance in pathetic 
isolation cannot but touch a sympathetic chord in the hearts of those who know 
his history.* 



CHAPTER III. 



ADVANTAGES OF NEW OELEANS. 

By Norman Walkee. 

IT was predicted by Jefferson, when he purchased Louisiana, that New Or- 
leans, its port and capital, would become not only the greatest commercial 
city in America, but in the world; and he gave very good reasons for the 
prediction. He pointed out, for instance, that it was the natural port of the 
Mississippi Valley, which he foresaw was to become "the seat of a great and 
populous empire, and that all the varied product of that valley would find their 
way to New Orleans by a thousand streams ; while to the south lay Mexico, 
Cuba, and the tropics." New Orleans, therefore, lay at the gateway of the con- 
tinent,, and could not be better placed to handle the immense trade that must 
spring up between the Mississippi Valley and the tropics on the one hand, and 
Europe on the other. Such produce as Latin America shipped to the interior 
could but be sent through New Orleans, and vice versa; and the people of the 
interior would, he predicted, find in the "Crescent City" the port they needed 



• Among the works consulted in the preparation of this sketch may be mentioned Le Page 
Du Pratz's Histoire de la Louisiane; Gayarre's Louisiana; Martin's Louisiana; Claiborne's 
Mississippi; Stoddard's Louisiana; King and Ficklen's History o£ Louisiana; Winsor's History 
of America; publications of the Louisiana Historical Society; Tonti's Narrative (in French); 
American State Papers (Indian Affairs), etc. Special thanks are due Mr. Wm, Beer, of the 
Howard Library, for his valuable assistance in gathering information, and to Mr. W. J. McGee, 
Acting Director of the Bureau of American Ethnology, for several letters in regard to the 
Choctaw language. 



58 STANDARD IJISTOEY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

for the exchange of their products with Europe. Through that city, they would 
find the teeming millions of the "old world" receiving, in return, such manu- 
factured goods as Europe could turn out more profitably than America. La 
Salle had a slight conception of the future of New Orleans when he hoisted the 
French flag over the site of the city in 1 684, and Bienville when he located his 
capital there, and pointed out to the French government the advantages which 
a location near the mouth of the Mississippi offered. He was more of a prophet 
than Jefferson, because, at that time, the Upper Valley was entirely unsettled 
and it required a very vivid imagination to foresee that within two centuries a 
population of thirty-odd millions would spring up in a country where only a 
few wild Indians roamed. In Jefferson's time immigration was pouring into 
the Upper Ohio Valley, and the produce of that section was already beginning 
to reach ISTow Orleans by flat boat and barge. With wonderful prescience, the 
author of the "declaration of independence" looked a century ahead and saw 
what New Orleans ought to become. If this prediction has not been fully re- 
alized as yet, it is due to the possible accident which Mr. Jefferson allowed for. 
He could not foresee the fact that the invention of the locomotive would cause 
a temporary interruption in the commerce and progress of New Orleans, nor 
could he he imagine the civil war, which undid the work of a century. But 
what he said is equally true to-day as it was nearly a hundred years ago, when 
he said it. The commercial advantages of New Orleans are just as gi-eat now 
as then. The city has lost nothing in its opportunities ; it has simply not fully 
utilized them, because accidents have temporarily prevented it from doing so. 
From 1803 to 1840 Jefferson's prediction was in a fair way of being realized. 
Then, for forty years, there was a tendency towards an eclipse ; but the eclipse 
is passing off now ; and the world is beginning to appreciate the fact that New 
Orleans is as well situated for commerce to-day as it was in 1803 ; indeed, 
an advantage which Jeffer.son did not foresee is coming to light — New Orleans 
is quite as well situated for manufactures as for commerce. If it utilizes all 
its advantages, it Avill become not only a great commercial city, "the mart of the 
continent" — as the political economists of a half a century predicted for it — 
but one of the world's great manufacturing centers. 

New Orleans is to-day, and has been for half a century, the second port 
in the Union, its commerce, its imports and exports, being exceeded only by 
those of New York. As already remarked, it promised, at one time, to be the 
great port of America, and in the decade just preceding the civil war more than 



STANDARD IlL^TOEY OF NEW ORLEANS. 59 

lialf the time it exceeded Manhattan iu the vahie of its exports of American 
products. 

The special efforts of New Orleans for the last quarter of a century have 
been to recover the ground lost during the civil war and the demoralized con- 
dition of affairs that immediately followed it; and much has been accomplished 
in that time towards developing the commercial advantages the city enjoys and 
in fully utilizing them. Perhaps no port in the country has done more, in the 
last half dozen years, in the way of improving its transportation and terminal 
facilities than New Orleans. 

New Orleans is situated 110 miles from the mouth of the Mississippi River. 
Thus, while its ships are offered the most perfect protection from storm and 
ocean disaster, it is a seaport in every sense of the word, with every facility for 
handling ocean commerce and with water sufficient to float in its harbor the 
navies of the world. This harbor is reached by a permanent channel thirty 
feet deep ; and, as the tide is never more than eighteen inches, there is ample 
water for the passage of the largest vessel ; and it is not necessary, as at so 
many other ports, to wait for a high tide to float a vessel in. Actual soundings 
show a depth of 200 feet in the river in front of New Orleans, and it is nowhere 
less than 100 feet there. There is water sufficient alongshore and close by the 
whar\-cs to allow the largest vessel to land directly at them. Lighterage, which 
prevails at Buenos Ayres and many of the other great ports of the world, is alto- 
gether unnecessary at the "Crescent City." 

The river frontage embraced in the port of New Orleans is about twehe 
miles on each side of the Mississippi, making about twenty-four miles which 
can be utilized for the purposes of commerce ; but, in addition to this frontage, 
there is considerable wharfage at Southport above, and Port Chalmette below, 
on the east bank of the river, and at Westwego on the west bank, none of which 
are -\vithin the corporate limits of New Orleans. Indeed, were there any need 
for it, the entire river bank from New Orleans to the Gulf, 100 miles, could be 
used for loading and unloading vessels. The average width of the river in all 
this distance is 2,200 feet, with plenty of water on either bank to float the largest 
sliips in the world; so that there is no difficulty and delay in vessels constantly 
passing up and down, as in the case of the narrow channel of the Thames at 
London. 

In the front of the populous portion of the city on the left or east bank, 
extending from Louisiana avenue to Piety street, a distance of six mile^.ajp 



6o STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

wharves that have been recently constructed and are available for the handling 
of tiiree times the commerce that Xew Orleans now possesses. The wharves 
extend from 100 to 200 feet into the river, and are built of heavy timbers capable 
of sustaining any weight. From these wharves or landings the bulk of the busi- 
ness of the port is handled. 

The several railroad companies with termini at New Orleans have switch 
tracks extending along the river front, thus enabling men to handle their cars 
at the ship-side for both inward and outward cargoes. 

At Southport, half a mile above the city limits, are extensive wharves be- 
longing to the Illinois Central and Yazoo & Mississippi Valley Railroads, at 
which large quantities of cotton, com, wheat, lumber, cotton seed oil and cake, 
and other products are loaded into the steamers which moor directly at the 
landings. 

At the foot of General Taylor street, the Illinois Central has established 
the Stuyvesant works, the most perfectly equipped in the country. There are 
two grain elevators, the largest in the South, and ample wharves and warehouses. 

At Port Chalmette, just below New Orleans, the New Orleans & Western 
Railroad, wliioli is practically a belt line for tlie city, has invested some $2,500,- 
000 in providing the most complete terminal facilities, wharves, warehouses, 
cotton presses, elevators, etc. 

Most of the warehouses, elevators and factories of the city are situated 
along the river front. At Algiers are several dry docks ; and the United States 
proposes to construct an immense dry dock there for the repairs of its men-of- 
war, and has taken the initial steps in that direction by the purchase of the 
necessary land. It may be stated in this connection that a commission ap- 
pointed by the United States government for the purpose of choosing a site for 
the location of a dry dock, made a thorough investigation of all the Southern 
ports and decided that New Orleans offered far greater advantages than any 
other port on the Gulf or South Atlantic, having deeper, safer and better water, 
better protection from the enemy and being superior in many other ways to other 
candidates for the government dock. 

While New Orleans does not control the commerce of the Mississippi Val- 
ley as completely as it did a century or even a half century ago, it has made great 
commercial progress, has developed new lines of commerce and seems disposed 
at last to fully iitilize its advantages. It has built up, for instance, an immense 
grain trade and is competing for the position of the first grain port of the Union, 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 6i 

having proved that it can handle the grain of all the country west of the Mis- 
sissippi on cheaper and better terms than any other port south or east. This 
grain comes both by rail and by river, and six large elevators in the city are 
required to handle it. 

ISTew Orleans has secured, as was to be expected, a monopoly of the tropical- 
fruit trade of Central and South America, and, indeed, all the commerce of 
that country. On the Atlantic coast of Nicaragua and Honduras, not only is 
the trade monopolized by New Orleans, but nearly all the capital emploj-ed there 
is supplied by this city, and, in fact, most of the real estate is owned by it. 
This means that New Orleans will be the chief beneficiary by the completion 
of the Nicaraguan Canal, as it is the nearest American port to the mouth of that 
canal. 

Several tributes have lately been paid to the advantages New Orleans offers 
as a purchasing and shipping point. Thus, the Spanish government, during 
the war with Cuba, after establishing purchasing agencies in several ports, finally 
concentrated them all in New Orleans, and purchased and exported all of their 
supplies from that city, declaring that they could do so to greater advantage 
than from any other port in America. What was true of Spain in the Cuban 
war was equally true of Great Britain in the Boer war, the British war ofiice 
having established a commission in New Orleans for the purchase of mules, 
horses and such supplies as were needed, while the Boers made New Orleans 
the port of shipment of such grain and western produce as they bought in 
America, the goods being shipped, because of the blockade against Transvaal, 
via Holland. Finally the Japanese cotton-mill owners sent a number of pur- 
chasers over to examine the advantages of American ports for the purchase and 
shipment of cotton to Japan, which commission, after a thorough examination 
of the subject, reported in favor of New Orleans, and vessels now sail from the 
"Crescent City" direct to Kobe and other Japanese ports, a distance of 14,000 
miles ! by the Suez Canal, one of the longest voyages taken by vessels anywhere. 

New Orleans has now direct steamship navigation with moi'e than eighty 
of the leading ports in the world, — indeed, there is no port of any commercial 
standing with which it has not direct steamship connection. Most of these 
steamers engaged in trade, belong to regular lines and run on schedule time, 
whereas, of old, the trade of the city was largely in the hands of "tramp" vessels. 

Steps are on foot to improve the facilities of New Orleans for handling 
commerce and to reduce the cost. It is proposed, for instance, to make it a 



62 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

free port, at which vessels shall pay no charge of any kind. This will be pos- 
sible in 1902, when the wharves of the city, which are now in the hands of a 
company, will become the property of the city again. 

New Orleans ofPers tho following advantages for commerce : 

1. The largest system of great railroad lines terminating there, giving it 
access to every part of the countrj'. These railroads, formerly inimical to New 
Orleans or lukewarm as to its trade, have come to see that their prosperity is 
dependent on the prosperity of the city, are laboring earnestly to hold up its 
trade, and have invested their capital in whai-ves, docks and other improve- 
ments advantageoiis to the commerce of the city, thereby showing their confi- 
dence in its future. 

2. The Mississippi River affording, with its tributaries, 17,650 miles of 
navigable water-way, all of them open three-fourths of the year, and most of 
them open the entire twelve months. These water-ways extend into twenty- 
nine states and territories, and the population living along their banks now 
exceeding thirty-two millions. The immense valley drained by these streams 
and which through them has constant and direct connection by water with New 
Orleans, enjoys every clime and produces every article, agricultural, mineral or 
manufactured, that mankind needs. In the North are the grain fields of Da- 
kota and Minnesota, in the West the mineral region of Colorado, in the East 
the coal and iron of Pennsylvania and Ohio and the manufacturing cities of 
that section, while the South offers the lumber of Arkansas, the cotton of Mis- 
sissippi and Texas and the sugar and rice of Louisiana. 

The Mississippi and its net-work of tributary streams offers, free of all 
charge or cost, one-eighth as much mileage as the railroads of the United States, 
upon whose construction billions of dollars have been expended. It acts as 
a regulator of freight and prevents the railroads from advancing their rates as 
they can do to New York and the Atlantic seaboard; and it offers the cheapest 
mode of transportation for bulky articles, such as coal and timber, with the 
consequence that New Orleans receives its supply of fuel at less cost than any 
American seaport, while its sawmills and furniture and other factories receive 
their supplies of timber at a minimiun cost. The river allows the barges to 
deliver their coal direct to steamships in the harbor, and offers extraordinary 
facilities for delivering materials to the mills and in loading products upon 
ships for export. 

?>. A splendid harbor, extending some twelve miles on both sides of the 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 63 

Mississippi, allowing steamships, steamboats and barges to come together, put- 
ting the shipping in immediate communication with the railroads and offering 
the finest opportunities for the transhipment of freight. The harbor is from 
forty to fifty feet deep immediately off the wharves, and 200 feet deep in the 
center of the river. This harbor is furnished with a fine system -of wliarves 
newly constructed along a large part of the frontage, supplemented by the dock 
and warehouses of the Yazoo & Mississippi Valley Railroad above the city at 
Southport, the extensive wharves, presses and elevators of the New Orleans 
& Western Railroad just below the city at Port Chalmette, the wharves, eleva- 
tors, etc., of the Texas & Pacific Railroad at Westwego, just opposite the ter- 
minal facilities of the Southern Pacific Railroad at Algiers, also opposite the 
city proper ; and the complete docks of the Illinois Central Railroad, in the 
very center of the river front, and knoM-n as the Stuyvesant Docks. 

4. Deep water to the Gulf of Mexico, open at all times of the year and 
free from all danger of ice and storms, and promising still gTcater improvement 
when SoutliAvest Pass shall have been jettied, improved and deepened, and an 
alternative route thus assured to tlie shipping, permitting vessels of thirty-five 
feet draft to reach ~Sew Orleans witliout a delay or hindrance. 

5. Ample warehouse facilities, grain elevators and cotton-presses sufficient 
to handle all the warehouse and shipping business of the city, these establish- 
ments being located convenient to the trade, and rates of handling being 'fair 
and reasonable. 

6. Railroad switches running from tlie trunk lines and belt-line railroads, 
into the factories both in the front and rear of the city, supplying them with such 
materials as they may need, and taking their output to market, at a minimum 
expense in loading, unloading, hauling and handling. 

7. There is practically a belt road, in the 'New Orleans & Western Rail- 
road, which runs in the immediate rear of the city, extending from Avondale 
above, where it is proposed to construct a bridge across the Mississippi River, 
to Port Clialmette below, thus imiting the various railroads entering the city. 
The Illinois Central Railroad also enjoys belting privileges on St. Joseph street 
and Louisiana avenue; and the city council has undertaken to arrange for the 
continuation of a belt Jine along the entire river front, which will be o^^^aed by 
the city and controlled and operated in the interest of all the railroads centering 
there. 



64 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 



8. Satisfactory labor conditions. The cost of handling goods has been 
very materially reduced of late by the \itilization of labor-saving machinery and 
devices, instead of depending on rough manual labor as formerly. Xew Orleans 
has been but little interfered with by strikes, labor disturbances and similar 
economic obstacles, as compared with other ports, American and European. 

9. The nearness of New Orleans to the chief interior centers of produc- 
tion, as well as to the Latin-American countries to the South, making it the port 
through which the products of the South and West can be marketed in the short- 
est possible time, — -this question of time and expedition having become of late 
the most important element in commerce. A comparison of the differences in 
distance between New Orleans and its chief rival, New York, shows how great 
is the advantage in point of time the former possesses : 



Miles from Miles from 
New OrleanB. New York. 

Memphis 394 1,158 

Cairo 517 1,132 

Nashville 595 998 

St. Louis 700 1,058 

Decatur 755 1,065 

Champalg-n 787 940 

Blooming-ton 799 1,037 

Peoria 875 1,072 

Louisville 746 857 



Miles from Miles from 

New Orleans. New York. 

Kansas City 878 1,335 

Chicago 912 912 

Dubuque 988 1,079 

Cedar Kapids 1,019 1,131 

Omaha 1,070 1,402 

Sioux City 1,177 1,409 

Denver 1,356 1,932 

St. Paul 1,268 1,322 



New York is 350 miles, or fifty per cent, further from St. Louis than New 
Orleans, and the freight rate ought to be half as great again. Even Louisville 
is 121 miles nearer the "Crescent City." West of the Mississippi the differences 
reach tremendous proportions. Kansas City is 457 miles nearer the Gulf port. 
Omaha, far in the North, is 332 miles nearer the Gulf than the Atlantic ; and 
Denver is 576 miles nearer. If a division of the trade of the country were 
based on distances. New Orleans would be entitled to all the business south and 
west of Chicago and Cincinnati, as compared with New York and other Atlantic 
ports. 

In the foreign trade. New Orleans has similar advantages, as far as that 
of Latin-America and the Pacific is concerned. If an Omaha dealer wants to 
send his pork or flour to Guatemala, he will find the New Orleans route 1,012 
miles shorter than the New York one ; while from Denver to Vera Cruz the ad- 



STANDARD IIlSTOEy OF NEW ORLEANS. 65 

vantage in favor of Hew Orleans is 1,834 miles. The following table gives the 
relative distances from Latin-American ports to New York and New Orleans : 

Miles from Miles from 

New Orleans. New Sfork. 

Tampico, Mexico 705 1,986 

Tnxpan, Mexico 744 2,017 

Vera Cruz, Mexico 788 2,046 

Tabasco, Mexico 745 2,020 

Carmen, Mexico 738 2,032 

Campeclie, Yucatan 655 1,764 

Havana, Cuba 597 1,227 

Cienfuegos, Cuba 851 1,342 

Port Rojal, Jamaica 1,112 1,452 

Port au Prince, Hayti 1,215 1,320 

Cape Haytien, Hayti 1,189 1,333 

Belize, British Honduras 882 1,482 

Greytown, Nicaragua, entrance of the 

Nicaraguan Canal 1,250 1,970 

Colon, Colombia 1,380 1,981 

Cartagena, Colombia 1,462 1,970 

Curagiao 1,702 1,820 

New Orleans controls the bulk of the Central American trade and handles 
a large business with the West Indies and Colombia, but it has as yet little traffic 
with the rest of South America. In the event of the constniction of the Nica- 
raguan Canal, it will have an advantage over New York of 711 miles in distance 
to all points on the Pacific, — a difference equal to two days in time. By the 
Colon-Panama route its advantages over New York is 601 miles. 

In the earlier days of New Orleans, its principal commercial dependence 
was upon the Mississippi River and its tributaries. It neglected the railroads; 
and it is only of recent years that it has enjoyed any railroad business of im- 
portance. Now the bulk of its business is done by rail, and the railroad com- 
panies are deeply interested in its trade and development, and are doing all in 
their power to stimulate it. 

New Orleans is the terminus of six of the largest railroad systems in the 
United States, so that what it lacks in the number of its lines it makes up for in 
mileage. These roads are the Southern Pacific, Illinois Central, Louisville & 
Nashville, Texas & Pacific, Southern and the Queen & Crescent routes, the latter 



e^ STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

two roads entering the city over the j^ew Orleans & Northeastern. The mileage 
of the several roads is as follows, extending into all jiarts of the conntrj : 

Miles. 

Southern Pacific 7,372 

Illinois Central 3,130 

Louisville & ITashville 5,027 

Texas & Pacific, including the Missouri Pacific 5,324 

Southern 4,827 

Queen & Crescent 1,201 



Total mileage of jSTew Orleans trunk lines 26,881 

This is one-sixth the total railroad mileage of the United States, and the 
railroads hei-e mentioned are among the greatest in the country, besides having 
other important connections. Its railroads place New Orleans in direct and 
immediate communication with every part of the Union, as its steamship lines 
do with all foreign ports. 

The Southern Pacific, through its railroad and steamship lines, place New- 
Orleans in close connection with New York on the one hand, and the Pacific 
coast and the Orient on the other. It is one of the great routes of commerce 
around the globe, and carries freight between Europe on. the one side and Aus- 
tralia, India, China and Japan on the other. But two changes are necessary in 
transporting goods from New York to Hong Kong — at New Orleans and San 
Francisco — and the route is the shortest in time between our Atlantic coast and 
the Orient. There pass over this line the products of Alaska, of the whale and 
seal fisheries of the Northern Pacific; teas, matting and silks from China and 
Japan and Indian goods of all kinds. With its line of steamers to New York 
and other points, the Southern Pacific has secured the business of distributing 
the various manufactured products of the Eastern States, as well as large quan- 
tities of European imported goods through Texas, California, the Northwest 
and ports of the Mississippi Valley. The Southern Pacific is the finest coast- 
wise steamship line in the world, and owns a number of vessels of from 4,000 
to 5,000 tons, which leave New Orleans three or four times a week with cargoes 
of over half a million dollars each. 

The terminal facilities of the several railroad trunk lines terminating at New 
Orleans are given elsewhere. The Illinois Central has no less than seven depots 
or yards within the city limits of New Orleans, covering an area of 240 acres ; 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 67 

and its yards at Soiithport and Ilarahan, both above the city, will increase its 
property for the storage of freight and cars to 982 acres. On this it has no less 
than five grain elevators and some twenty odd warehouses. 

What is true of the Illinois Central is largely true of the otlier railroads, 
particularly of the Southern Pacific, Texas & Pacific and ISTew Orleans & North- 
eastern lines, all of which have large and perfect terminal facilities. 

New Orleans, therefore, which a few years ago had the very poorest railroad 
facilities, is now one of the very best provided cities in the Union in this respect. 
Its railroad traffic is entirely the creation of the last quarter of a century. In 
1876 it railroads handled in the city only 731,514 tons of freight, against 5,262,- 
825 tons in 1899, having increased their business sevenfold during that period. 

Such are the commercial advantages that New Orleans offers to-day. Even 
greater improvements are proposed and more or less under way, as follows : 

1. Absolute free wharfage, with no charge whatever on vessels landing at 
New Orleans. 

2. The improvement of Southwest Pass, so as to offer an alternative route 
to the gulf. 

3. A bridge across the Mississippi river at Avondale, just above New Or- 
leans, which will better facilitate the interchange of freight between the Texas 
lines and the railroads on the east of the Mississippi. 

4. A deep canal across the Florida isthmus, which will shorten the trip 
from New Orleans to all Atlantic ports 600 to 700 miles. 

Such, in brief, are the commercial advantages that New Orleans enjoys in 
terminal facilities, in its river traffic and in ocean vessels and railroads, and in 
its position for trade, both the interior and with foreign covmtries. No other 
city in the world has similar advantages. There is, for instance, no other river 
like the Mississippi, with as many miles of navigable stream, with as fertile a 
valley depending on it or containing so large a population and turning out such 
valuable products. There is no city on the gulf having so deep a harbor, and 
therefore admitting such large vessels to its wharves ; and only two or three cities 
Avith such important railroad connections. With these three transportation 
routes — river, rail and ocean — -united, New Orleans has better opportunities to 
collect and distribute products in the region tributary to it than any other city 
on the continent. 

Again, in the matter of markets. New Orleans is, as Jefferson pointed out, 
specially favored, having the Mississippi Valley at its back and Latin America 



68 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

fronting it, and being therefore the port for the interchange of the products and 
coniniodities of N'orth and South America, as well as for their shipment to Eu- 
rope, Asia and the rest of the world. If, then, it should accomplish all that has 
been predicted for it by the great economists of the world, it will not do more 
than its facilities and advantages entitle it to. 

But it is not in commerce alone that New Orleans offers such extraordinary 
advantages, for it is equally well situated and has equal advantages to make it 
a great city. 

New Orleans has become an important manufacturing city in the past 
quarter of a century. During that period, from 1875 to 1900, the output of its 
factories has increased sixfold, while the increase in commerce was only thirty 
or forty per cent. It is growing much faster as a manufacturing than as a com- 
mercial city, but not as fast as its advantages should make it grow. In regard 
to manufactures, it is probably the best-situated city in the United States, having 
the following specified advantages, some of which are enjoyed by other cities, 
but no other town has all of them, or to the same degree or extent as jSew Or- 
leans: First, climate; second, raw materials; third, labor; fourth, markets; 
fifth, cheap transportation of materials and manufactured producls ; and, sixth, 
cheap living. 

The climate in New Orleans is probably the best in the Union for manufac- 
turing, and there is no loss of time from any interruption from the elements. 
The winter is never cold enough to stop work, as in New England, and there is 
no snow fall to prevent employes from getting to the factories where they work. 
The mills are not tied up by freezes, as in the central Southern States. On the 
other hand, the hot spells which occur so frequently in the larger cities of the 
North because Nature has been outraged, the shubbery destroyed and there is 
nothing left but brick and stone and iron to store up and accumulate the 
heat, are unknown in New Orleans. Sunstrokes and heat prostrations are very 
rare here, and no factories, not even the sugar refineries, have had to close on 
account of heat of summer, as has occurred more than once in New York and 
other Northern cities. The summer in New Orleans, while long, is not hot, and 
is the busiest season of the year for manufactories. A cool breeze blows from 
the gulf, and the nights are always cool and not hot like the summer nights 
of the Atlantic Coast, which wear out the people by depriving them of sleep and 
render them prone to sxinstroke the next day. New Orleans covers a large area, 
and there is ample room for gardens and shrubbery of all kinds, which serve to 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 69 

mitigate the summer heat, and the flushing of glitters tends to the same resnlt. 

Again, tlie climate possesses that moisture which is so necessary in textile 
manufactures. In the Southern mills outside of New Orleans the dryness of 
the climate lias a bad eifect on the yarns, and it is necessary to employ machinery 
in the mills in order to produce that moisture which is essential to the successful 
working of them. In New Orleans, however, this is wholly unnecessary. 

But the greatest boon that New Orleans enjoys is in the abundance and 
cheapness of the raw^ materials employed, not in one but in all lines of manu- 
factures, and its prosperity to-day is based upon its wealth and resources in this 
matter. It is the port of export for these materials, and they can therefore be ob- 
tained there on the most favorable terms, in the best condition and of the highest 
quality : and this is true not of one but of a dozen articles — cotton, wool, hemp, 
cypress, pine and lumber of all kinds, iron, copper, lead, hides, leather, tobacco 
and a hundred other necessary articles, including such essentials to manufactur- 
ing as cheap and abundant fuel. 

Take cotton, for instance. New Orleans is the best cotton port and the 
best cotton-purchasing center in America. It is the market for the South and 
Southwest, and exports the bulk of the cotton used in Europe and New England. 
Cotton can be bought in New Orleans for from $3 to $5 a bale cheaper than in 
Boston ; and it is in better condition for spinning, for it has not suffered from a 
long voyage and the misusage it gets on a voyage, nor has it been so pressed and 
repressed that the fibre has been affected. Then again, in the matter of quality. 
New Orleans offers the purchaser opportunities he can find nowhere else. It 
monopolizes the handling of long-fibre cotton of the Tensas and Yazoo bottoms, 
which has from that very fact been named "Orleans" cotton. With this advan- 
tage, and the other advantage already noted in the matter of the moisture of the 
climate, it can readily be seen how favorably it is situated for the manufacture 
of cotton goods. 

It is equally well situated for woolen and mixed goods. The wool crops of 
California and Texas, the largest in the Union, are shipped through New Or- 
leans, reaching that city over the Southern Pacific. These shipments run as 
high as 20,000,000 pounds a year, and the wool is naturally cheaper by the dif- 
ference in freight, insurance and handling than in Boston or Philadelphia, to 
which the bulk of it goes. The advantages the city offers for the manufacture 
of woolen and mixed goods have only recently been appreciated l)y the erection 
here of several w^oolen mills manufacturing hosiery, underwear and similar ar- 
ticles. These mills have been most successful, and their products are shipped 



70 STAyDAED HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

to all parts of the country and sell readily iu New York and Chicago in eom- 
l>etition with the output of the Eastern mills. Only a small portion of the wool 
which passes through New Orleans is retained here for manufacturing purposes ; 
and the possibilities of this city in textile goods, both cotton and wool, are as yet 
not fully developed. 

In the matter of hemp, and the manufacture of ropes, cordage, baggage, 
etc., New Orleans has great opportunities, for it handles the Kentucky product 
as well as imports — most of the istle or Mexican hemp. It has always done 
some business in the manufacture of ropes and bagging — even in ante-bellum 
times ; but has never fully utilized its chances. 

In respect to lumber, New Orleans stands first among American cities, in 
variety, quality and price. It has been an exporter of lumber for nearly two 
centuries, supplying the AVest Indies and Mexico and Central America with 
such wood as they needed. At the same time it is the importer of most of the 
mahogany, Spanisii cedar and other tropical woods used in the West and South- 
west, and its mills supply the factories with the timber used in the manufacture 
of furniture, cigar boxes, etc. New Orleans is the center of the cypress region, 
which covers the lower delta of the Mississippi, and of the Southern yellow pine 
district, and is able, therefore, to handle both of these woods to advantage. It 
is also the exporting point for the shipment of oak staves, and supplies nearly 
all the staves used in Europe for marketing the wine crop of that continent. Its 
cypress is especially adapted for the manufacture of shingles, cistern tanks, etc., 
and twenty-seven States are supplied with these articles, as well as nearly all the 
coast of the gulf of Mexico and Caribbean seas. Its pine is sent to all points of 
the world, and is shipped to Europe, Asia, Africa and South America. 

Much of the lumber comes to New Orleans in a manufactured state and the 
city merely exports it ; but the Ncav Orleans sawmills and other factories do a 
large manufactiiring business themselves. For this they have great facilities. 
The mills are situated either on the river front, getting such timber as they need 
from the Mississippi itself, as it can be floated down to them from that river or 
any of its tributaries, or on the New or Old Basin, while they can receive timber 
from Lake Ponchartrain or the Mississippi gulf coast. The logs are brought 
direct to the mill, while the finished product can be similarly shipped directly. 
Besides the timber brought by the waterways. New Orleans receives a consider- 
able amoimt by its railroads, especially the New Orleans & Nortlieastern, Illinois 
Cent)-al and Yazoo k [Mississippi Vailey lines. Timber being a bulk}' article 



STAXDAI!/) fllSTOI!)' OF XlW 0/.7./i.t.VS. 71 

and being brought to the city almost without cost — that is, tiinited (h)\vu during 
high water — it is from forty to fifty per cent, cheaper than in the Eastern cities, 
and the industries which utilize wood or are of the chief material in their lines of 
manufactures, are therefore at a great advantage over those in most other cities. 

The development of the iron industry of Alabama of recent years has given 
the New Orleans foundries and machine-shops an advantage which they did not 
previously enjoy. These shops did a big business even when they had to get 
their iron from as far distant a point as Pittsliurg. To-day they are getting iron 
at much cheaper figures from the Birmingham district. Indeed, New Orleans is 
so favorably situated as far as Birmingham is concerned that a large part of the 
Alabama iron shipped abroad is sent via the "Crescent City." It is believed 
that still more favorable conditions can be arranged by the improvement of the 
Alabama streams so as to give the furnace men a chance to ship their products 
to seaboard by an all-water route and thence through Mississippi Sound to New 
Orleans. This would give the city factories iron at practically cost price. 

It may be mentioned, in regard to the foimdry, machine and iron business 
in New Orleans, that it is nearly three-quarters of a century old, and that it has 
in consequence a large amount of skilled labor at hand. 

At one time New Orleans handled the entire lead product of the country. 
It has lost the bulk of the business of late ; but enough lead passes through the 
city to give employTnent to many paint and other factories. It still ships an 
immense amount of copper ore, coming from the copper mines of New Mexico 
and Arizona; but nothing has been done towards utilizing the possibilities this 
supply oilers. 

New Orleans ships each year from four to five million dollars' worth of 
hides, and with possibly one exception is the largest handler of hides in the 
United States. It receives the immense output from the millions of cattle of 
Texas, as well as the bulk of the product from the ranches of the plains, Mexico, 
Central America and other countries of the Gulf and Caribbean. Only a small 
portion of these hides, however, are treated in New Orleans or converted into 
leather here ; the greater portion are shipped North and tanned in that section ; 
and such leather as New Orleans needs for its boot and shoe, tnmk, harness and 
saddlery and other factories is generally bought in the North and brought back 
here. In spite of this extravagant policy, instead of manufacturing the hides 
into leather. New Orleans does a large business in shoes and nearly all otJier 
classes of goods into which leather enters as a principal constituent. In this, as 
in other matters, it has not fully utilized the opportimities it enjoys. 



72 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

It is the same story in regard to tobacco. New Orleans stands at the meet- 
ing point of the two great tobacco crops. It is the nearest American city to 
Havana, and, as a consequence, is the importer of most of the Havana tobacco 
ci-op sold in this market. It is the point of export of the tobacco crops of Ken- 
tucky and Ohio. At one time it was the largest tobacco market in the world, 
and while it has lost this superiority, it still handles an immense amount of 
American tobacco; and the German, French and Spanish bviyers make most of 
their purchases in the "Crescent City." It was only a quarter of a century ago 
that these advantages were first utilized, and the city ventured into the manu- 
facture of cigars and tobacco. In the matter of cigars it uses mainly Havana 
tobacco, and largely Cuban labor, thus turning out a Havana cigar in every re- 
spect except that it is mauufactured in the United States. Its cigars have atr 
tained a world-wide reputation and it possesses, in the Hernsheim Factory, the 
third largest cigar factorv in the United States. Its tobacco business has not 
been quite as successful, but it fills an important position in the country as a 
manufacturer of tobacco. 

This emimeration of the raw materials whicli can be obtained in New Or- 
leans in gi'eater quantities, at cheaper prices or of better quality than in other 
American cities Avill give some idea of its opportunities for manufacturing. 
Equally important is that other element which plays so important a part in 
manufacturing, coal. 

There are no coalfields near New Orleans, but it gets its fuel for domestic 
and factory use as cheaply as thoiigh it was in the coal districts of Pennsylvania. 
It owes this to the Mississippi Eiver, down which the coal is shipped in barges, 
at a minimum cost, from the mines of Pennsylvania, Ohio, West Virginia, Ken- 
tuckv and Tennessee. This water transportation is so cheap that New Orleans, 
although 1,000 miles further from the coalfields than New England, gets its coal 
from 20 to 30 per cent, cheaper; and as coal foi-ms so important an element in 
the cost of manufacturing, the expense is very considerably reduced in the 
"Crescent City." The railroads also bring coal into New Orleans, but the water 
route still remains the cheapest. 

New Orleans has another advantage as a manufacturing city. Most of the 
factories in the city being immediately on the river bank or close to it, the coal 
can be delivered to them direct. 

The labor supply of New Orleans is abundant and orderly, and strikes are 
few. In consequence of the utilization of more economic methods in handling 



STAXDAIID llh^ronV OF M-J\V Oh'LKAXS. 73 

the cDinincrcp of tlie city, a much smaller force is requireil than of old, for the 
transportation is done mainly by railroads, and nuieh of the unloading and load- 
ing by macliinei-y. This leaves some 40,000 to 50,000 persons available for 
factory work. The proportion of skilled labor is not very large save in one or 
two branches ; but it is increasing as fast as the needs of the city require, with the 
experience gained in the factories as well as the instruction given in the technical 
and other schools. 

A very considerable proportion of the labor is female, especially in the cot- 
ton, tobacco and clothing factories and knitting-mills. A far larger proportion 
of the work is done at home, by pieces, than in other cities. This is specially 
the case with clothing and pant factories, nearly three-fourths of the output be- 
ing made by the operatives in their own homes instead of in the overcrowded 
sweatshops which ai'c a feature of the industry in Xew York and other Northern 
cities. It is needless to say that this results to the great comfort and advantage 
of the working peojilc, who have plenty of fresh air, their own hours and such 
conveniences as they can aiford. The other operatives have other advantages 
in a climate where the weather is never too hot or too cold for work, and where 
the cost of living for the poorer classes is exceptionally low. The cost of fuel, 
in an average household in New Orleans, is hardly one-fourth what it is in the 
Xortli : and there is a corresponding reduction in the cost of overcoats, cloaks 
and other winter apparel. The rent is lower for a small cottage than for a room 
in a New York tenement house, and being nearer the center of production the 
cost of food, if they live after the New Orleans style, is less. It is ^wssible, 
therefore, for a mill operative in New Orleans to live for 20 to 30 per cent, less 
than in a similar style in the Eastern States. This is practically demonstrated 
by the manv thousands of skilled laborers who have settled in New Orleans of 
late from the North and West, brought here by the progress of its industries. 

While there have been several large strikes in New Orleans, nearly all of 
them have been in the commercial lines, due to the shrinkage in commercial 
profit and an attempt to rearrange wages. In the manufacturing lines proi>er, 
strikes of all kinds have been few, as the government reports show, and the in- 
terruption and injury to factory work have been insignificant. 

In the matter of markets all that applies to the commerce of New Orleans 
equally applies to its manufactures. It is a case where manufactures follow the 
ship. Whei'ever New Orleans has lines of steamers running, it is able to furnish 
all kinds of goods at an advantage over competing cities. 



74 STAXDAUD JIISTURl' OF NEW ORLEANS. 

Thus, the extension of its trade in bananas, eocoanuts and tropical fruits 
generally, has been followed by a great extension of its manufactures and their 
shipment to the tropical countries of Central and South America. New Or- 
leans furnishes the bulk of the manufactured goods to those countries, a large 
proportion of them manufactured in the city itself. Nine-tenths of the articles 
used on the Atlantic coast of Guatemala, Honduras and Nicaragua come from 
New Orleans. Practically all the cisterns, tanks, etc., used in Central America, 
Mexico and Colombia are made in or around the "Crescent City." The same is 
true of the lumber used in Mexico. The New Orleans breweries furnish a large 
part of the West Indian trade. In the matter of cigars. New Orleans supplies 
Texas and the Southwest generally. Its canned goods go over the world, for 
many of them are manufactured nowhere else. Its canned shrimp are sent by 
the thousands of cases to India. It furnishes two-thirds of the cottonseed oil 
and cottonseed cake and meal used in Europe, the oil going through Marseilles, 
Genoa, Naples and other centers of the olive-oil industry. It can thus be seen 
that it has for its market all qujirters of the globe — Europe, Asia and South 
America. The fact that it lias steamship lines to more than eighty different 
ports gives it an opportunity to sell its manufactured products in all the countries 
in which these ports are situated. It cannot, of course, sell in all of them, but 
it has them all as markets to be utilized in the course of time when its manufac- 
tures develop. There are very few countries, or states in the Union, into which 
goods manufactured in New Orleans do not find their way. 

In New England and the Eastern States are sold its '"pants," clothing, 
hosiery, molasses and canned goods, and rice. 

In the West its canned oysters, rice, sugar, hosiery, tanks, shingles and 
lumber. 

In the South its cotton goods, tobacco, cigars, lumber and miscellaneous 
goods of all kinds, its food products, chemicals, fertilizere, etc. 

In Mexico, Central and South America, its cotton goods, lumber, machinery 
ami fomidrv work, beer, etc. 

In Europe, molasses, staves, canned goods, cottonseed oil, fertilizers, etc. 

In Japan, its fertilizers and canned goods. 

In Africa, lumber of vai'ious kinds. 

Roughly estimating, New Orleans now supplies more than a third of the 
city demand for manufactured goods ; but seven-eighths of the output of its fac- 
tories are shipped away, either to neighboring districts or to foreign lauds ; 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 75 

and the proportion of these exports is steadily increasing. Its steamships, -which 
now give it connection with every part of the globe, offer it manufacturing op- 
portunities unexcelled anywhere. With a direct line running to Japanese ports, 
via the Suez canal, established for the purpose of supplying Japan with cotton 
for its mills, New Orleans can ship its manufactured goods to the more distant 
points of the East. 

The facility for obtaining raw materials and for handling them, through the 
fact that the factories are on the river front, as well as the excellent markets New 
Orleans enjoys through its many steamship lines, have resulted in bringing to 
the city from many parts of the South and West manufacturing plants which 
have found that they can do better there than in the interior. The fact that New 
Orleans is a commercial city has been of immense advantage to its factories, by 
giving them new markets and cheaper transportation which they would otherwise 
have never enjoyed. This is an advantage possessed by few other cities in Amer- 
ica, because in the commercial centers like New York and Boston, the cost of 
living and of land is so high that manufacturing is expensive. 

It is narrated of one of the early settlers in California, in the days when it 
was a great mining center and was turning out a million dollars of gold annually, 
that he would not give a hundred dollars for all the agricultural land in the 
state. At that time it was all gold on the Pacific, and California was thought 
to be too dry ever to become of any value as an agricultural or horticultural 
country; but time has sho^^Ti that the pioneers could not appreciate the real 
wealth of the land of gold ; for to-day its mining output has become an insig- 
nificant item in comparison with the magnificent crops it raises on its fertile 
soil. Similarly in New Orleans the possibilities of manufacturing were looked 
on with more or less contempt in the earlier days, and the people pinned all their 
faith on its commerce. To-day they see that manufactories support a larger 
population than commerce, and hold out the greatest advantages and possi- 
bilities of the city for the future. As these manufactories are of recent growth. 
New Orleans has had no chance to fully test what they will do for it ; but, judging 
by the experience of some ten or twenty years, they should build it up beyond 
even the grand prediction and promise of Jefferson. It is not a Liverpool only, 
but a Liverpool and Manchester combined, with equal advantages and chances 
of becoming a great commercial and a great manufacturing city. 

The other advantages of New Orleans are more or less treated elsewhere. 

Its climate is comfortable and pleasant, neither too hot nor too cool. Its 



76 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

temperature has fallen only once below eighteen degrees, and has never reached 
100°, which can be said of few other American cities. It seldom has more than 
one day of freeze during the year, and its winter temperature averages fifty- 
eight. It has more hours of sunshine than any city of the Iforth or West, 
and for nine months of the year its skies are as bright as those of Italy. 

In the past it has siiffered somewhat from dampness, due to the supersatura- 
tion of its soil, resulting from a defective drainage; but this objection has been 
removed by tlie new drainage system which has so recently been constructed. 
It is now dryer than Florida, with a winter temperature from two to five degrees 
higher than that of most of the tourist cities of the "Land of Flowers." 

As a residence city, New Orleans has made great improvement of recent 
years. Its old houses, while admirably adapted for its climate, with their big 
halls, wide galleries and thick walls, were lacking in many modern conveniences. 
The newer residences contain these conveniences, and are a combination 
of the best features of the old Creole home and the latest inventions in household 
comfort. !New Orleans residences boast of ample grounds, such as are to be 
foimd in no other city in the Union. The city covers an immense area of ter- 
ritory (1S3 square miles), and thus offers plenty of room for yards and gardens, 
even for the poorest. As a consequence it boasts of large gardens, a great deal 
of shrubbery and trees, particularly live oak, magnolias, orange trees and other 
evergreens in abundance. Even in the midst of winter the city seems an immense 
mass of verdure. Its flowers are famous and its roses are the wonder of all vis- 
itors. 

The markets of Xew Orleans are good. In the immediate vicinity are 
hundreds of truck gardens, which send early fruit and vegetables to the Northern 
cities. It has the first pick from them. The swamps of Southern Louisiana 
yield an abundance of game, especially ducks, deer, wild turkey snipe, papa- 
bottes and other birds peculiar to Louisiana. The Gulf of Mexico yields nn 
abundance of fish, among which are the pompano, which, it is claimed, is the 
best food fish caught anywhere, redfish, red snapper, sheep's-head and crabs, both 
hard and soft. It is claimed, and not seriously disputed, that the oysters of 
Louisiana and Mississippi are the best found anywhere in the world; and this 
is universally admitted of its shrimps, of which there are two entirely different 
varieties, — river and lake shrimp. The latter is canned by the ton or dried and 
packed in barrels and sent to all parts of the world, thousands of barrels of them 
going each year to China. The Louisiana orange is the juiciest produced, and 
is declared in Europe to be the best grown anywhere. 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 77 

This brief eniimeration of some of the table delicacies enjoyed in New Or- 
leans will give some idea of the pleasures of the table in this city; and it should 
be further noted that the open season — that in which these delicacies can be 
obtained — much longer than elsewhere, because the closed season — winter 
— is so much shorter. Finally, New Orleans possesses an abundance of good 
cooks, which it owes to its large French population, as the French are the in- 
ventors of the modem cuisine. Its Creole cooks are famous throughout America, 
and Creole cookery is known everywhere as a synonym for all the gourmand de- 
sires. It has given to the world a number of toothsome concoctions, among them 
the gumbo — or rather gumboes, for there are more than a score of combinations — 
the "jambalaya" (something like the Spanish "olla"), the court bouillon, bouil- 
labaisse aiid others. 

Social life in New Orleans is made enjoyable in many ways. The popula- 
tion, being a mixed one, has given to the city a marked cosmopolitanism, so 
that one may live as he chooses — in the French, English, German or American 
style. The city is remarkable, linguistically. While practically its entire pop- 
ulation speaks or understands English, half speak French also, while 15,000 
understand Spanish, as many Italian and even more German. A large propor- 
tion of its population understands more than one language. 

The liasis of the social life is French, derived from the earlier French 
or Creole settlers. To them it owes its gaiety, its love for the theater and opera, 
its public balls, the carnival and similar holidays. It boasts of some of the finest 
clubs in the United States. Its balls, given mainly during the carnival season 
by clubs or associations, have no counterpart anywhere else in the world. It 
is one of the best theatrical cities in the Union ; and in the matter of opera it 
is the only American city with a first-class record. Opera is an institution dating 
back nearly a century. During all that time, except the period of the civil war. 
New Orleans has had its seasons of from three to five months of grand opera ; and 
this has developed and built up an operatic and musical taste which naturally 
does not prevail elsewhere. 

All these things tend to make New Orleans a very pleasant city to live in- — • 
pleasant from tlie standpoint of society, of the table, of its festivities and enjoy- 
ments, its theaters, opera, balls, carnival, etc. 

It has preserved the best features of French and American life. This is an 
advantage, which is not overtopped by the advantages New Orleans enjoys aa a 
commercial and manufacturing city. 



CHAPTER IV. 



MUNICIPAL GOVEENMENT. 
By Noeman Walker. 

THE early history of New Orleans will explain its remarkable municipal 
experiments and changes. This history is different from that of most of 
the other American cities, for New Orleans was under dominations and 
political systems of which they knew nothing. It was at one time a French, 
and at another a Spanish, city ; and while such, conformed to the political usages 
and mujiicipal systems of France and Spain. The cosmopolitanism of the town 
and the presence of a large negro population compelled other modifications in 
its government, unnecessary elsewhere. Again, for long periods of time the city 
was in open or quasi rebellion against the constituted authorities, and its mu- 
nicipal government had to be modified in consequence. The great area over 
which the city was built, the peculiarities of the location, below the level of the 
river and a hundred other incidents resulted in producing conditions which oc- 
curred nowhere else in America, or, for that matter, in the world ; and to meet 
these conditions experiments of vai-ious kinds, some of them the crudest imag- 
inations, were tested from time to time. It can be said of New Orleans 
that every variety of municipal government that has ever been tried anywhere on 
the face of the civilized earth has been tested in the "Crescent City," from the 
centralized government dominated entirely by the State or by the military power, 
to an almost separate and independent municipality. Conseils superieux, cabil- 
dos and municipalities have followed each other in rapid succession. Now the 
French, now the Spanish, now the pretended American form of government has 
been adopted, each of them to last for a few years ; and charter has succeeded 
charter, each radically different from the other. At times, so impossible did it 
seem to reconcile the differences, racial and political, which existed between the 
population of the different districts of New Orleans, that the Legislature in 
despair split the city up into several municipalities or cities, each with an inde- 
pendent government of its own, thereby reverting to the system which prevails 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 79 

in Oriental cities, where the European population lives in a different quarter and 
under different laws and regulations from the Orientals or natives. 

It can be imagined from these facts how interesting the municipal history 
of 'New Orleans must be, especially as in 189C this city secured one of the most 
"up-to-date" and advanced charters possessed by any municipality in the United 
States, and containing in it all the reform provisions inculcated and proposed 
by the Municipal Reform League and other organizations, which have worked 
for the better government of American cities. Perhaps the history of New 
Orleans is lacking in some of the poetry that clings to the earlier colonial story 
of Louisiana as told by Gayarre, but it is rich «nd profitable in all matters of 
economical and mimicipal politics, and teaches a far more valuable lesson than the 
"Romance of Louisiana." 

From 1718 to 1900, New Orleans has passed through several forms of gov- 
ernment, each radically different, as follows : 

1718 to 1767 — Superior Council (French). 

1767 to 1803— Cabildo (Spanish). 

1803 to 1805 — Appointive (temporary). 

1805 to 1836 — Council (American). 

1836 to 1852 — Separate municipalities (American and Creole). 

1852 to 1862 — Council (bi-cameral). 

1862 to 1866— Military (martial law) . 

1866 to 1870 — Council (bi-cameral). 

1872 to 1882 — Administrative (Legislative and executive the same). 

1882 to 1896 — Cameral (one chamber). 

1896 to — Model charter, civil-service reform, etc. 

THE SUPEEIOE COUI^CTI,. 

The first governing body of the city of New Oi'leans was the Superior 
Council, which was created by the King of France, Louis XIV. This Superior 
Council continued, more or less, the governing body of the city during all the 
earlier French days and up to 1767, when Spain took possession of Louisiana 
and substituted for it a Spanish organization, but it changed and modified from 
time to time. It was composed originally of only two persons, the Governor 
and the commissary ordonnateur. This coimcil was subsequently increased to 
three, the Governor's clerk being added to it ; later to six, when it included the 
Governor, commissioner, clerk, chief engineer, military commander and attor- 
ney general. It was still further enlarged in 1732, when the council, besides 



8o STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

those already enumerated officials, included the two lieutenants de roi (lieuten- 
ant governors) and four of the more proiuinent citizens. Finally, in 1742, in 
view of the fact that the litigation before the Superior Council had become so 
great — for the council was not only the governing body of the city, but the su- 
preme court as well, hearing all the higher cases, where the amount in dispute 
exceeded $22 — the Governor and the commissary ordonnateur were in the King's 
letters patent directed to appoint foiir assessors to serve in the Superior Council. 
They ranked after the Councilors proper and their votes were received only 
when the record was referred to them to report on, or when they were called 
upon to complete a quorum, or in a case where the council was equally divided 
upon any question coming before it. 

The Superior Council, however, was not always in control of the govern- 
ment, and was subject to those frequent changes and revolutions which occur in 
countries where pure autocracy prevails. The real governing power was the 
Council of State of France, or rather the King himself who interfered fre- 
quently and arbitrarily in the most trivial matters in the government of 
Xew Orleans. All the laws for New Orleans were framed by this Council of 
State, or rather tl;e King ; and they were often wholly unsuited to tlie country 
to which they Avere applied. Thus, in 1723, among the laws passed by the Coun- 
cil of State for Louisiana and New Orleans, was one punishing with death any 
person who killed a cow or horse belonging to another, and punishing the owner 
of a cow with a fine of 300 livres if he killed it without a pei"mit from the 
government. 

In that same year, 1723, the power of the Superior Council was suppressed 
and remained suppressed for some years. The Council of State had sent over an 
inspector to examine into the condition of affairs in New Orleans. This in- 
spector, de la Chaise, presented a vigorous report in which he showed the 
gross mismanagement existing in the colony. The result of his report was the 
removal of the coimcilors, who were ordered to report in Paris, and the govern- 
ment was given into the hands of the Governor, Perier and the Inspector Gen^ 
eral de la Chaise. These continued in charge imtil tlie India Company sur- 
renderd its charter in 1732. It was a better government than New Orleans had 
had before, though somewhat severe and rigid, and a number of important and 
indeed necessary improvements were made by it for the little city. The most 
important of these was the constiuction of a broad and high levee in front of the 
town and it< foiitiiiuatinii above and below for a distance of eighteen miles. 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 8i 

When tlie city was founded by Bienville, it was believed to be safe from any 
overflow from the river ; but this was soon afterwards discovered to be a mis- 
take, and the frequent floods left the streets in a muddy and almost swampy 
condition for a large part of the time. Levees were therefore absolutely neces- 
sary, and Perier's levee has been kept up ever since. 

Governor Perier also founded for the protection of the city from another 
danger. The jSTatehez massacre had caused a great excitement among the colo- 
nists and there seemed a possibilty that the hostile Indians might descend upon 
Xew Orleans. To protect the city from them or other marauders, it was pro- 
vided with a stockade and with eight small forts. The manner in which public 
works Avere done at that time is well illustrated in the construction of the levee 
and forts. Governor Perier assessed the inhabitants for the work, not in money, 
but fixing how many negro slaves each should contribute to the force at work. 
Their labor was contributed by their owners without charge, but the government 
fed them. At that time there was no tax of any kind and there seemed a com- 
plete ig-norance on the subject of taxation. 

Governor Perier was a man of most progressive ideas for his time and his 
regime saw the passage of the first sanitary ordinance for New Or- 
leans. He arrived at the conclusion that the sickness which prevailed in the 
city during the suimner was due to the dense forests that grew between it and 
Lake Pontchartrain, and which, as he thought, prevented the winds from blowing 
freely from the lake. In order to allow the "proper ventilation of the city" he 
began the gigantic task of removing these forests and put a large force of negro 
slaves at work felling the trees ; but he did not complete the undertaking ; it was 
too great for the time and his resources and the other work he had undertaken. 

He also undertook to construct a canal from 'New Orleans to Bayou St. 
John, so as to connect with Lake Pontchartrain, and pursued the same plan of 
obtaining the necessary labor as with his other improvements assessing the 
OAvners of slaves for as many negroes as he thought each of them could afford 
to contribiite. This improvement also was left uncompleted and not taken up 
again until 1790. 

Governor Perier received special recognition from the government for the 
services which he rendered in the way of public improvements in Xew Orleans, 
and was given, in addition to his regular salary as governor, a large grant of 
land, and as an additional salary eight negroes each year of his term of office. 

The government of the city, at the time, was as far from municipal as it 



82 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

is possible to conceive. The people of 'Nev. Orleans had no hand or part in 
the government of their city, and were in no wise consulted as to it. The police 
power was in the hands of the governor, and was enforced by him through the 
military. There Averc no provisions whatever for the extinguishment of fires ; 
Iwt when a fire occiirred the population was impressed into service to put out 
the flames as best they coiild. There were no engines or other implements that 
could be used, and when a fire became very threatening it was fought by tearing 
do\vn exposed buildings with pikes and halberds borrowed from the arsenal. 

Education was entirely in the hands of the regular authorities, the Ursu- 
lines providing for the education of the girls on the condition that the governor 
general should furnish them with quarters and support, and caring also for the 
hospital, while the Jesuits looked after the boys. 

The lawmaking power was vested in the Council of State or King of France. 
The basis of the laws was what was known as "the custom of Paris," which be- 
came the common law of Louisiana as it was of the other French colonies. This 
common law had been supplemented by statutes passed by the Superior Coun- 
cil, supposed to control local matters. Such, for instance, is the Black Code of 
1724, which bears the signature of Bienville and de la Chaise, and was the first 
system of law adopted for Louisiana and New Orleans. This Black Code gives 
an excellent idea of the political and legislative conditions of the colony at the 
time. 

It makes the Catholic religion the only one to be practiced in New Orleans 
and decrees the expulsion of all Jews from Louisiana. 

It requires masters to impart religious instruction to their negroes, and 
provides that negroes placed \mder the direction or supervision of any person 
who is not a Catholic shall be confiscated. 

It contains a very rigid Simday law, for it declares that Sundays and holi- 
days (saints' days) are to be strictly enforced, and any negroes found working 
on these days were siibject to confiscation. 

It will be seen from these ordinances that the religious sentiment in the 
colony was very strong, and that great care was taken to make Christians and 
Catholics of the slaves. 

It is imnecessary here to go into the other provisions of this law, which 
merely covers the regulation of slavery. The code was less severe than those 
proclaimed in the Southern States later, as indeed the last article (No. 56) may 
be considered a very liberal one for the tiinc, iiroviding tliat "all manumitted 



STANDAUD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 83 

or freed slaves shall enjoy the same rights, privileges and immunities as those 
enjoyed by free-born persons. Their merit in having their freedom shall pro- 
duce in their favor not only in regard to their persons, but also as to their prop- 
erty, the same effects which other subjects deserve from the happy circumstance 
of being born free." This liberal spirit prevailed during most of the French 
regime and long after New Orleans passed under the power of the United States, 
and free negroes were employed on both the police force and the fire depart- 
ment ; nor were they debarred from municipal service until in the days just pre- 
vious to the Civil War, when the abolition movement reached fever heat. But 
the police regulations as to negroes published elsewhere in this article were, as 
will be seen, very severe and harsh. 

The Superior Council when in office represented the judicial department 
of the Governor. In civil cases three members constituted a quorum; in crim- 
inal cases, five. In the event of the proper absence of members (who excused 
themselves because of personal interest in the suit before them) or their absence 
from some other reason, a quorum was obtained by summoning to the council as 
many notable citizens of New Orleans as were needed. Originally the sessions 
■ were monthly, and it vvas afterward provided that two or more members might 
be delegated to meet bi-weekly, when eases were numerous and pressing. The 
council was a court of last resort. Its jurisdiction at the beginning extended 
to original cases ; but later on it was elevated into a jurisdiction purely appellate 
and such tribunals as were found necessary were established. In 1723-24, it 
exercised the powers of police; in 1728 the King assigned to the council the 
supervision of land titles ; and in 1748 the power of the council over land deeds 
was so extended as to allow it to make titles good upon inventories prepared in 
good faith and recorded, although unofficial and informal, when the defects in 
the title were due to the absence or incompleteness of the public officials. 

The legislation was arbitrary and despotic. As shown elsewhere, the gov- 
ernment changed the currency no less than three times, and swindled the people 
each time ; and to j^revent any opposition to its changes it passed severe laws 
against those who refused to accept whatever currency it might issue or who dealt 
in other currency — these offenses, when repeated, being punished l>v jiublic 
whipping upon the bare back. The Council of State also arbitrarily fixed the 
price at which the people should sell tobacco, rice and such products as they 
raised ; assumed absolute control over all commerce, and either operated all in- 
dustries itself or sold the monopoly of dealing in goods. For instance, in 1700 



84 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

the monopoly of printing books and papers in Louisiana was sold to one Braxnl, 
and it was made a penal otTense for any one else to publish a book, pamphlet or 
paper of any kind. 

As for such functions as the government had to perform, they were, in 
nearly all eases, performed badly. The numerous investigations made of the 
local oiBcials closed with nearly the same severe arraignment of the mismanage- 
ment, and indeed corruption, that prevailed. The government, that is, the 
King, found it necessary to interfere again and again to protect the people. He 
did this in the case of the paper money, issued without authority by Governor 
Vaudreuil ; and again in 1760, when, as the ordinance declares, the mails had 
been so tampered with and so many letters opened, lost or misappropriated, that 
it became necessary to take some action to protect the inhabitants, in consequence 
of which it was provided that any officials tampering with the mail should be 
punished by a fine of 500 livres. 

The local authorities were limited to police regulations. Those adopted in 
1751 by Governor Vaudreuil and de la Rouvilliere, at that time Commissary 
General and Intendant, were practically the laws governing Xew Orleans dur- 
ing the entire French regime. 

By these police regulations six taverns or barrooms were allowed in Xew 
Orleans. N^one but these licensed taverns could sell liquor, under a penalty to the 
seller of one month's imi)risonment,a fine of ten crowns in favor of the poor, and a 
confiscation of all the liquors found in the house violating this regulation, the 
money derived therefrom to be paid into the King's treasury. The six li- 

censed taverns, however, were subject to many restrictions in the sale of liquor. 
They could sell only to travelers, sick people, residents of Xew Orleans and sea- 
faring men; and they must do this "with requisite moderation." To sell liquor 
to a soldier, a negro or an Indian was to subject the tavern-keeper, thus violat- 
ing the law, to a fine of ten crowns, sentence to the i>illory, confiscation of all 
wines and liquors found in the house, and for a repetition of the oifense, to be 
sent to the galleys for life. It is doubtful if there was ever a more severe liquor 
law in America. 

All saloons were required to be closed on Sunday and other holidays during 
divine service, under penalty of having their licenses repealed, and must be 
closed at 9 at night. The licenses cost 300 livres each, 200 of which amount 
went "to the ecclesiastical treasury," which, it is naively remarked, "needs verv 



STANDARD HISTORY UF NEW ORLEANS. 85 

m\\e\\ such relief," while the other hundred livres went to the maintenance of 
the poor of New Orleans, "who are in a great state of destitution." 

The soldiers, ho-\vever, were not only altogether shnt off from drinking, Imt 
were required to patronize different establishments from the resident popula- 
tion and thus present trouble between themselves and the civilians. Two mili- 
tary barrooms were established ; they would be called "canteens" to-day. One of 
them was under the control and management of the major in command of the 
troops at JSTew Orleans, and the other under the captain commanding the Swiss 
company ; for, as always imder the Bourbons, a considerable portion of the gar- 
rison were composed of Swiss. The residents of New Orleans were prohibited 
from drinking at the canteens, as also were sailors, travelers, negroes and In- 
dians. The last two races were altogether denied the right of drinking liquor 
at any saloon or cabane whatever. The police i-egulations punished those who 
sold liquor to negToes, declared to be "tramps" those who had deserted tlicii- 
plantations and had come to New Orleans without permission, and ordei-ed tlirir 
return to the coimtry. 

The regulations as negroes were very severe. Parties, dances and assem- 
blages of all kinds were prohibited. They could go nowhere on the strict, 
whether by day or night, without a pass which they had to show to any white 
person who claimed the right to look at it. Perhaps the most severe provision 
was one similar to a custom which prevails in the Transvaal Republic to-day — 
that "any negro who shall be met in the streets carrying a cane, a rod or a stick 
shall be chastised by the first white man who may meet hiiu, Avith the instru- 
ment found in the jx)ssession of the negro — that is, the cane, stick or rod." Any 
negro found on horseback who did not stop when ordered to do so by a white 
man "shall be shot." Any negro who shall offend his master, "in any way what- 
soever," shall be punished with fifty lashes and branded with "the fleur-de-lys 
in the back," in order to make known the nature of the crime." These regula- 
tions Avere made after a negro insurrection which had greatly alarmed the whites. 

The severity of these and other laws passed in the colony was more ap]!:!- 
rent than real. It would seem that Draco was alive again, when the killing of 
a calf meant death, the sale of liquor to soldiers or Indians imi^risonment fur 
life in the gallej's, and when a negro could be shot doAvn by any white man who 
met him stealing a ride on a horse. As a matter of fact, these laws 
were seldom, if ever, enforced. They were mere dead letters — all sound and 
fury, and nothing else. 



86 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

It canot be said that !N^e\v Orleans made much progress towards municipal 
government during the French regime. The severity of its police. ordinances 
was slightly mitigated from time to time, and some improvements were made 
in its judiciary system, but the government remained autocratic and arbitrary, 
and the people themselves had little part or share in it. 

THE CABILDO. 

With the Spanish dominion, a radical change was made from the French 
to the Spanish system. The Superior Council was abolished and the Cabildo 
was established. In the redistribution of the powers of administering the laws 
a much larger share of the power passed into the hands of the military and ec- 
clesiastical representatives of the cro\vni and church — as is always the case in 
Spanish countries— while the Cabildo, which may be regarded as representing 
the civil poM'er, was given far fewer privileges than its predecessor, the Supe- 
rior Council, had enjoyed. 

The Cabildo consisted of ten members, in addition to the governor and a 
secretary, called the escribando. The governor was, ex-oiScio, president, presid- 
ing at all meetings. There were two classes of membership in the Cabildo. One 
class, consisting of six members, acquired their seats by purchase and held office 
for life ; the other class, consisting of four, were elected annually on the first of 
each year, the retiring members participating in this ballot. They were re- 
quired to be residents of Xew Orleans and householders. They coidd not be re- 
elected to the Cabildo until they had been out of office two years, except by a 
unanimous vote. All the financial officers of the colony, as well as their bonds- 
men, were prohibited from election to the Cabildo, as well as those under 26 
years of age or who had ouly recently became converted to the Catholic faith. 

From the Cabildo, two members were elected alcaldes ordinaries, or judges, 
who probably were the most important officers. The alcaldes held court — each 
a separate court — daily in the town hall, having jurisdiction over all cases, civil 
and criminal, where the amount in dispute did not exceed $20, thus correspond- 
ing to the recorders and justices of the peace of a later day. The alcaldes ordi- 
naries also held evening court at their residences, at which only oral decisions 
were rendered. Their judgments were subject to appeal in all civil cases. 
They had no jurisdiction over any one connected with the military or ecclesias- 
tical branches of the government, all such matters being given to the ecclesias- 
tical and military tribunals. 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 87 

Another of the four elective members of the Cabildo were called the sindico- 
procurador general, or attorney general syndic, who acted as the official repre- 
sentative of the i>eople in the deliberations of the Cabildo. He was the prose- 
cuting officer against the town; he sued for revenues and other debts due the 
city ; and he was present at all apportionments of lands. 

The fourth elective officer was the mayor domo proprios, or municipal 
treasurer, who paid out money on the warrants of the Cabildo and who gave at 
the end of the year, when his term of office expired, a full account of the revenues 
and expenses of the city. 

The rest of the memberships in the Cabildo were obtained by purchase, and 
it is probably the only instance in the history of American cities where the offices 
were put up for sale — at least openly, although stories have been frequently told 
of their purchase at private sale by prominent politicians. The seats in the Ca- 
bildo were sold by auction to the highest bidder. When a citizen who had pur- 
chased a seat in the Cabildo died, his heirs were allowed to use it, provided half 
the price of the transfer and one-third of the price of subsequent sales were 
turned into the royal treasury. 

In these six seats sat the six regidors or administrators, the first of whom 
held the honorary office of Alferez real, or royal standard-bearer. The Alferez 
real was without official function, except in the case of the death or absence of 
one of the Alcades, when he filled the vacancy. He also enjoyed the great priv- 
ilege of carrying the royal standard in parades. 

The second regidor was A Icalde mayor provincial, or extra muros, a magis- 
trate who had jurisdiction over offenses and misdemeanors committed outside 
the limits of the city, and with power and authority to overtake and capture 
those seeking to escape to the rural districts — such, for instance, as runaway 
slaves or fugitives from justice. 

The third regidor was Alcuazil mayor, and acted as sheriff, superintendent 

of police and prisons; but the police did not exist until the last days of Spanish 

rule. 

Two other regidors were deposidores general, or keeper and dispenser of 

government stores; and recebidor de penas de camarara — receiver of fines and 
penalties. The sixth regidor had no special duty or assignment. 

The Cabildo met every Friday in the town hall, or Jackson Square, which, 
from the body sitting there then, has earned for itself the title of Cabildo to this 
day. It sat both as a council and as a court — in the latter case as a court of 
appeal from the decisions of the alcaldes ordinaries, through two of the 



.88 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

regidors chosen bv it, with the Alcaldes who had rendered the judgment appealed 
from, but only when the judgment was for less than $350. Cases involving 
larger sums were assigned specially by the king to such tribunal as he selected. 
The Cabildo had the right to fix the price of provisions, to sell the privilege of pro- 
vidingthe city with meat, and many other petty privileges permitted municipal- 
ities under the Spanish rule. 

Appeals from the decisions of the Cabildo were carried to a special court 
in Cuba, or even to Madrid itself, if the matter was one of importance. 

All matters aifecting the soldiers and ecclesiastics were carried before a 
military or ecclesiastical tribunal, and judged by the fueros militares or fueros 
eclesiasticos. In civil matters the ordinary laws of Spain were in force — the 
reeopilaciones of Castile, the fuero viejo, fuero jurico, partidas and accordados. 

The governor exercised a certain control and power over the Cabildo very 
similar to the power exercised by the mayor of the city in later days ; and no 
appropriation could be made by this municipal council, save for the most trifling 
and necessary expenses, without a permit from him. 

The imderlying design of the Spanish government in establishing the Ca- 
bildo was to so scatter the power in the hands of the royal and government officials 
as to neutralize its possibility for harm. After the experience of Spain with 
the old Sui^erior Coimcil, which had rejected the government of the Spanish, 
that power was determined that it would never again have that trouble to 
face ; and it therefor created a council which had its hands tied and could do little 
or nothing. 

The first Cabildo of New Orleans met December 1st, 1769, Governor 
O'Reilly acting as President. It included Francisco Maria Reggio, Pedro Fran- 
cisco Olivier de Vezin, Carlos Juan Bautista Fleurian, Antonio Bienvenu, Jose 
Ducros and Dyosio Brand. Juan Bautista Garic, who had been secretary of the 
old Superior Council, bought the office of secretary of the Cabildo. 

Reggio was Alferez real, or royal standard-bearer ; Fleurian, Alcuazil may- 
or, or sheriff^ ; Ducros was receiver of supplies ; Bienvenu, receiver of fines and 
penalties ; and de Yezin, principal Alcalde provincial, or extra muros. 

It is not stated how much the purchasers of the office of regidor paid for 
the honor ; but some years afterwards, when Bienvenu, who was one of the regi- 
dors, (lied, the position was bought from liis heirs by Fagot de la Garinere for 
$1,400, money being then worth al)out five times its present value. 



STANDARD HISTOEY OF NEW OELEANS. 89 

Besides the offices already mentioned, the government included a treasurer, 
a eontador or comptroller, a storekeeper and purveyor, a surveyor-general, three 
notaries and a cashier. 

The Cabildo met January 1, 1770, and elected as Alcaldes ordinarios the 
principal officers in the city, de la Chaise and St. Denys. They were succeeded 
as follows : 

1771 — Chabert and Forstall. 

1772 — Amelot and Chevalier de Villiers. 

1773 — Duplessis and Doriocourt. 

1774 — Forstall and Chabert. 

1775 — Dufossat and Duplessis. 

1776 — D'Ernonville and Livandais. 

1777 — Forstall and Chevalier de Villiers. 

1778 — Navarro and Dufossat. 

1780 — Piernas and Duverger. 

1783 — Le Breton and Morales. 

1785 — Forstall and Kernion. 

1786 — Orne and Dufossat. 

1787 — Cliabert and Reggio. 

1788 — Foucher and Argotte. 

1790 — Ortega and Almonaster. 

1791^ — Marigny de Mandeville and de la Pena. 

1794 — Serano and Daunoy. 

1795 — Loris and Pontalba. 

1796 — Perez and de la Chaise. 

1798 — Serano and Argotte. 

1800— Perez and Poyfarre. 

1802 — Forstall and Cassergues. 

1803 — Forstall and Lanusse. 

The clerks of the council were Garic, Rodriguez and Mazange. 

In 1790 the number of regidors were increased by six, on the ground of the 

large increase in population of the city. 

In organizing the Cabildo, Governor O'Reilly prepared the schedules of 
rules and regulations fixing the powers of the several officers. These rules and 
regidations were, to all intents and purposes, the charter of the city. They 
are very full and complete, covering even the minutest details. 

Few changes occurred in the government of the city during the Spanish 
rule. This, as iisual with Spain, was of a most conservative character. 



90 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

It will be noticed from the names of the members of the Cabildo that the 
Spaniards were glad to have the French Creoles take part in the city government 
of New Orleans. The provincial government, which was more important and 
had greater power, was, however, restricted to Spaniards alone. In the last dec- 
ade of Spanish rule the two Alcaldes ordinaries were iisually divided between 
the French and Spanish population. 

On taking possession of the government in 1786, Miro issued his baiido de 
buen gobierno. This is the proclamation which the governor of a Spanish colony 
generally issues when taking possession, making known the principles under 
which he proposes to operate and the public ordinances he proposes to enforce. 
These ordinances, in brief, were as follows : ISTo labor of any kind on Sunday 
or other public holidays ; all stores and shops to be closed during the hours of 
divine service ; no dance of slaves in the public squares during church time ; a 
warning to "women of the town" not to pay "excessive attention to dress ;" 
women of color (mulattOes) foi-bidden to wear jewelry or pliunes, and required 
to wear handkerchiefs or turbans (tignons) aroimd their head so as to distinguish 
them from the whites ; gambling and duelling prohibited ; rigorous prohibitimi of 
the carrying of dirks, pistols and other weapons (up to that time the better class 
of the population had been accustomed to wearing their swords, as in France) ; 
no meetings of negroes allowed at night ; no person allowed to leave or enter the 
city without passports; those leaving the colony required to give security 
for the payment of their debts; all persons reaching !N"ew Orleans required 
to present themselves at once at the government house and obtain a permit to 
remain in the city ; all public meetings prohibited without a permit from the 
governor ; all walking out at night prohibited, except in cases of necessity, and not 
even then unless the walker carried a lantern (it was not until some years later 
that the city provided street lamps) ; no houses or apartments to be leased to a 
slave; saloonkeepers required to close their saloons at regular hours, and pro- 
hibited from selling wine to soldiers, negi'oes or Indians ; purchases from soldiers, 
Indians, convicts or slaves prohibited ; hogs prohibited from running at large 
in the streets of the city, and the number of dogs to be kept by a citizen was 
limited. Measures were also taken to guard against conflagrations, for draining 
the streets and keeping the public landing on the levee unobstructed. 

These ordinances, which it will be seen, are those of a very primitive com- 
pany, about illustrate the municipal and police government of New Orleans dur- 
ing Spanish rule, when the governor did not hesitiate to interfere in the most 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 91 

private concerns, even as in Italy during the Middle Ages, in the dress of the 
people, particularly that of the women. 

The hando de buen gobierno issued by Governor Carondelet in 1792 was 
very similar to that of Miro. He, however, took the slaves more into considera- 
tion and issued a number of provisions in their favor, fixing the amount of food 
they were to be furnished with and the clothing to receive. He forbid their 
being given more than twenty-five lashes at one time, and provided that 
their Sundays belonged to them when they could not be compelled to work 
for their masters except in urgent cases, and must then receive pay for their 
services. It was the most liberal treatment they had ever received — far more 
liberal than they received afterwards. 

The most important changes were made under the administration of Gov- 
ernor Carondelet in 1792, when the presence of the Americans in the colony be- 
gan to be felt. He divided the to^vn into four wards, placing an Alcalde de 
Barrios with a commissary of police over each ward, with official control of fire 
engines, firemen and axmen. He appointed policemen, provided first for the 
lighting of the streets with lamps. In 1796 there were thirteen serenos, or night 
watchmen, in the city, and eighty street lamps. The expense of these improve- 
ments was borne by a chimney tax of nine reales ($1.12^) on every chimney. 
This tax being found insufficient, another levy was substituted for it — a tax on 
wheat bread and meat. 

The many important public improvements made in the city under Caron- 
delet were made on an entirely different basis from those instituted by the early 
French and Spanish governors. The latter had compelled the inhabitants to fur- 
nish them negro slaves for the purposes of work. Carondelet tried a different 
plan of taxing them. In the matter of the fortifications erected around the 
city, which were then considered necessary, for the situation was growing rather 
threatening in the Southwest, he regarded the expense as belonging properly 
to Spain, and the people of New Orleans were required to contribute nothing, 
but merely to keep up the fortifications. The expenses of light, police, etc., etc., 
were borne by the inhabitants, being raised by a tax on chimneys and food. 



92 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

The resources of the citj at the time, that is, for the hist year of Spanish 
rule, 1802, were as follows: 

Hire of stalls in the meat market $ 2,350 

Tax on beef, seven-eighths of a dollar 3,325 

Tax on veal, niuttoii or pork, on each carcass 1,200 

Hire of stalls in the vegetable and fish market 1,383 

Tax on bread, half a dollar a barrel on flour baked in the city* 2,800 

Licenses, $40 on barrooms, $20 on lodging houses, and $40 on billiard 

tables 3,500 

Port charges, $3 on all ships at anchorage except American shippingf. • 500 

Tax on Tafia (rum), $2 per pipe 800 

Ground rent on great square 132 

Rent of the old market house, then used as a ball room and gaming house 1,800 

Ground rents on the square opposite the hospital 693 

Moveable shops and stalls (peddlers) 360 

Tax on vessels entering Bayou St. Jean, $1 a vessel 470 

Total revenue $19,278 

This table gives the basis upon which the city revenue was raised for many 
years afterwards. As in France and Spain, the principal dependence was on 
the tax on food and the revenues from markets and licenses. These indeed pro- 
duced three-fourths of the total revenue. The direct tax on real estate and 
personal property, capital, houses and furniture was altogether ignored. 

The expenditures are equally interesting, although not given in the accoimts 
of the time as completely and fully. They were : 

Commission of five per cent, to treasurers for all siims received by them $ 

Salaries of regidors, about $5 a month 350 

Salary of clerk of council 200 

Salary of porters (who collected the licenses) 420 

Salary of sergeant (head of the street repairing department) 144 

Salary of corporal (who superintended street cleaning) 144 

City crier 144 

City executioner 180 

Lighting the city, including 14 watchmen (serenos), who were also lamp- 
lighters 2,980 

No itemized account was kept of the other expenses, such as cleaning and 
repairing the streets, etc. 

• It was recognized that the bakers swindled the municipality in this matter, and did not 
pay their full dues. 

"t This money was received to keep the wharves in order. 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 93 

The Cabiklo and the Spanish system remained in force until the cession of 
Louisiana to France. When Laussat, the French Intendant of Louisiana, took 
possession of the colony in 1803, he abolished the Cabildo, or old Spanish council, 
and established in its place a regular municipal government. Etienne de Bore, 
the first of the Louisiana sugar-planters, was chosen as mayor, and the council 
vas composed of Villere, Fortier, Jones, Donalson, Faurie Allard, Trideaux and 
Watkins — five Creoles and three Americans. The secretary of the council Avas 
Derbigny, and the treasurer, Labatut. This government was intended merely as 
a stop-gap until a charter could be obtained for the city from the Territorial leg- 
islature ; but it continued in office more than two years. De Bore, however, re- 
signed and Pierre Petit succeeded him as mayor pro tern. 

CITY CHAKTEK. 

Although the bill for the incorporation of the City of New Orleans had been 
introduced in the legislature as early as 1803, it was not passed until February 
17, 1805. The city included then what are now the first, second and third mu- 
nicipal districts and some territory on the west bank of the river. Under the 
charter the government was placed in the hands of a mayor, treasurer, re- 
corder, and a city council of fourteen aldermen, apportioned among the several 
wards as follows, until a census of the city could be taken, when the aldermen 
were to be apportioned according to population, one for each 700 inhabitants : 

Ward. Aldermen. 

1 — Canal to Conti 2 

2 — Conti to St. Peter 2 

3 — St. Peter to St. Philip 2 

4— St. Philip to Esplanade 2 

5 — Faubourg Marigny (third district) 2 

6 — Faubourg St. Marie (first district) 2 

7 — Upper portion of city (now part of first ward of New Orleans) .... 1 

8 — Settlements on Bayou St. Jean 1 

The election was held in March, and resulted in the choice of James Pitot 
as major, and the following aldermen : 

Ward. Aldermen. 

1 — Felix Arnauld and James Garriek. ' 

2 — Francis Duple_ssis and Joseph Faurie. i 

3 — Col. Bellechasse and Guy Dreux. 

4 — Antoine Arzotte and La Bertoimiere. 

5 — Thomas L. Harman and P. Lavergne. 

7 — Perez. 

8 — Guerin. 



94 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

The city government thus organized was largely on the model of other 
American municipalities. It was decidedly more American than French, and 
contained very few of the principles of Spanish municipal government, save 
in the control of the markets, licenses, fixing the price of bread, meat and other 
products. On account of the small revenue of the city, it often ran behind in its 
expenses, and more than once the salaries, from the mayor down, had to be cut 
in order to meet the deficit. 

The mayor exercised the usual powers of a chief magistrate. He presided 
over the council ; he was the head of the police and fire departments. Both of 
these were largely volunteer. There was a small force of watchmen (the city 
guard), ill paid ($20 a month) ; but the services of policing was done by the 
militia (the militia patrol), and an attcnipt was made to organize a force of 
firemen. It is noticeable, as showing the condition of affairs then prevailing, 
so different from what it was a few years afterwards, that a large proportion of 
both the jwlice and firemen were free negroes. 

James Pitot had been elected mayor in ^larch, 1S04, but served only until 
July, 1805, wlien he was succeeded by Dr. John Watkins. On March 9, 1807, 
James Mather became mayor and served until 1812, when Nicholas Girod was 
elected by a vote of 859 out of 1,411. Pierre Meissonier was elected re- 
corder at the time. On September 4, 1815, Augustin Macarty, a creole of Irish 
descent, was elected to the mayoralty. 

The new government went energetically to work to improve the city, taking 
up the work where Gov. Carondelet, who had been the most progressive of the 
Spanish governors, had left off. An order was issued by it in 1805, requiring 
the laying of banquettes, or side-walks, with which, up to that time, very few of 
the streets, save in the center of the tovm, were provided. It was required that 
these banquettes should be at least five feet wide, with curbs of cypress and the 
pavement of wood, brick or masonry. 

In 1810 a still greater improvement was begun, one Louis Gleises obtaining 
the right to establish water-works, which would not only provide the inhabitants 
with such drinking water as they needed, but would be of assistance in the ex- 
tinguishment of fires. 

The city charter of 1805 lasted thirty-one years — imtil 1836 — a longer 
period than any subsequent charter. It must not be imagined, however, that 
during all that time it remained unchanged. On the contrary, there was scarcely 
a session of the legislature in M-hich some important modifications and changes 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 95 

M-erc not made, in the vain attempt to straighten out matters and overcome the 
difficulties and jirejudices which, from the very start, threatened the new gov- 
ernment, and which finally resulted in the repeal of the city charter and the sub- 
stitution of an entirely new government, built on radically different foundations. 
The difficulties that faced the government were racial. The great majority of 
the population of New Orleans at the time of its purchase by the United States 
was Creole French. The Spanish government had humored the race, and na- 
tional sentiment of the native j^opulation, and while it held a tight hand on the 
colony, it allowed the Creoles control of local affairs, or at least appeared to do 
so. While Spanish became the official language, French was also permitted, 
and the deliberations of the Cabildo were conducted in that language. The an- 
nextion of Louisiana to the United States brought in a new race, the American, 
speaking a new tongue, known to very few of the native population, and there 
was a more or less natural clash between the two races. 

The Creoles objected to the introduction of English, which so few of them 
tmderstood, as the official language of the city, and especially that the governor, 
Claiborne, did not imderstand their tongue, the French. They complained of 
a large number of Americans appointed to the now courts and offices instead of 
these positions being filled by natives of New Orleans, and they asserted that 
the new courts showed favoritism to Americans in their decisions. Other causes 
of objection to the new dominion was the foi*mation of American military com- 
panies and their indiscreet parades in the public streets, the interference of the 
American authorities with the public balls, Avhich were one of the chief amuse- 
ments of the Creoles, and the scarcity of money. The principal currency in use 
in Louisiana under the Spanish had been Mexican dollars. These ceased to be 
imported when the Spanish loft, and there was, consequently, a scarcity of cur- 
rency, until Louisiana could put a new and American banking system into opera- 
tion. 

The two races did not fuse well at first. In the early days of the American 
dominion those Am.ericans who had immigrated to New Orleans settled in the city 
proper, the vieiix carre of Bienville ; but that section is limited in area, and the 
rents demanded were so high that most of the immigrants after 1815 moved 
into Faubourg St. Marie beyond the walls, which had been of old the Jesuit 
plantation, and which is to-day the first municipal district of New Orleans. 
These people complained that the American section of the city was greatly neg- 
lected for the Creole portion, and that the public revenues were expended almost 



96 STANDARD IIISTOEY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

entirely in the improvement of the city proper and none in the suburbs. As 
the Creoles were in a large voting majority in the city and possessed three-fourths 
of the members of the city council, they found this easy enough — indeed they 
were in complete control of the municipality. Against this condition of affairs 
the American element frequently appealed, and finally secured, in 1836, what 
they aimed at — a division of the city. 

During these years of Creole supTemacy, "New Orleans grew rapidly in 
wealth, commerce and population. Many important public improvements were 
made, especially in the city proper; but it cannot be said that the improvements 
kept up with the progress made by he city in other directions. 

In 1817, in the face of much skepticism on account of the yielding nature 
of the soil, the first cobble-stone pavement was laid — on Gravier and Magazine, in 
the new American section. Previous to that the streets had all been unpaved — 
dirt or mud streets. In 1820 the wooden sidewalks and curbs gave way, in the 
main thoroughfare, to others of brick and stone. In 1822 a general paving of 
the commercial streets was begun in both the old and new quarters. This im- 
provement boom did not last long, however, and up to 1835, although there had 
been a second improvement movement in 1832-4, only two streets in the city had 
been paved any considerable distance. 

Still less had been done in the matter of drainage and sanitation. Be- 
tween 1835 and 1838, a natural drain in the rear of the American section was 
improved and deepened into Melpomene Canal. In 1836 a municipal draining 
company began operations with a draining machine on Bayou St. John, but it 
drained only a very small portion of the city even in that neighborhood. 

THE THEEE MUNICIPALITIES. 

The strife between the American and the Creole had, during all that time, 
continued to call forth exhortations from the governors against jealousies and 
party spirit with reference to the accidental circumstance of language and birth. 
These prejudices culminated in 1836, when the legislature, principally in re- 
sponse to the appeals of the American section in New Orleans, repealed the 
charter of the city and provided for an entirely new municipal organization, the 
like of which has never been seen in the country, save, perhaps, in the charter 
of (Greater) New York. The latter is very similar, in some respects, 
to that of New Orleans in 1836. To prevent racial ill feeling the city was di- 



STANDABD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 97 

viJcd into tlircc iiumicipalities, each with a separate government of its own ami 
independent power, but with a mayor and a general council (composed of tlie 
coimcils of the three municipalities) over the whole city. 

The old town, the "city i>roper," as it is called in the charter (and what is 
now the second municipal district), formed the first miuiicipality, the bulk of its 
population being Creoles or French. 

The Faubourg St. Marie, what is now the first municipal district and above 
the city proper, formed the second municipality. 

The Faubourg Marigny, what is now the third municipal district and below 
the city, formed the third municipality. 

The first municipality composed the first, second, third, and fourth wards of 
New Orleans as it existed in 1836 ; the second municipality, the sixth and seventh 
wards ; and the third municipality, the fifth ward. Each of the municipali- 
ties was governed by a recorder and a council of aldermen elected by 
wards. The councils were composed as follows : First municipality — 12 alder- 
men, 3 from each of its four wards ; second municipality — first ward, Ganal to 
Poydras, 4 aldermen ; second ward, Poydras to Calliope, 2 aldermen ; third ward, 
Calliope to upper end of city, 2 aldemien ; total 8 aldermen ; third municipality 
— first ward, Esplanade to Marigny, 2 aldermen ; second ward, Marigny to Eng- 
hien, 2 aldermen ; third ward, Enghien to Lafayette, 2 aldermen ; fourth ward, 
below Lafayette, 1 alderman ; total, 7 aldermen. 

The municipalities had complete control of all their local affairs, paving, 
improvements, etc. ; they could fix taxes and issue bonds, which they did quite 
actively. 

The recorders of the several municipalities performed all the duties of 
magistrates, and were conservators of the peace. 

Once a year, on the first of May, the general council, which was com- 
posed of the aldermen from the several municipalities, met in the City Hall of 
the city proper on Jackson Square, and attended to such matters as belonged to 
the city as a whole, that is, to all the municipalities. The division of powers 
between the general council and the separate municipal councils, was on much 
the same lines as that between the Federal and the State governments. The gen- 
eral council enjoyed only such powers as were specially delegated to it ; all other 
municipal powers belonged to the several municipalities. The general council, 
for instance, had control of all matters relating to wharfage rates, charges and 
dues, and all licenses. It had the care and control of the police and supervision 



98 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

over all incorporated companies, and it was its duty to provide for the salary of 
the mayor. 

The parish prison, which was situated in the city proper, was the 
property equally of all the municipalities, who could use it on paying pro rata 
for its maintenance. The revenues derived from the licenses on drays were to 
1)0 divided among the several municipalities in proportion to the amount of reve- 
nue collected by each. The old debt was similarly divided, that is, the share 
which each municipality was to assume was estimated on the bases of its reve- 
nues. 

A further provision was that all rules and ordinances of the old city should 
continue in force in all the municipalities until repealed by any of them. 

The division of the city into three municipalities seemed to give an im- 
petus to public improvement, the three councils competing with each other to see 
which could make the most progress. The next few years, therefore, chronicle 
a great advance in all respects. The city was provided with water-works and 
gas. The year 1837 saw the completion of the new canal, which gave the second 
: municipality (the American city) connection with Lake Pontchartrain, the con- 
struction of the Merchant's Exchange, St. Charles Hotel, St. Louis Hotel and a 
number of large and influential banks. The progress was slightly checked soon 
after by the big panic of 1837. 

The division of New Orleans into three cities continued until 1852, when 
the animosities between the Creoles and Americans had disappeared, The ne- 
cessity for union had, by that time, become apparent. The city finances, for 
instance, had been badly managed and a large debt created, confusion prevailed 
in nearly all branches, and, as the report of the commissioners declared, "the 
people were disheartened." 

A BI-CAMEKAL COUNCIL. 

The legislature in 1852 repealed the charter of the three mimicipalities and 
consolidated them into one. On the same day it annexed the City of Lafayette, 
now the fourth municipal district of New Orleans, which had grown up just 
above the city limits. The debt of the three municipalities and Lafayette at the 
time was $7,700,000, of which $2,000,000 was over due. Commissioners of the 
consolidated debt were appointed, who soon straightened out this confusion and 
]iiit the debt on a better basis. Throiigh the improved credit of the city some 
$5,000,000 of this indebtedness was extinguished, and in 1853, one year after the 
consolidation, tlie liondcd debt of the city wa? given as only $3,000,000. 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 99 

The new city government was bi-cameral — with two chambers, one of alder- 
men and the other of assistant aldermen. The former were elected by municipal 
districts, which were then fixed by the charter, and have remained unchanged 
up to this day. The assistant aldermen were chosen by the wards, of which 
eleven were created, and which also remain unchanged. The representation 
was as follows: Aldermen — first district, 5; second, -i ; third, 2; fourth, 2; 
total, 13. Assistant aldermen — first ward, 2; second, 3; third, 6; fourth, 3; 
fifth, 3 ; sixth, 2 ; seventh, 2 ; eighth, 2 ; ninth, 1 ; tenth, 2 ; eleventh, 1 ; total, 25. 
Besides the aldermen there was a mayor, who was ex officio chief of police, and 
M'ho received a salary of $4,000 a year ; a controller, 3ur%'eyor and street commis- 
sioner. The city election was held in March. 

This municipal system continued eighteen years, until 1870; but a consid- 
erable portion of that time it was under suspension, because of the civil war, dur- 
ing which period New Orleans was imder martial law and the municipal affairs 
were administered by the military authorities. Considerable modifications 
were made in the city charter in 1S5G, with reference to assessments and taxa- 
tion ; and in 1866, in order to provide for the reorganization of the civil govern- 
ment, which had so long been suspended. 

During the military occupation of New Orleans^ a military officer was de- 
tailed by the commandant to act as mayor of the city, but possessed little real 
power. Such municipal matters as required attention were performed by a 
finance committee and a committee on streets and landing. The street-cleaning 
v.-as attended to by the military authorities, and was well done. A new depart- 
ment of the municipality had sprung up in consequence of the war: this was 
some provision for the poor. The suspension of commerce and of all industries 
had greatly increased the number of the }X)or in New Orleans, and the situation 
was made worse by the large number of negroes who fled to New Orleans to seek 
refuge within the Union lines. These people had to be fed, and public markets 
were provided, whence free rations were distributed. The money Jieccssary 
therefor was obtained in fines and assessments levied on the banks and other cor- 
porations, and even on private individuals, for assistance given by them to the 
Confederate cause. 

THE ADMINISTRATIVE SYSTEM. 

In 1870, another experiment was made in city government by the establish- 
ment of what is known as the "administrative system." The government of 
the municipality was vested in a mayor and seven administrators elected on a 

L.ofC. 



loo STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

general ticket. Eacli of these administrator? presided over a separate depart- 
ment of the city government. They were severally administrators of finance 
(about equivalent to comptroller), commerce, improvements (similar to a com- 
missioner of public works), assessments, police, public accounts (treasurer), 
water works and public buildings. Some of these titles were more or less 
absurd and did not cover the duties of the office held by the administrator. Thus 
the city had practically no control over assessments and there was no reason why 
it should have an administrator of assessments, and as it parted with its conti-ol 
of the water-works in 1877 there was equally little reason why it should have 
an administrator of v/ater-works. However, each administrator had certain 
executive duties to perform. The mayor and the seven administrators were con- 
stituted a city council for local purposes, thus combining the executive and leg- 
islative branches of government in one body. 

This council was too small to have committees, and each administrator was 
allowed freedom in his special department. Weekly meetings of the council 
M'ere held to consider general municipal matters ; but they were, from the very 
small number of members, necessarily of a somewhat informal character. 

Judge W. W. Howe, in his "Municipal Government of New Orleans," ex- 
presses the opinion that the administrative system, 1870-82, was the best the 
city had ever had. This view, however, it is difficult to accept, and Judge Howe's 
opinion was probably based on the fact that the municipal government of New 
Orleans was exceptionally bad at the time he wrote his pamphlet. The admin- 
istrative system had the advantage of compactness and of working quickly. 
There was no dauger of a conflict between the legislative and administrative 
branches, as is so frequently the case in American cities. The administrators 
fully understood the legislation coming before them, and vice versa, since they 
first made laws for themselves and then carried them out. It is admitted that 
the conncilmanic system is slow and cumbrous ; but it is sometimes wise to 
"go slowly" in legislation, and to give the people time to consider and pass on 
public matters. The new system was naturally more secret, and the people knew 
less of what was going on. Several scandals occurred ; and whether from the 
form of government or from other causes, the municipality drojDjjed behind and 
surrendered many of the functions of a city government. It would be unJTist 
to attribute this decay wholly to the several city governments which adminis- 
tered the affairs of New Orleans between 1870 and 1882. The city was decay- 
ing in many other ways during that period. It had lost heavily in commerce 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. loi 

and business, in consequence of the civil war, and overflow and pestilence. The 
general panic of 1877-8 cut down values and reduced the assessment and revenue 
far below what it had been for years. The lowest depth was reached in 1880, 
when assessments fell to $91,117,918. Moreover, during most of this 
period the city was at the mercy of the legislature, which i^layed shuttlecock with 
it, changing its boundaries, rearranging its courts, and constantly tampering 
with its bonds and indebtedness. Finally a low condition of political morality 
was prevalent, which, while it was far worse in the State government, yet more or 
less reflected itself in the municipal government. 

But aside from these outside influences, the municipality of 'Sew Orleans 
seemed to be drifting backwards. It lost conti'ol of the water-works in 1877, 
it being sho\\'n that the city was unable to administer them without loss; it sur- 
rendered control of its wharves and leased them out to a jirivate company. The 
necessity for this action was recognized by all, as the wharves had got into a 
thoroughly bad condition \mder the city government, and it became obvious that 
the city could not prop)erly administer them. 

The treatment of the city debt was equally bad. The debt was made up of 
various kinds of bonds, differently guaranteed, bearing different rates of interest 
and wholly different in their character. The conflict between the consolidated 
bonds and premium bonds, which were supported by different administrations, 
led to a great deal of litigation and brought discredit on the city's bonds, some 
of which sold at less than twenty-three cents on the dollar. Finally the 
city's credit got so bad, and so many judgments were outstanding against it, 
that the creditors searched right and left to find public property subject to 
seizure, and even threatened to seize the parish prison and public markets. 
The tax rate of the city, which had been 1.5 per cent, in 18G0, and 1 per cent, 
during the greater part of the Civil War, rose to 2.375 per cent, in 1869, 2. 025 
in 1870, 2.75 in 1871, and 3 per cent, in 1873. It was cut down afterwards, 
but this accomplished only by defaulting on many of the debts of the city. The 
result was a great deal of litigation and many judginents against New Orleans, 
which had to be included in the taxes of 1882, the last year of the administrative 
government. The tax rate of that year was the highest ever known in New Oi-- 
leans, reaching a total of 3.175 per cent., of which 1.675 i>er cent, was a special 
judgiuent tax, levied by order from the United States Court to satisfy judgments 
that had been found against the city. 

In 1870, Algiers and Jefferson City were annexed to Xew Orleans and be- 



I02 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

came the fifth and sixth municipal districts respectively ; in 1874, CarroUton 
was annexed as the seventh district. 

Under the circumstances that existed it was not to be wondered at that 
popular sentiment should demand an entirely new charter for the city. This 
was granted by the Legislature in Jime, 1882. 

THE COUNCILMANIC SYSTEM. 

As usual in the frequent changes in municipal government in Xew Or- 
leans, the transformation was a radical one. The administrative system was 
entirely abolished and for it was substituted the councilmanic government, but 
wholly different from the councilmanic government which had existed from 
1852 to 1S70. The coiuicil consisted of one instead of two chambers, but the 
old distinction of districts and wards was preserved. Each of the seven districts 
elected one councilman at large without regard to population, while the seven- 
teen wards elected twenty-three councilmen, based on their population. The 
council was thus composed of thirty members, there being no difference what- 
ever in the powers between the district and ward councilmen. The councilmen 
received no pay. The council was the legislative department of the govern- 
ment, levying taxes and licenses, having control over all expenditures, over the 
rtepairs of the streets, lights, the extinguishment of fires, the maintenance of 
levees, the streets, squares, cemeteries, etc. 

The executive department was in the hands of the mayor, treasurer, comp- 
troller, commissioner of public works and commissioner of police and public 
buildings — all of whom were elected at the same time on a general ticket. The 
other municipal officers, such as surveyor, city attorney, etc., were elected by 
the council. 

The mayor was commander-in-chief of the police and appointed the entire 
force, which was subject to radical changes with each change of administration. 
The police ordinances were enforced by four police courts, presided over by re- 
corders, while in the fifth, sixth and seventh districts the justices of the peace 
had the power of committing magistrates. 

The fire department at the time was completely out of the control of the 
city, being in the hands of the Firemen's Charitable Association (the volunteer 
firemen), under a contract with the city, which was renewed every five years. 
(There was, as a matter of fact, four fire departments, for the volunteer firemen 




c^^^-^^-i^^-e^ , '^^n-^-^U^, 



S^^^Smj^ 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 103 

had organized separate and independent associations in the fifth, sixth and 
seventh districts.) 

The new city government had really very little to do, the several depart- 
ments that properly belong to a municipality having been lopped off at various 
times. The fire department, as already noticed, had always been separate and 
independent. 

In order to protect the city, as well as the bondholders, against the misman- 
agement which had been the feature of the city government from 1870 to 1882, 
all control over the debt was taken from the city iu 1880 and given to a Board 
of Liquidation, consisting of six members, two of whom were chosen by the 
Governor, two by the Lieutenant-Governor and two by the Speaker of the House 
of Representatives. The mayor, comptroller and treasurer were ex-officio 
members of this board. With this exception, the city had nothing to do with its 
municipal debt except to provide for the payment of interest on it ; and this act 
was nearly perfunctory, as the Legislature required that the proper provision 
be made. 

The wharves had been surrendered as early as 1882, when they were leased 
to a private corporation, the lease being renewed from time to time. As the 
United States had decided that the revenue derived from wharfage diies could 
be used only for the commercial improvement of the city, the lease made 
to the lessees was for so much money to be expended in improving the wharves 
and port facilities of the city. There can be no question that under the wharf 
lease a great improvement took place over the conditions that had prevailed un- 
der the municipal ovsmership and control. 

In 1892, the city government, having shown itself in no position, from lack 
of funds, to deal with the problem of the construction and maintenance of levees, 
and the city being put in danger of a general overflow, the council's control of the 
levees was taken from it and given to a board, known as the Orleans Levee Board, 
with power to levy district taxes for the construction, repair and maintenance 
of levees. This board was appointive, and named by the governor, and was a 
state rather than a municipal body, althoiigh its jurisdiction was restricted to the 
City of New Orleans. 

The control of the city's public schools was wholly out of the hands of the 
city council, which had no control over them, save in the election of some of the 
members of the school board. This, however, had always been the case, save 
for a short period after 1852, when the council had organized the public schools 
and created three districts, maintaining its control over these three boards. 



1U4 STAM)AHD lllSTURy OF NEW ORLEANS. 

What WHS \vuo of the public schools was equally true of the Board of Health. 
This was a peculiar body, half state and half city, with certain iiuinicipal as well 
as state powers. Its members wore partly elected by the city council and partly 
named by the governor. 

To sucli a dctiree was this disiMisition to vote away municipal functions, 
rights niid duties I'arricd fliat even the parks, squares and principal streets were 
given over to eoiiimissions, consisting of tax payers of the vicinity. Tiie eitv 
being unable to nud<e provisions for keeping these parks, squares, etc., in good 
condition, the duty of raising the necessary funds by subscription or public en- 
tertainments devolved u[)on the commissioners. In fine, the City of New Or- 
leans had surrendered nearly all its franchises and duties, had sold, leased or 
transferred the municiiial pioperty and privileges to various private individuals 
or corporations, to state boards or conunissions of citizens. About 1884 the 
city had reached, perhaps, the lowest depths as a municipality. It is true that 
its credit had improved and its wharves were in better condition, but the city 
government was jHnverless and had no jurisdiction or city property to administer. 

Perhaps the only function which still belonging to the city, was the control 
of its |)oliee force. This was wholly in the hands of the mayor, and had been 
so administered that the [loliee was overrun with politics and infected with cor- 
ruptii>n. Mayor Shakespeare, 1878-82, took the bull by the horns in the matter 
of blacknuiil and corruption that existed in the police force, growing out of the 
gand)ling business, and introduced a system known as the Shakespeare plan. It 
was peculiar to New Orleans, and never attempted ani^-Avhere else in the country, 
and [irovi'd what could scarcely have been conceived from so remarkable a plan — 
a success. 

Gambling had always betni very prevalent in New Orleans, in spite of the 
fact that the earliest French colonial ordinances contained numerous edicts 
against it. Mayor Shakespeare took the view that it was useless to carry on the 
statute books ordinances against gambling that could not be enforced and which 
only gave the police opportunity to blackmail the gamblers. He could not li- 
cense gambling; that was against the State constitution; but he argueil with tli<> 
gandders that if they paid so much into his hands monthly and carried on an 
"honest game," he, as chief of the police, would not allow the officers to inter- 
fere, or molest them. They accepted this agreement, and the money derived 
from this source was nsi^d by the niavor in erecting the Shakespeare Almshouse 
— an institution tin- need id' which had been greatly felt — and in nuiintaining 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 105 

that and other charity institutions. The whole transaction was extrajudicial. 
The money paid into the hands of the mayor did not have to be accounted for 
to any one and could be used by him as he saw lit. Its administration and ex- 
penditure called for the utmost confidence in the chief magistrate. The system 
ultimately was abused and the Shakespeare fund gradually disappeared from 
the extraordinary revenues of the city. 

The charter of 1882 lasted fourteen years, until 1896. It was badly 
shaken by the elections of 1888 and 1896, in both of which the issue of munici- 
pal reform was a prominent feature and succeeded in carrying the election. 
The administration of the city had grown very bad between 1882 and 1888, and 
the popular demand was for the protection of the public interests from politics 
and politicians. 

The election of a reform city administration in 1888 led to several im- 
portant changes, especially in the matter of the police and firemen. The police 
department had become permeated with politics. It was badly demoralized, 
moreover, by the radical change in the force which came with each change of ad- 
ministration. To correct these evils it was decided to take fro!u the mayor 
some of the supreme power he exercised over the force and to put it more or less 
under the control of a police board. This was accomplished in 1890-91 by the 
passage of the Police Board Act. 

The fire department has been for nearly seventy years and from the earliest 
days of New Orleans, outside the control of the city and in the hands of the Fire- 
men's Charitable Association (the Volunteer Firemen). The contract of the 
Volunteers, which expired in 1891, was taken advantage of to organize a munic- 
ipal fire department under the control of the city, through the Board of Fire 
Control and the Fire and Lighting Committee of the council. 

The city soon began to feel the influence of these changes. The adminis- 
tration of municipal affairs showed a marked improvement beginnihg in 1888, 
when a groat deal of paving was done, and New Orleans began to release itself 
from the decay into which it had fallen in all matters of municipal administra- 
tion. This improvement created such public enthusiasm and desire for still 
further advance that the election of 1896, like that of 1888, turned almost 
wholly on the question of mimicipal reform ; and it was given out that the suc- 
eess of the reform movement would mean a new charter for the city. The move- 
ment having won, the members of the Legislature elected on that ticket set at 
work at once to carrj' out the promises made to the people, and the result was the 
passage of the charter of 1896. 



io6 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

A MODEL MUNICIPAL GOVERNMENT. 

The latter charter is an ideal one, from the standpoint of the political and 
municipal economist. It is in line with the suggestions of the Mimicipal Re- 
form League and contains almost all the suggestions of that body as to what 
should be contained in a model charter. Perhaps its chief defect lay in the 
fact instead of going into operation all at one time, the charter became operative 
partly in 1896 and partly in 1900. The Legislature did not like to disturb the 
new city government so soon after it has been installed, and hence it provided 
that there should be no change in the officers imtil after the next election 
(1900). This fact has led to considerable confusion and litigation to de- 
termine what part of the charter of 1896 went into immediate operation and 
what part was postponed until 1000. 

The charter of 1896 continued the councilmanic system, but witli only one 
council, of smaller dimensions than that created by the charter of 1882 — seven- 
teen instead of thirty members. The councilmen, as formerly, are elected by 
districts and wards ; but — and this was a radical innovation — are paid for their 
services, whereas all the previous councilmen and aldermen had served without 
pay. The other elective officers are few in number — mayor, comptroller and 
treasurer — the latter two to prevent the mayor having too great control over the 
finances of the city. The other officials — commissioners of streets, surveyor, 
city attorney, etc., are appointed by the mayor, with the approval of the council. 
Under this charter the power of the mayor is very great, and he practically 
names the other officials, who constitute his cabinet. This is in full accord with 
the recommendations of the Municipal Reform League, which claims that it 
assures a harmonious administration, prevents a division of resjwnsibility, and 
that it increases the chances of the people securing good government as tihey 
ought to be able to elect a lit and proper mayor ; whereas they may, if they are 
compelled to choose a half dozen officers, make a mistake as to some of them. 

The principles of civil service reform were recognized and endorsed in the 
new charter. A board was created to prepare and put in operation a system of 
civil-service rules for the new government ; and it was provided that all appoint- 
ments and promotions thereafter would be made in accordance with these rules. 

The new charter was a model one. The only fault that could be found 
with it was tiiat it was somewhat in advance of public sentiment in New Or- 
leans, in too great contrast with the political conditions that had prevailed there ; 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 107 

in fine, that the reforms it proposed were too radical and svidden and did not 
take local conditions sufficiently in account. 

Under the charters of 1870 and 1882, the city had lost and surrendered 
most of its municipal functions, which had been sold or leased. Beginning in 
1888, the disposition had been for the city to regain control of these fimctions, 
but to safeguard them against the danger of partisan politics by placing them 
under the control of boards and commissions, beyond the reach of politics and 
popular elections. This idea was undoubtedly the fruit of the suc- 
cess met with by the Board of Liquidation in dealing with the city debt. 
That debt had been so mismanaged by the city and so admirably managed by the 
Board of Liquidation that public sentiment strongly favored placing as many 
as possible of the functions of the city beyond the reach of politics. This plan 
has been steadily carried on since then until the government of New Orleans as 
it exists to-day is a most composite one, made up of a dozen different bodies, dis- 
tinct and separate from the municipal government proper — the mayor, city of- 
ficials and council — and in most cases absolutely independent of it. These in- 
dependent boards and commissions are as follows : 

Civil Service Commission. — Three members appointed by tlie mayor and 
serving each for twelve years. Commission created in 1896 by the city charter. 
The commission makes rules and regiilations for the selection of minor officials, 
recommends persons for appointment and hears complaints of removals without 
cause. 

Board of Liquidation of the City Debt. — Created in 1880 by an act of the 
Legislature. Composed of nine members ; six citizens chosen ; two by the Gov- 
ernor, two by the Lieutenant-Governor and two by the Speaker of the House of 
Representatives, and the Mayor, Treasurer and Comptroller of the city ex- 
officio. This board has control of the city debt and of all revenues coming to 
the city from the sale franchises. 

Police Board. — Created in 1888 by the Legislature, with control over the 
police force. It consits of members chosen by the council for twelve years each, 
and the Mayor ex-officio. 

Board of Fire Commissioners. — Created in 1891, by the council. It con- 
sists of nine commissioners, chosen by the council, and the Mayor and Commis- 
sioner of Police and Public Buildings, ex-officio, and has control over and regu- 
lation of the fire department. 

School Board. — It consists of twenty members, of whom eight are ap- 
pointed by the Governor and twelve elected by the city council. 



lo8 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

Board of Health (two boards, one State and one city). — Chosen partly by 
appointment by the Governor and partly by election by the council. These 
boards exercise jurisdiction over quarantine and all sanitary matters. 

Orleans Levee Board. — Created by the Legislature in 1890. The board 
consists of seven members, and has full control over all levee matters — the con- 
struction, repair and maintenance of levees and the drainage of the city. It 
exercises the right to levy a tax not to exceed one mill for levee purposes, 
and to issue bonds to raise the necessary funds for levee construction. 

Port Commission. — Created by the Legislature in 1896. This board has 
charge of the wharves, the collection of port dues, etc. Its powers will be 
greater after the expiration of the wharf lease (1901) and the return of the 
wharves to the possession of the city. The board consists of six members, ap- 
pointed by the Governor. 

The Drainage Commission. — Composed of nine members, including five 
chosen from the Orleans Levee Board. The commission has charge of all mat- 
ters relating to drainage and the work of providing the new drainage system of 
the city. 

Water and Sewerage Board. — Established by the Legislature in 1899 and 
going into active operation in 1900. It consists of seventeen members, appointed 
from the Orleans Levee Board, from the Board of Liquidation, the Drainage 
Commission, and seven commissioners, one from each district, appointed by the 
Mayor. The board has charge of the sewerage and drainage, of providing New 
Orleans with a sewerage system and with water-works. It levies taxes and is 
authorized to raise bonds thereon to carry on the work entrusted to it. 

Thus it will be seen that the control of the police, fire deparment, schools, 
wharves, levees, sewerage, drainage, water supply, the public debt, sanitation 
and the appointment of minor ofiicials have been taken from the city govern- 
ment proper and given to various boards and commissions, selected by the Gov- 
ernor, Legislature, Mayor or Coimcil, all acting independently of the city and 
not answerable to it, and holding their several positions for long terms or even 
for life. 

THE POLICE. 

The police system of New Orleans has passed through the same changes 
and transformations as other branches of the city government; indeed, there 
have been even more changes from the purely military system of the early days 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 109 

to the effective civil and municipal system which prevails to-day under the con- 
trol and management of a Board of Police Commissioners. Under the French 
and Spanish rule, there was practically no police force for New Orleans. The 
preservation of the peace of the city was delegated to a few soldiers and civilians 
who patrolled the streets at night. As in mediaeval times, these watchmen called 
out the hours, as well as the state of the weather, and, in order to give a feel- 
ing of confidence to citizens, shouted, if everything was satisfactory, "Tout va 
bien !" — "All is well !" The patrolling was not done by single men but by 
squads of iowr or five gens d'armes (the city guard), who wore the usual French 
or Spanish uniform of gens d'armerie — cocked hat, deep blue frock coat and 
breast straps of black leather supporting a cartridge-box. They went armed, 
too, and carried an old-fashioned flint-lock musket with sword bayonet and 
short sword. 

The only policing was done at night, when malefactors were thought to be 
about. Early in the evening the sergeant collected his squad at the guard-room 
which adjoined the old calabosa (calaboose or prison). Here the gens d'armes 
were put through the manual of arms, after which, with each squad under the 
command of a corporal, they marched, at "shoulder arms," to the section of the 
city they were detailed to patrol and guard. The city was very much limited 
in area then, including only the vieux carre bounded by what are now Canal, 
Rampart and Esplanade streets and the Mississippi. After making a round of 
the city, the several squads returned to the g\iard-house to make a report, and 
with such prisoners as they had picked up — negroes and drimken wayfarers. 
There was naturally a strong prejudice against the gens d'armes or serenos and 
the civil population, a majority of the former being Spainiards, whom tlie 
Creoles detested. The gens d'armes were accordingly the butt of the people, the 
subject of frequent lampoons and burlesque songs. In scrimmages, which were 
frequent, they suffered from their popular dislike, for a prisoner who was arrested 
by them had only to set up a cry to call his neighbors to his rescue. In nearly all 
such encounters the gens d'armes were outnumbered and overpowered and their 
prisoners released. The police were ordered by the Spanish officers to use their 
weapons as little as possible, so as not to intensify the Creole opposition to Span- 
ish rule, which, always strong, grew stronger during the latter days of that dom- 
ination. The calabosa, which was the police headqiiarters, was situated on St. 
Peters street in the rear of the present Louisiana Supreme Court building, hav- 
ing been erected there in 1795 by Don Andres Almonaster, builder of the St. 
Louis cathedral. 



no STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

The actual police system of New Orleans, as distinguished from the mili- 
tary police system that prevailed under French and Spanish rule, dates from the 
establishment of the American dominion in Louisiana. After the abolition of 
the Spanish Cabildo or government of New Orleans and the establishment of 
the temporary municipal government under Mayor Etienne de Bore, one of the 
■first acts of the new council was to provide for a proper police force ; and Messrs. 
Livandais and E. Jones, members of the council, were appointed special police 
commissioners to inspect the prisons and formulate police regulations. The 
regulations drawai up by these commissioners were 108 in number. They are 
yet in existence among the city archives and give an excellent idea of the social 
as well as the police conditions which then existed in the little city. Some of 
them were so thoroiighly in popular favor that they are continued to this day, 
with scarcely verbal changes. 

Article 1 prohibits blasphemy (cursing) on the public streets. Article 2 
prohibits "the driving of carts on the streets on Sunday" without a good excTise 
therefor, the punishment for "breaking the Sabbath" being twenty-four hours' 
imprisonment in the calabosa. Article 3 prohibits gambling of all kinds. On 
the third offense the gamblers as well as those who played with them were sub- 
ject not only to a heavy fine but were ordered to receive "twenty-five 
lashes on the bare back." There is no evidence that this severe law was ever en- 
forced or had the slightest effect in suppressing or even reducing the gambling. 
New Orleans, on the contrary, stuck to gambling and indulged in more games of 
chance than any other city in the Union. 

The Police Regulations of Messrs. Livandais and Jones were very well 
prepared and covered nearly all the offences against the peace and order of the 
commimity. A police being necessary to see to their enforcement, one was 
created to consist of twenty-five men, with Pierre Achille Rivery at their head 
as "Commissioner General of Police in the city and suburbs of New Orleans." 
M. Pierre Pedesclaux was made clerk to the chief and two aids provided for. 
The pay of the officers was very snuill, the two aids getting $20 and $25 only, 
respectively. The latter amount, $25, was paid to the second aid because he 
was required to know English as well as French. The American immigration 
was already pouring into the city, and the first comers, rude pioneers and flat- 
boatmen from the West, were a most troublesome class, who set at defiance the 
police force of New Orleans. 

The small pay allowed the police rendered it no easy matter to secure white 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. iii 

men for the force as was desired, and the council finally provided that if white 
men could not be found to do the police duty mulattoes might be employed; 
but the officers must be white — a remarkable provision in view of the existence 
of negro slavery at the time, and the strong prejudice afterward shown to the 
employment of negroes as officers. The patrol of the police was no longer re- 
stricted to the city limits, but they were required to go beyond the "walls" when 
requested by citizens "to catch runaway negroes, and put a stop to looting and 
other crimes." 

In 1805 the temporary municipal government of oSTew Orleans, which had 
existed from the time of the American purchase of Louisiana, was abolished, 
and the city was regularly incorporated by the Territorial Legislature. Mr. 
Regnier was appointed sub-inspector of police, and the police was recognized 
as a part of the municipal and civil government instead of the military govern- 
ment as heretofore. In August, 1804, the patrol militia was reorganized, with 
Col. Bellechasse as commandant. It was made up of firemen and hunters, and 
consisted of four squads of fifteen men each, the squads changing every eight 
days. 

The militia patrol under Col. Bellechasse did duty in the outlying districts 
where there was a large disorderly and turbulent population. There was, in ad- 
dition, a city patrol, composed of sixteen soldiers, two officers, two sergeants and 
two corporals, to be chosen each in turn from the militia and the volunteers. 
The patrol was divided into two sections for the night service, the first patrol 
going on in the evening and remaining on duty until midnight, when it was 
relieved by the second watch, which remained on duty until daybreak. The 
police headquarters were in the city hall, and were maintained by the city gov- 
ernment. The militia patrol received no pay. It made an application to the 
city for the necessary appropriation to arm the men, asking for fourteen sabers, 
nineteen guns and thirty-nine pistols ; but the council refused to make the neces- 
sary provision. On the contrary, the popular prejudice increased against the 
militia patrol, many of whom had been soldiers on the police force under the 
Spanish government; and in 1806, in deference to popular sentiment, the coun- 
cil decided to create a city police force, to be known as the "garde de ville." 
Thus in the short space of four years the police of N^ew Orleans had been four 
times changed from the military to the gens d'armerie, the constabulary, the 
militia patrol, and, finally, the garde de ville. 

The new organization was intended to be a purely civic police, with the 



112 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

military element, whicli had survived from the Spanish and French days, elim- 
inated. It consisted of one chief, two sub-chiefs or assistants and twenty men 
for the city proper; and for the Fauxbourg Ste. Marie, the American section, 
now the first municipal district, the same chief, two sub-chiefs and eight men ; 
a total force of thirty-three. The chief was provided with a horse and allowed 
$60 a month, from which he had to provide food for the animal. The sub-chief 
received $25 a month, and each watchman $20. The police were armed with 
the old half pike and a saber suspended from a belt of black leather. They 
wore long brass buckles, on which was engraved "Garde de Ville" (City 
Watch). The headquarters were still in the city hall, where two men as a 
relief force and one sub-chief were always on duty. The reliefs were at 7 a. m. 
in the summer and 9 a. m. in winter. 

The new police force went on duty March 14, 1806. It was in trouble 
within a very short time ; for in an encounter in May of the same year the police 
were overpowered by a number of rioters, dispossessed of their weapons and 
badly beaten. For this cowardice the force was formally deprived of its 
weapons by an ordinance of the city council. The grand jury joined in the 
popular denunciation of the new force for their failure to do their duty, and 
declared that the city was "at the mercy of brigands to loot and pillage at pleas- 
ure." The grand jury cited a very strong case to support the denunciation — that 
of a man murdered in the Faiixbourg Ste. Marie, whose body was left lying 
where it fell for three days, until buried by charitable persons. 

The next council decided that the city was wasting money on such a police 
force, and reduced it to eight men, restoring the militia patrols, and thus going 
back to the military system, the civic police having failed after two years' trial. 
The chief of the city guard was placed in charge of the militia patrol, who were 
designated as "const^ibles." 

This condition of affairs continued for fourteen years, and was found gen- 
erally satisfactory. As the city grew in size, the constabulary force was in- 
creased, and in 1822 it consisted of fifty men, who patrolled the city at night 
in small squads. This police force, like the fire department, was voluntary and 
composed of private citizens. 

With the division of the city into three municipalities, the patrol was grad- 
ually abolished and the constabulary increased, each section having its captain 
and high constable. 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 113 

The marauding of the "levee rats" on the freight on the river front led, in 
1851, to the organization of a levee police force of nine men, imder a sergeant. 

In 1852 the three mimicipalities and the City of Lafayette (now the fourth 
municipal district) were consolidated into one government, and John Youennes 
was appointed the first chief of police of the entire city. Under this charter 
the mayor was constituted the head of the jwlice force of the city, with power 
to appoint officers, to make regulations and to exercise general control over the 
police. 

This was the condition of affairs up to the time of the Civil War. The 
occupation of New Orleans by the military force under Gen. B. F. Butler sus- 
pended all civil government. The city was placed under martial law, the police 
were superseded by the soldiers, and the head of the police department was the 
provost marshal, an army officer detailed for that purpose. The violation of 
ordinances or regulations was punished with severe imprisonment or transporta- 
tion to Ship Island, or some other of the military prisons established by Gen. 
Butler. 

With the restoration of civil government in Louisiana in 18G6, under 
ilayor John J. Monroe, a police force was reorganized, a large proportion of 
whom were veterans of the Confederate army. This force figured very con- 
spicuously in the Mechanics' Institute riot of 1866, and an investigation was 
made into the matter, which resulted in finding that the police had done their 
duty, and that tire riot was caused by the negroes who were taking part in the 
convention. 

With the establishment of the Republican government in 1868 the entire 
police system of New Orleans was again changed, and the force again reverted 
to the military system. The act organizing the metropolitan police force of 
New Orleans, which was changed and amended from time to time, practically 
created a military force very similar to the Pra-torian guards in the days of 
the Roman Empire. The force was very much increased, amounting at one 
time to 800 men. It was reorganized and well paid, so as to get men on it who 
were willing to fight, and a very considerable portion of the force consisted of 
veterans of the Civil War, both from the Union and Confederate armies. The 
police, while bearing only side arms when on ordinary duty, owned rifles and 
even Gatling guns and other cannon ; and the arms apportioned among the states 
by the general government were given to them rather than to the militia. In 
fine, tlie police practically superseded the militia, under the title of the "Met- 



114 ■ STANDARD HISTORY OF NE]Y ORLEANS. 

ropolitan Brigade," although a nominal militia force was kept up independent 
of them. As a militia the metropolitan police force was of great convenience 
to the de facto state government, as it was well disciplined and continuously 
on duty. The men were chosen with care and well equipped. There was 
a considerable mounted police force, which served as cavalry. In the subse- 
quent difficulties which grew out of the dual state government, when New Or- 
leans was for several years in a state of civil war, the police were frequently 
called on to make exi")editions to the neighboring parishes to suppress popular 
movements that refused to recognize the de facto (Kellogg) state government 
or to pay taxes to it. A steamer was purchased for the purpose of making this 
expedition, thereby constituting the nucleus of a navy. ; The police thus be- 
came both army and navy, the army being divided into infantry, cavalry and 
artillery. 

Under the several laws passed in regard to the metropolitan police, they 
were constituted a state militia and given power and jurisdiction throughout 
the state, becoming in their power very like the Royal Irish constabulary', the 
situation in Louisiana at the time being very similar to that of Ireland 
when a large part of the population refused to recognize the government. There 
is no counterpart in the United States to the metropolitan police force of New 
Orleans from 1868 to 1877 — not even in the other Southern States where re- 
construction was going on ; and the situation in Louisiana, with two state gov- 
ernments, was sui generis and different from that of its neighbors. 

"The Metropolitans," as the police were called, were used in several mili- 
tary movements to suppress popular uprisings and establish the authority of the 
Kellogg government. They were sent to St. Martin's, where the people under 
Gen. Alcibiade de Blanc maintained their allegiance to the McEnery state gov- 
ernment. This coixntry campaign was a failure. A condition of actual war 
prevailed in the parish of St. Martin for some weeks, but the Metropolitans made 
no headway; and Gen. de Blanc finally surrendered to the L^^nited States mar- 
shal, but refused to recognize the Metropolitans or state constabulary. In New 
Orleans the police were at first somewhat more successful. They captured the 
building occupied by the McEnery government as a legislative hall, and they 
dispersed the citizen militia who had assembled in Jackson Square for the pur- 
pose of establishing the McEnery state government by force of arms; but in 
the battle on the levee, at the foot of Canal street, on September 14, 1874, the 
power of the Metropolitans was completely broken. Under the command of 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. Ii5 

Generals A. S. Badger and James Longstreet, the Metropolitans, some 600 
strong and with several cannon, Gatling guns and jSTapoleons, marched to Canal 
street to disperse the White League and similar organizations which sought to 
overthrow the Kellogg state government and establish that of McEnery. The 
result was a battle equal to many unfortunate engagements in actual warfare. 
The Metropolitans were defeated, losing some sixty-odd men, killed and wounded. 
Among the latter was the commander, Gen. Badger, while the citizen soldiery lost 
eighteen killed and a number woimded. Most of the other Metropolitans sur- 
rendered, and the next day, with the capture of the State House and Armory, 
the Kellogg government was dissolved. This defeat broke the power of the 
Metropolitans. With the restoration of the Kellogg government on May 17, 
1874, the Metropolitans were reorganized, but as a city police force, not as a 
state constabulary. They made no more expeditions to the country, and they 
no longer attempted to act as militia. In the subsequent capture of the Su- 
preme Court buildings by the citizens' soldiery, on January 9, 1877, they made 
no resistance, nor during the long siege of the State House (afterward the 
Hotel Eoyal) did they attempt any military movements. 

After the breaking up of the Metropolitans 'New Orleans was for a short 
time without any police whatever, and police duty was done by the citizens' 
soldiery. It was practically martial law, and the ijeace and order of the city 
was never better preserved or crimes and misdemeanors more infrequent. 

With the establishment of the Nicholls government in 1877 the Metropol- 
itan jjolice force Avas abolished and a new force organized. Few of the old mem- 
bers were given service, so strong was the popular hatred of the Metropolitans, 
who had ruled with a high hand and most arbitrarily during their years of 
power. Nearly all the statutes giving the Metropolitans extraordinary power 
were repealed, and the force again became a police force in fact. 

While the new police was in many respects a great improvement on the 
Metropolitan, many defects had crept in which soon showed how necessary was 
the reorganization on an entirely new basis. Under the existing ordinances 
the police were entirely under the control of the mayor, who as chief had the 
power of appointment and removal". With this power it was natural that pol- 
itics should creep in, and that appointments should be made because of political 
services. The police exercised an important, if not a dominant, influence in 
primaries and elections, and, moreover, considerable corruption prevailed, es- 
pecially in the matter of gambling, which at that time was tolerated, or at least 
overlooked, in !New Orleans. 



Ii6 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

When, in 1888, a reform administi-ation went into power, it set to work at 
once to reform both the fire and the police departments, which were permeated 
with politics. Popiilar sentiment demanded a change, and strongly supported 
the bill introduced by Mr. Felix Dreyfous, member of the Legislature from the 
sixth ward of New Orleans, reorganizing the jxjlice force, which law was at 
once passed. It contained the provisions usual in most of the police laws of the 
large American cities. The mayor continued as commander-in-chief of the po- 
lice, but the force was controlled and directed by a board of six commissioners, 
representing the several municipal districts of the city. This board was to for- 
mulate rules and regulations to try all delinquent officers, and to have the power 
to fine, suspend or remove officers for cause. All officers were appointed to the 
force after physical and other examinations as to their fitness, and were imder 
civil service rules, and could not be removed without cause. Provision was also 
made for the establishment of a police pension fimd. 

The new law worked well, and the jwlice board set vigorously to work to 
reorganize the force ; this took nearly a year. All the officers had to stand ex- 
aminations, physical and otherwise, and the imworthy and unfit we.re weeded 
out. The board, however, came in conflict with the mayor during this work, 
and a serious clash of authority resulted. 

The practical exj>erience in organizing the police force had disclosed sev- 
eral defects in the law. The police board met and suggested certain changes 
in this law in the direction of increasing their power. The mayor, Joseph A. 
Shakespeare, who had not received the law with favor, because it curtailed his 
power, proposed amendments which, while they continued the police commis- 
sion, materially increased his powers. The controversy lasted some months, and 
foimd its way into the courts. A majority of the police commissioners were re- 
moved by the mayor and new members of the board apjjointed. The Stat« Su- 
preme Court, however, overturned this action and restored the commissioners 
who bad been removed ; and the Legislature amended the law, as the police board 
had asked that it be amended. It was a triumph of the principle of the gov- 
ernment of the police by a commission instead of a single individual — the tri- 
umph of the principle of the civil service as opposed to the political system 
which had been in operation previously. 

It was during this period of strife between the mayor and council that an 
event occurred which stirred Xew Orleans to a pitch of frenzy, caused more or 
less excitement throughout the country and led the United States into serious 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 117 

diplomatic difficulties and even into the possibility of a foreign war. This was 
the assassination of the newlv- appointed chief of police, D. C. Hennessey, by 
members of the Mafia, on the night of October 15, 1890, and led to the Parish 
Prison lynching the next year, for which Italy niade demands for reparation 
of the United States. 

The dispute between Mayor Shakespeare and the Police Board in 1890 
settled the question of the control of the police. The Mayor abandoned his re- 
sistance to the law, and it was universally recognized that the force had greatly 
improved in morale, efficiency, and in every other way since the change in the 
system, and the adoption of civil-service rules for its control. Differences, 
however, crept up from time to tinie between the Police Board and the several 
mayors as to the limit of power between them. Thus Mayor Fitzpatrick, who 
succeeded Shakespeare, quarelled with the board over the appointment of civil 
officers for the police courts, and in 1894 brought action to secure the removal 
of the commissioners. The court decided against him and thus entrenched the 
board in power and fixed the limits of its authority. 

The original police act of 1S8S had been amended in 1890, and was still 
further amended in 1896, in order to make it clear and cover all the disputed 
points which had led to the differences between the mayor and board. The last 
police act provided how the commissioners niight be removed by legal proceed- 
ings, authorized the mayor to ap}X)int emergency officers without pay, altered 
the qualifications of the police force, changed the examination board for promo- 
tion from a committee appointed by the superintendent of police to a committee 
appointed by the board, made the decision of the board final in all eases and not 
subject to revision, prohibited policemen from engaging in other pursuits, and 
finally set aside a portion of the police a])propriation to the pension fund. It 
was a move in the right direction, tended to make the police force still more in- 
dependent and free from politics. It will be thus seen that the police of New 
Orleans have been through every possible status. It has been a volunteer force, 
a military force (a detail from the army), a constabulary, a genuine municipal 
police, to revert back to the militia system, again to a city police, and finally to 
adopt the principles of civil service, under the control of a board, the force being 
responsible to the mayor yet independent, to a large extent, from the legislation 
and interference of the council and city government. 

The police pension fund was established by the act of 1888, reorganizing 
the police force. It provides a pension for the widows of all officers wlio may 



Ii8 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

lose their lives in the performance of their duties, and had in 1900 eleven fami- 
lies on the pension roll. 

The Police Mutual Benevolent Association was organized in 1893. By 
voluntary contributions to the fund of this association, police officers receive so 
much per day when sick, and a gross amount is paid to their families in the event 
of death. It received and disbursed $31,511 during the six years 1893-99. 

FIEE DEPAKTMENT. 

The Fire Department of New Orleans passed through the same changes 
and vicissitudes as other branches of the municipal government, and as have oc- 
curred in other cities of the same age. It began Avith no firemen at all, followed 
by a vohmtcer fire force, which assumed more and more the characteristics of 
a paid department, until finally the vohmteer force went out altogether and a 
paid department came into service. 

There were no firemen in the earlier days of jSTew Orleans, and no means 
of fighting fire. When flames broke out in the little city, the neighbors flocked 
to the scene of the fire and did what they could with buckets to extinguish the 
flames. The soldiers also turned out and did the heaviest work. 

With the lack of firemen, in a city where houses were almost all of wood 
and roofed with shingles, it was was natural that a great conflagration should 
occur. Such a fire came on Good Friday, March 21, 1788, and it was one which 
the city had cause long to remember. A high wind, amounting almost to a gale, 
carried the flames from house to house and from street to street. The entire 
business portion of the city was destroyed, including the parochial church (suc- 
ceeded by St. Louis' Cathedral), the Presbytery (where the civil courts are 
now situated), and with it nearly all the archives of the colony, the municipal 
building or Cabildo, the military barracks and arsenal, with large supplies 
of arms and ammunition and the calaboose or public jail, from which the pris- 
oners were narrowly rescued from burning to death. Altogether between 800 
and 900 houses were destroyed by fire, the total loss being estimated at $2,595,- 
fil(i. It was the first big fire New Orleans ever had, and it has never had one 
a* large since. 

The conflagration had one good effect; it called attention to the utter de- 
iieicncy of the city in the matter of preparations to fight fires. There were not 
even enough buckets to use, and no organization to pass up the buckets to put out 
the fire where it bui'ned or to wet the roofs of the houses which stood in its path. 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 119 

While the city was in flames the Governor sent the soldiers to the artillery quar- 
ter to search for such military implements as were best adapted to the purpose 
of staying the flames, such as axes, military picks, etc., with which to p\ill down 
houses and parts of houses and parts of houses left standing that might feed the 
flames with fuel. 

The result of the great fire, which was felt in New Orleans for many years 
afterwards, was the organization of a fire department. Only four years after- 
wards another severe fire broke out in the city. Thanks to the improvement 
that had been made in fighting fires, it was not nearly as destructive as that of 
1788, for not only were there buckets ready for vise but engines as well, the lat- 
ter being, however, without trucks and carried in carts. The city at that time 
was divided into iowr wards or districts, in each of which was an Alcalde de 
Barrios, a commissioner of police, who had charge not only of the police or se- 
renos, but also of fire matters as well. The alcaldes were directed to take charge 
of the engines and implements, to assume command at all fires and to organize 
new companies as the occasion demanded. It Avas the first fire department New 
Orleans boasted of, and it proved efficient in spite of tlie very crude engines then 
in the city. In 1794 another destructive conflagration occurred, which burnt 
over a considerable portion of the city destroyed in 1788. The fault did not lay 
with the alcaldes or the firemen, but was due to the lack of necessary provisions 
in regard to the style of the new houses erected. Most of them were of wood 
and of a very flimsy character, and a fire once started was difficult to extinguish. 

When New Orleans passed under American control and a city government 
was established, the first work of the new coimcil was to overhaul the fire de- 
partment and improve it. There were four engines in the city, one for each of 
the four quarters of the city, but they were without trucks ; and the committee 
to which was given the matter of strengthening the fire department recom- 
mended that there be organized for each engine a company of fifteen men, vmder 
a foreman. These first foremen were le Sieur Chesse McNeal, Hilaire Boiitte, 
and Gagne. A fifth engine, called L'Union, was soon after provided, and the 
council appropriated $1,000 for the support of a volunteer fire department — 
the first appropriation made for the purpose. It provided also for a detail of 
firemen each week for patrol duty. The several companies were entirely inde- 
pendent of one another, and considerable confusion resulted, requiring the at- 
tention of the fire committee of the council. It was found too arduous work 
for the firemen to do patrol duly as well as service witli their engine, and the 



I20 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

fire patrol was abolished in 1806, and the ordinary police patrol was required 
to give notice of fires to the fire companies. 

In ISOG, the council showed that it was beginning to understand and appre- 
ciate the necessity of taking precautions to prevent fires, and a number of very 
sensible ordinances were passed, such, for instance, as the prohibition of shingle 
roofs, providing for the inspection of chimneys, relating to the proper policing 
in the case of fire, so as to prevent looting and other depredations, which were 
frequent at that time. 

A still more rigid law was passed in 1807, known as the ''bucket ordinance." 
It fixed the limits within which the construction of wooden buildings was pro- 
hibited ; it required every householder to have a well on his premises and to be 
provided with at least two buckets. 

A depot for four engines, known as the Depot des Pompes, was provided at 
the City Hall, with twelve dozen buckets, twelve ladders, ten grappling-irons 
and their chains, ten gaffs, twelve shovels, twelve pick-axes, twenty axes and ten 
sledge-hammers. Six other engines were provided for — one at the Theater St. 
Philippe, one in each of the four quarters or wards of the city, and one in the 
Fauxbourg St. Marie, the new or American district of the city, which was grow- 
ing up above Canal street. Each engine was to be served by a company consist- 
ing of from twelve to twenty-two men. There was, in addition, a company of 
"sapeurs" (sappers), composed of thirty workmen accustomed to use the ax, such 
as carpenters, blacksmiths and iron workers, whose duty it was to tear down 
building's whenever this became necessary to prevent the spread of fire. On 
the first Sunday of each month the engines were required to repair to the Place 
d'Armes (Jackson Square), there to play their engines and otherwise exercise 
themselves. 

The ordinance is a long one, and there are numerous provisions as to the 
fire department ; indeed, it was so complete that it has formed the basis of nearly 
all the subsequent legislation on this subject. It will be noted from the detail 
of the engines and other implements of the fire department that the latter was 
very well provided, considering the time and place for fighting fires. It was 
certainly in marked contrast with the condition that had prevailed eighteen years 
previous, at the time of the great fire of 1788, and gives some idea of the progress 
that New Orleans was making imder American rule. 

The firemen were all volunteers; and to encourage the citizens to join the 
several companies, the legislature passed a law exempting from jury duty all fire- 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 121 

men, a provision which remained in force np to the time of the disbandment of the 
volunteer department. 

The council, at the same time (1807), offered a reward of $50 to the fire 
company whose engine first reached any fire. 

A fire-alarm service was provided for, hut it was of a most primitive char- 
acter. A watchman, or sereno, as he was still called, was required to be by day 
and night on guard at the porch of the St. Louis Cathedral, whose duty it was 
to call the hours, and who, at the first sight of a fire, should ring the alarm bell. 
He was further to indicate to the citizens who rushed toward the church the di- 
rection in which the fire was by waving a flag by day and a torch by night. 

In the event of a fire alarm, all the watchmen who could be spared from 
police duty were required to report at once at the City Hall, whence they were 
sent in squads toward the fire by parallel streets, obliging all persons whom they 
met to go to the fire and lend their assistance in extinguishing it, by working the 
engines. 

The necessity of a good fire department became more and more obvious. 
Whether with reason or not it is difficult to say, but the belief prevailed that there 
were a number of incendiaries in the city who were desirous of burning it down. 
In 1807 the council passed a resolution, in which it was announced that there 
had been two recent attempts to burn the city; and rewards of $.500 were offered 
for evidence that would convict the incendiaries. How strong the popular senti- 
ment was on this point is borne evidence to by the passage of a law allowing slaves 
to testify against their masters in cases of arson or incendiarism, and even giving 
them their liberty as a reward for furnishing information in cases of incendiary 
fires. 

These acts stopped the incendiary fires, but in 1816 another big conflagra- 
tion broke out, in the lower part of the city, which exposed the utter inefficiency 
of the fire department. A board of fire commissioners was created, five in each 
of the eight wards of the city. The commissioners were required to be at all fires, 
bearing white wands as badges of office and authority, and to direct all persons 
present at the fire, whether free or slave, by forcing them into ranks for the pur- 
pose of handling buckets to supply the fire engines with water, and perform 
such other duties as Avere required of them. The coiincil tried to organize a 
municipal and partly paid force, but it was more or less a failure. 

In 1829 ISTew Orleans abandoned all efforts to support a paid fire department 
of its o\\Ti and arranged with the volunteers (the Firemen's Charitable Associa- 



122 STAXDARV HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

tion). for the extinguishment of fires. The volunteer firemen had several contro- 
versies with the city hefore the latter fully accepted their services in the extin- 
guishing of fires. One of the most serious was in 1833, when the council placed 
two of the engines imder the control of negroes — negroes having been previously 
used to a great degree as firemen. The volunteer firemen held a meeting and 
tendered their resignations, in case negroes were continued in the service, where- 
upon the mayor and council gave in and the engines were turned over to white fire- 
men. 

The expense of the fire department during its earlier days was very small. 
The cost for 1835, for instance, was only $10,430. The city gave only $1,000 
a year. The insurance companies and banks gave $1,500; the firemen them- 
selves, $250. The balance was given by individual subscriptions from property 
holders and merchants, who were interested in preventing fires. Thus, it will 
be seen that the new service was doubly a volunteer one — the firemen giving their 
services free, while the money for the necessary and legitimate expenses of the 
department was contributed by voluntary subscriptions. It was such a fire ser- 
vice as might be expected in a very primitive state of society. 

Its popularity- did not prevent the volunteers from getting into serious diffi- 
culties with the city. There was no sufficient head to the department, and the 
rivalry of the several companies led to unfortunate results, which more or less 
interfered with the extinguishment of fires. The council attempted to restore 
order and discipline, in 1855, by the creation of the office of chief engineer of 
the fire department, and selected James H. Wing-field for the position. It also 
passed an ordinance providing, among other things, for the payment of the fire- 
men ; in other words, it attempted to establish a paid fire department. Finally, 
seven of the companies which had grown very weak, were disbanded and deprived 
of their charters. 

The result of this legislation was a revolt on the part of the volunteer fire- 
men. They asserted that the plan to get rid of them and substitute a paid fire 
department was the work of the underwriters. They accordingly announced 
their intention of retiring from business, met in mass meeting and resigned from 
the service. 

The city invited bids for the extinguishment of fires, and the Firemen's 
Charitable Association, to the surprise of every one, bid in the contract, for 
$70,00. This contract plan continued for thirty-six years, until 1891, the 
amount allowed for the fire service being increased from year to year. 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 123 

In 1860, jiist before tlie opening of the civil war, the fire department con- 
sisted of fourteen hand-engines, five steam-engines and four hook-and-ladder 
trucks. At the outbreak of the war, the firemen were organized into a military 
body, unifoi'med as zouaves and equipped with arms ; but this organization, of 
course, bi-oke up when Gen. Butler occupied the city, and the firemen returned 
to their duty, being granted special privileges by the military commander. 

AVith the return of peace, an attempt was made to get rid of the volunteer 
system, which had been abolished in New York and most of the other cities where 
it had prevailed. An ordinance was passed in 1881, establishing a paid depart- 
ment and creating a board of fire control, but was vetoed by the mayor. The 
board of control was created, however, in 1886 ; and in 1880, when the contract 
between the city and the volunteer fire department of the sixth municipal district 
expired, the city took advanage of the opportunity to establish a pay system in 
the sixth district. This was followed two years afterwards, in 1891, by the 
refusal of the council to renew its contract with the volunteer fire department, 
which expired that year, and decided on the establishment of the pay system for 
New Orleans. It had taken the city much longer to get to a pay system than 
most of the larger town of America, because of the success and prosperity of the 
Firemen's Charitable Association, and its great political strength ; for its mem- 
bers had exercised the greatest influence on the community, and had filled high 
positions, as mayors, and even as governor. 

The new paid fire department cost rather more than the volunteer service. 
The city had, moreover, to buy back the engines and apparatus from the Fire- 
men's Charitable Association, just as that association had bought its apparatus 
from the city in 1855. 

There has been practically no change in the system since the organization 
of the paid fire department, bej'ond the continued improvement by the purchase 
of better engines and such other apparatus as were needed. The deparbment 
is under the active management of a chief and two assistants ; but the board of 
control and the lighting and fire committee of the council have control over it, 
make the purchases, employ the men and try them for any breach of the rules, 
prepare all rules and I'egulations, etc. The department is imder civil-service 
rules, and can no longer take the active part in politics, for which the volunteer 
firemen were noted of old. The chief, as well as most of the men, were taken 
from the old volunteer force, but naturally it was very materially reduced from 
what it had been in volunteer dayg. In consequence of this reduction the de- 



124 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

partment labored under many disadvantages during the earlier days of its serv- 
ice, when fighting large fires ; but there has been steady improvement ever since, 
and the dej^artment is to-day the equal of that in cities where the cost is from 
fifty to 100 per cent. more. 

The several chiefs of the fire department of New Orleans have been as fol- 
lows : 

NEW OfiI.EANS firemen's CHARITABLE ASSOCIATION. 

First, Second Third and Fourth Districts: 1855, James Wingfield ; 1S5G, 
Alfred Belanger; 1858, John F. Gruber; 1861, David Bradbury; 18G4, Alfred 
Belanger; 1866, Jacob Seidner; 1868, Philip McCabe; 1869, Tom. O'Connor. 

Fifth District (Algiers) : 1859, W. Brodtman; 1870, T. H. Jones; 1873, 
M. Iver; 1875, W. Brodtman; 1877, T. Daly. 

Sixth District (Jefferson) : 1869, John A. Meyer. 

Seventh District (Carrollton) : Fred Fischer, Philip Mitchell, John 
Pfeiffer, George Geier, Jolm Dahmer. 

The fire department of Xew Orleans in 1900 has 27 steam-engines, 12 chem- 
ical engines, 7 hook-and-ladder trucks, 1 water-tower, 144 horses, 4 captains, 44 
lieutenants and 207 firemen. 

New Orleans was the fourth city in the Union to introduce the fire-alarm 
telegraph. This it did in 1860, adopting the Gamewell system. Thirty sec- 
onds was sufficient to get the alarm from the alarm boxes to the engine-houses. 
Improvements have been made in this service, also, from time to time. 

DRAINAGE AND SEWAGE. 

The most imjjortant municipal jaroblem, which New Orleans has had to face 
— far more important than police and the extinguishment of fires — was that of 
sewerage and drainage. Lying, as the city does, below the level of the river, 
this was a most difficult matter ; and it took nearly two centuries before it was 
satisfactorily solved. As early as 1723, Governor Perier had found it necessary 
to construct a levee in front of the city to prevent its overflow from the Mis- 
sissippi. The drainage, however, was not touched, and remained as bad as ever. 
Some attempt at drainage was made by Governor Vaudreuil, without much suc- 
cess. Governor Carondelet, under the Spanish regime, did better. The com- 
pletion of the Cai'ondelet canal to Bayou St. John, drained the greater part of the 
city and left it in better condition than it been before. 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 12$ 

When, however, tlie city spread beyond the wall, the newer sections were 
poorly provided with drainage, and were often subject to overflow from excessive 
rain-falL The new canal, completed in 1837, gave some relief, and the Mel- 
pomene Canal, excavated abont the same time, also benefited the upper portion 
of the city. 

This work, however, was only piecemeal. In 1857 a plan for the drainage 
fo the city was submitted by the city surveyor, Louis H. Pilie, and the legislature 
made a small appropriation for a topographical survey of the city. Laws were 
passed in 1858, 1859 and 1861 relative to the drainage of the city, but nothing of 
any moment was accomplished. In 1871-3 Mr. Bell, the city surveyor, prepared 
a plan for the drainage of New Orleans. A contract was made with the Mexi- 
can Ship Island Canal Company for the excavation of certain drainage canals. 
Considerable work was done, and for the first time the city got something prac- 
tical and efiicient in the way of drainage. The plan, however, was never com- 
pleted, and the work was dropped again until 1892, when a topographical survey 
was made of the city, and an advisory drainage board was created for the pur- 
pose of suggesting a plan of drainage for the city, based upon the conditions 
developed by the topographical survey, the rain-fall and similar data. 

A plan was prepared in 1895, submitted to the council and approved by 
it, and the money derived from the sale of street railroad franchises was set aside 
for the construction of this drainage system. In 1896 the legislature created 
a drainage board to carry through the plan of improvement, consisting of two 
members of the Orleans Levee Board and ex officio, the mayor and the chairmen 
of the council committees on finance, budget and water and drainage. 

Actual work in the excavation of canals and the installation of the pumping 
machinery was begun in 1898, and the new drainage system was put into practical 
o2)eration in March, 1900. 

The success attained in this drainage work and the discovery that the cost 
of excavations was much less than it was supposed to be, led the city to undertake 
the work of sewage. Believing the cost of establishing a sewerage plant to be 
greater than the finances of the city would allow, the council had, in 1893, 
given a private company the right to lay sewers and to charge for connection with 
them. This private corporation, after expending a very large sum of money, 
failed ; Avhereupon the city imdertook the work itself. As it was without avail- 
able funds for so great an undertaking, it was proposed that a special tax of two 
and one-half mills, to run for forty-two years, be levied for the purpose of pro- 



o 



126 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

viding the necessary funds for sewerage, drainage and a system of municipal 
water-works. Under the constitution of Louisiana, the voting of a special tax 
for public improvements requires a number of formalities and must be submitted 
to a special election, in which only the tax payers participate. This election was 
hckl in 1S90, and the proposed tax voted by an overwhelming majority. The 
tax payers voted at the same time on the question, whether the district commis- 
sioners, to whom the work of providing for the sewerage, drainage and water 
system should be elected by popular vote or appointed by the mayor, and decided 
by a large majority in favor of the appointive system, as ojjposed to the elective 
one. The result of this election was approved by the state legislature, at an 
extra session, held in 1899, this being necessary to provide for the bonds based 
on the tax, and from which the funds for sewerage, drainage and water-works 
are to come. Under these several ordinances, acts and constitutional amend- 
ments, a water and sewerage board was created, composed of the seven district 
commissioners ajjpointed by the mayor and members of the drainage and Levee 
boards and board of liquidation, having free control over all matters affecting 
the establishment of a drainage and water system of New Orleans. 



WATER-WOKKS. 

In 1810, an attempt to establish water-works was made by one Louis Gleises. 
The new water-works were of a most primitive character. The pipes were hol- 
lowed out of cypress logs, and the supply of water was obtained from the river 
by slave labor, that is, a number of slaves pumped the water into a large reservoir, 
from which it was distributed through the hollow logs to such citizens as had sub- 
scribed. Necessarily, very few j)ersons got their water supply in this way, a 
majority of them depending upon cisterns or wells. 

In 1819, the New Orleans Water-Works Company was incorporated by the 
Legislature, with a capital of $120,000. The board met on December 19, with 
eleven directors, nine elected by the stockholders and two appointed by the 
mayor. Nothing, however, of any moment was done by this company. 

In 1833, the Commercial Bank was established, with a capital of $3,000,- 
000, its purpose being to establish water-works in New Orleans. The charter 
was to nm for thirty-five years, at the end of which time the city was authorized 
to pnrchase the works. The company was to furnish the city with water free 
of expense and with all the water it needed for the extinguishment of fires and 



STANDARD IIISTORV OF NEW ORLEANS. 127 

for other public piirjwses. The new company did not fulfill all its obligations, 
and in 1848 an act of the Legislature had to be passed compelling it to do so, re- 
quiring it to keep all hydrants ofx^n, free of charge, for the purpose of washing 
the streets and gutters under a penalty of a forfeiture of its charter unless the 
company accepted the terms proposed by the State. 

On the expiration of the charter of the company in 18G9, the city utilized 
its right to buy in the water-works, issuing, for that purpose, bonds to the 
amount of the appraised value of the works, $1,300,000. The city then oper- 
ated the works until 1877, but so badly that it was on defaiilt in the interest on 
its water-works bonds, as well as on the rest of its funded debt. It was thought 
best to surrender control and let the water-works pass into the hands of a private 
company. This was effected under an act of the Legislature of March 3, 1877, 
the bonds issued in 1860 for the purchase of the works being given in exchange 
for stock in the new company. Under this act, the I^ew Orleans Water-Works 
Company was given a monopoly of the supply of water from the Mississippi 
River for fifty years. 

The Algiers Water-Works and Electric Company was organized in 1895, 
and the mains were completed the following year. This company supplies the 
entire fifth municijial district of Xew Orleans with water, as well as illuminates 
it. 

LIGHTING. 

Under the early French and Spanish dominion no attempt whatever was 
made to light Xew Orleans, but all persons in the streets at night were required 
to carry lanterns to prevent collisions and accidents. 

The first city lighting was done in 1792, when Governor Carondelet estab- 
lished eighty street lamps. In 1824, the American theater was lighted with gas 
by its owner, Mr. James Caldwell, this being the first time that gas was 
seen in l^lew Orleans. Encouraged by his success, Mr. Caldwell, in 1834, or- 
ganized the Kew Orleans Gas Light and Banking Company, with a capital of 
$300,000, which was subsequently increased to $600,000. The charter gave 
the city the right to pnrchase the works at the end of forty years. When the 
charter expired, in 1875, a consolidation was effected with a new company which 
had secured a charter from the Legislature and which was known as the Cres- 
cent City Company. This last charter was for fifty years, extending until 1925. 

The illumination of the streets was by gas until 1887, when a contract was 



128 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

made for lighting by electricty for the first, second, third and fourth municipal 
districts. On the expiration of the contract with the Jefferson City Gas Light 
Company in 1899, the sixth and seventh mimicipal districts were illimiinated 
by electricity instead of by gas as formerly ; and the city in 1900 used electricity 
wholly. 

MAYORS OF NEW ORLEANS. 

180-1 — Etienne de Bore, appointed; Pierre Petit, pro tern; James Pitot 
(city incorporated). 

1806— John Watkins. 

1807 — Joseph Mather. 

1812— Nicholas Girod. 

1815 — Angustin Macarty. 

1820 — J. Eoffignac. 

1828 — Denis Prieur. 

1838— C. Genois. 

1840 — William Freret. 

1844— E. Montagut. 

1846 — A. D. Grossman. 

1854 — John L. Lewis. 

1856 — Charles M. Waterman. 

1858— Gerard Stith. 

1860— John T. Monroe. 

1862 — May, G. F. She^jley, acting military mayor; JiUy, G. Weitzel; Au- 
gust, Jonas H. French; September, H. C. Deming; ]S"ovember, James F. Miller. 

1864— July, Stephen Hoyt. 

1865 — May, S. M. Quincy; November, H. Kennedy. 

(All those serving from 1862 to 1865 were military.) 

1866 — April, John T. Monroe; December, E. Heath, acting military 
mayor; J. R. Conway. 

1868— B. F. Flanders. 

1872— Louis A. Wiltz. 

1876— Charles J. Leeds. 

1878 — Joseph A. Shakespeare. 

1882— Wiliam J. Behan. 

1884—1. Valsin Guillotte. 

1888 — Joseph A. Shakespeare. 

1900 — Paul Capdevielle. 

1892 — John Fitzpatrick. 

1896— Walter C. Flower. 



CHAPTER V. 



MILITARY. 

By Elt.a Rightor. 

THE military history of New Orleans, as ti'eated in this chapter, begins with 
the time of American occupancy in Louisiana. Such scattered facts and 

events as may be gathered by the historian concerning the Spanish and 
French possession are referred to in other portions of this work. 

Under the Territorial government the first danger that came to threaten 
Louisiana, and to call out what military resources she possessed, was the con- 
spiracy of Aaron Burr. A certain cloud of mystery hangs over this strange 
man, who, with great military talents and some statesmanlike qualities, united 
the most unscrupulous dishonesty, ruthless ambition, and treachery to his coun- 
try. Although the charges have never been proved, it is accepted as a historical 
fact that after his retirement from the vice-presidency, and after the fatal duel 
in which Hamilton was killed and his slayer's prestige forever lost. Burr medi- 
tated, and endeavored to organize an expedition against Mexico, with the object 
in view of forming a "Southwestern Empire," in which several of the south- 
western States were to he included. It was a scheme worthy of a Napoleon, 
and, in the hands of a great genivis, would have l>een successful. True, the arch 
conspirator did not pi'ove himself a Napoleon, but in 1806 there was a possi- 
bility of his doing so. He had already won a certain reno^\^l, and the eyes of 
statesmen, soldiers and public officials were anxiously fixed upon this desperate 
man, in whose game of empires and armies all might be lost or won. 

In New Orleans excitement reached a high pitch, for it was believed that 
the southern city would be made the basis of operations against Mexico, and 
that the first attack of the traitor would be made with this end in view. More- 
over, the population of New Orleans was then of a mixed character. At the 
close of the Spanish dominion emigrants had surged into it from all parts of the 
country. The French, the Spanish, the German, the American elements feared 
and distrusted each other. The administration of Claiborne (1803-1807) was 



I30 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

fraught with dangers and difhcnltics, and the stanch, brave, loyal governor 
showed liis metal by overcoming them all. 

It is supposed that Andrew Jackson himself was deceived at first by Burr's 
plans. The entanglement of Blennerhassett, who lost wealth and repiitation in 
an infamous cause, is well known. But the wily General Wilkinson, when over- 
tures were made to him by the conspirators, became suspicious at once, and lost 
no time in communicating his suspicions to others. 

The eager spirit of Claiborne was immediately aroused when the facts of 
the conspiracy were communicated to him ; and he did everything in his jxjwer 
to prepare a gallant defense. His letters at this period, jjarticularly those to 
the Secretary of State, glow with patriotic fervor. At the same time, it is evi- 
dent that he was greatly distressed with doubts as to the efficiency and loyalty of 
his soldiers. Amid disheartened reports, we find, however, sanguine expres- 
sions of renewed hope and confidence. For instance, after a muster held on the 
17th of October, 1806, he writes: " At a muster this morning of Ist, 2nd and 
4th Regiments, every officer, non-commissioned officer and private present made 
a voluntary tender of their services ;" and later : " I cannot, however, but chei'^ 
ish a hope that the battalion of New Orleans Volunteers, will in any event, be 
faithful." 

The Orleans Rangers and the New Orleans Volunteers were military com- 
panies existing in New Orleans at the earliest time of of the United States' occu- 
pancy. 

The events in connection with New Orleans during the so-called raid of 
Aaron Burr were as follows : 

Friday, October 17, 18'06. Muster of 1st, 2nd and 4th Regiments of Mili- 
tia held by the order of Governor Claiborne at the Place Gravier (in the suburbs 
of the city), Lewis Iverr being Colonel of one of these regiments and Major of 
the Brigade, L. Doerillier aide-de-camp of the Brigade. At this muster all 
white men capable of bearing arms were ordered to be present. 

October 8. (Gayarre) Claiborne informs the Secretary of War that the 
number of militia from the frontier counties was 500, and that 100 regulars 
with military stores would set out for General Wilkinson in a few days. 

November 5. (Martin) Wilkinson, having arranged matters with the 
Spaniards, and being assured that the camp on the Sabine would be at once 
broken up, proceeds on his march to Naciiitoches. Sends an emissary to New 
Orleans for the purpose of fortifying the city, getting ready arms and ammuni- 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 131 

tioii and mounting "six or eight battering cannons on Fort St. Charles and Fort 
St. Louis, below and above the city, and along its front, flanks and rear." Wilk- 
inson proceeds to 'New Orleans, stopping at j^atchez to make application for 500 
men of the Mississippi Militia. No reason for this being given, the request is 
refused. 

JSTovember 15. Wilkinson sends an envoy to Mexico to warn that country 
of Burr's conspiracy, and (secretly) to discover its military resources. 

December 4. C'laiborne writes to the Secretary of State: " When troops 
from Natchez and Mobile have arrived, there will be in Sew Orleans about 800, 
including oflncers. The Orleans Volunteers may muster 180 men, but it is im- 
possible for me to say on what portion of the militia I can rely. Captain Shaw 
of the Navy has imder his command, on the New Orleans station, two bomb- 
ketches and four giniboats, etc. All have been ordered to New Orleans." 

December 8. Clailwrne writes to Wilkinson : " The Battalion of Orleans 
Volunteers, which consists of from 150 to 180 men, and a small detachment of 
militia cavalry, will be ordered into immediate service." To the Secretary of 
State: " If, however, I should learn that tlie Associates had actually set out in 
force, I shall pursue such measures as may be required to man the little fleet on 
the river — whose co-operation the General deems necessary." Whicli suggestion 
as to naval defenses brings us to : 

December 9. An important meeting of the merchants of New Orleans, 
held at the Government House, and convened by the Governor, to discuss ways 
and means of assisting Commander John Shaw in defending the Mississippi, 
for it was by this river that, according to popular belief, the approach of Burr 
would be made. At this meeting both Claiborne and Wilkinson spoke, expos- 
ing the infamy of Burr, exciting the people to patriotism, and considering earn- 
estly the best plans for obtaining seamen and arming the gunboats. After Clai- 
borne had held a private conference with Colonels Bellechasse, D'Orsiere and 
MJcCarty, he ordered the New Orleans Volunteers to be ready at a moment's 

notice. 

At this meeting : " Tt was unanimously agreed that a general and imme- 
diate embargo of the shipping in port be recommended to his Excellency, as the 
best means of obtaining the desired object (t. e., the naval defense of the city)." 
— (Executive Journal, Volume I.) (This plan was apjiroved by the Governor, 
and the embargo went into eifect until December 31.) 

About this time, in a letter to the Secretary of State, Claiborne states that 
he has spent $111.87;i on tlie troops. 



132 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

December 14, 180(i. Dr. Erlck Bollman, of xfew Orleans, arrested by the 
order of Wilkinson, on the charge of being implicated in the conspiracy of Burr. 
About the same time, Peter Ogden and Mr. Swartwout were also arrested. 
General Wilkinson was somewhat of an autocrat, and constantly petitioned Clai- 
borne to declare martial law. This Claiborne refused to do, though he upheld 
the General in most of his actions, and exhorted obedience to his commands. 
When, in Dr. Bollman's case, an order for a habeas corpus ad subjiciendum was 
issued and sent to Wilkinson, the General answered it in rather a high-handed 
manner, stating that ho took upon himself the arrest of Bollman, explaining his 
reasons for so doing, and declaring that he would pursue a like course with all 
traitors. Claiborne was firm in refusing to suspend the habeas corpus, and in a 
letter to the Secretary of State December 17th announced that he would not do 
so, nor declare martial law. In a letter to Wilkinson on the 25th of December 
ho speaks approvingly of Bollman's arrest, but says he should have been given up 
at instance of the court. 

General Wilkinson in court produced incriminating evidence against Boll- 
man ; among other things, a copy of a letter in cipher from Burr to the prisoner. 
Other citizens, being implicated, were arrested. Edward Livingston, James 
Alexander, Colonel Lewis Kerr and Judge Workman, who was suspected be- 
cause of his zeal in issuing writs of habeas corpus. 

Bollman, Alexander and Swartwout were taken to Washington for trial, but 
all the prisoners were eventually discharged, and a long controversy followed 
between Workman and Claiborne concerning the authority of W^ilkinson. The 
general, by his severity and love of power, rendered himself very unpopular. 

December 15 Claiborne sends an order to Captain Shaw that the Ketch 
Etna should ascend the Mississippi with all possible dispatch, and in conjunc- 
tion M'ith the gim boats Nos. 13 and 14 oppose by force the descent of any armed 
and unauthorized body of men. According to General Wilkinson, Colonel Burr 
was to arrive at Natchez December 20 with 2,000 men. 

December 29 Claiborne writes to General Wilkinson : "When these arras 
[certain gims and muskets which had been collected] are distributed I shall have 
in this city and its vicinity (indej>endent of the volunteer corps) 900 men com- 
pletely armed, and shall, after Sunday next, be able to call them into actual 
service upon very short notice." About this time the governor issued an order 
for all boats in passing the fort of Baton Rouge to show respect to the flag of 
Spain. 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 133 

Information now reached Xew Orleans to the effect that all the marines in 
Washington had been ordered to this city, and that shortly Aaron Burr would 
be afloat with his flotilla. 

Tuesday, December 30, Colonel and Adjutant-General Henry Hopkins is- 
sued an order to the effect that the governor would review the First, Second and 
part of the Fourth (included in the Fauxbourg Ste. Marie) Regiments of mili- 
tia on Sunday, January 4, 1807, at 10 o'clock. Colonel D'Orsiere was then in 
command, in place of Colonel Bellechasse, who was indisposed. 

December 31. The Ketch Vesuvius is ready to ascend the river. 

January 2, 1807. Claiborne removes the Battalion of Orleans Volunteers 
and Orleans Troops of Horse from Wilkinson's command. 

January 6. General Wilkinson states that he has good authority for be- 
lieving that Burr had only about 6,000 men under him, and that he would with 
2,000 precede the rest of his force to N^atchez. On the same day is published 
a statement of the strength of the militia of the territory, which was 5,58-4, in- 
cluding general staff, infantry and cavalry. 

l^ews being received in this city that Burr had left Nashville, Tenn., with 
two boats, and would join the rest of his flotilla at the Cumberland river, Shaw 
was immediately ordered to destroy whichever vessels of the conspirators might 
make their appearance. 

A few brief and quickly marching events now bring us to the close of this 
episode in New Orleans history. 

January 12 a body of sixty men were stationed at Xatchez to examine into 
the character and purpose of all passing vessels. 

January 14 General Adair arrived from Tennessee, and reported that he 
had left Burr at Nashville on December 22, about to leave with two flat boats 
for New Orleans. This aroused indignation and suspicion. Adair that very 
day was dragged from dinner at his hotel, and taken to a place of confinement 
by 120 men under Lieutenant-Colonel Kingston and one of Wilkinson's aids. 

The New Orleans volunteers and part of the regular troops then paraded 
the city, arresting Kerr, Workman and Bradford. Bradford was, however, in- 
stantly released, and on the following day a writ of habeas corpus was issued in 
favor of Kerr and Workman. Adair was secretly hurried away. (Martin.) 

On the 15th Burr actually arrived at Natchez, and expressed his willingness 
to submit to proper authorities, represented by the Honorable Cowles !Mead, 
acting-governor of Mississippi. Burr was placed imder bonds to the amount 



134 STANDARD HISTORY OP NEW ORLEANS. 

of $10,000 to appear before the Supreme Court, but he made his escape, and. 
despite a reward of $2,000 offered for his apprehension, made his way witli 
"an active, well mounted party of men" to Washington. 

Though Aaron Burr was finally arrested and brought to trial, he was ac- 
quitted with the verdict "not proven." His life, however, was ruined, his hopes 
blasted, his pride crushed ; a fitting end for a traitor, whose discharge from the 
courts of law will never exonerate him in the pages of the just and careful his- 
torian. 

Thus terminated the famous Burr affair in K^ew Orleans, for their part in 
which General Wilkinson and Governor Claiborne were publicly thanked March 
27, 1807, in addresses, to which they made fitting response. 

While the foregoing events may seem trivial and their details unnecessary, 
they were of great importance in the evolution of New Orleans as a city of the 
United States. Her mettle was tried, her patriotism proved, her pulse felt, and 
in this manner preparation made for a great conflict, towards which, even then, 
events were slowly tending, and which was to prove, beyond doubt, the fidelity 
of our city and the valor of its inhabitants. 

It may be as well to speak briefly of the fact that in April, 1809, General 
Wilkinson arrived in New Orleans with a number of United States troops, in 
the collecting of which he had been authorized by the Secretary of War, a conflict 
with Great Britain seeming ar that time imminent and imi>ending. These 
troops were quartered in the iinhealthy lands of Terre aux Boeufs, about eight 
miles below the city, and in a few months 795 had perished out of 1,953. This 
fact, with other causes, rendered Wilkinson very impopnlar, and in December 
iic was succeeded by General Wade Hampton, father of the famous Southern 
soldier. 

We will pass over the revolt of Bayou Sara in 1810 against the Spaniards, 
and the various events that, April 30, 1812, made Louisiana a state, with the 
faithful Claiborne still at her head as governor. We now come to the War of 
1812, in which Xcw Orleans played so important a part, that its causes must 
be briefly mentioned, although they belong to the history of the United States. 
In order, however, that events may be seen in their proper perspective, some 
mention must be made of affairs which shook the whole country, and filled with 
anxiety and eager longings the inhabitants of iN^ew Orleans. 

The arrogance of England, and the t 1 iin|)ertincnce of her attitude. 

toward tile United States, were enouiili In justify a declaration of war on the 



STANDARD II I STONY OF NEW ORLEANS. I3S 

part of Jefferson, who was president in 1808. England and France were then 
at war, and the former, by her "orders of council," forbade any traffic of Amer- 
ica with the latter, or with any of the French dependencies. 

This gave Great Britain boundless liberties in examining our ships and 
seizing our seamen, under the pretense of searching for British deserters. 
France, by her retaliatory measures, the Berlin and Milan decrees made matters 
worse, and Jefferson's famous embargo act was the last straw vipon the back of 
crippled American commerce. True, this act of Jefferson's was repealed just 
before the inauguration of Madison ; but, though America showed great patience 
under her afflictions, and was indeed averse to war at that particular time, it 
became unavoidable, and on June 18, 1812, was declared by act of Parliament, 
the motion being carried by a vote of 79 to 49 in the House of Representatives, 
and by 19 to 13 in the Senate, and the peace-loving president signified bis ap- 
proval of the act. 

For the first year or two of the war but little active part was taken by New 
Orleans, though on the 15th of July, 1812, Brigadier-General Wilkinson as- 
sumed command, and a steamboat was sent down to Fort St. Philip for the pur- 
pose of reconnoitering. It returned September 2 without having seen a sign 
of the enemy. By the 20th of December six uniformed companies of militia 
were ready for action in the city, and on that day the Seventh U. S. Infantry, 
which had been quartered at Pass Christian, marched into town under Major 
Gibson. January 6, 181.3, the Third U. S. Infantry, under Colonel Constant, 
arrived. The Orleans Guards, Captain Reynolds, and Louisiana Blues were 
ready for action, also. 

On January 12, 1813, the ship Jane, from Greenock, Scotland (twelve men 
and twelve guns), the first really valuable prize of this port, was taken by the 
privateer schooner Spy, and brought to New Orleans. 

It was in 1814 that events began to crowd thick and fast. Colonel JSTicholls, 
the British commander, then at Pensacola, Florida, sent emissaries and proc- 
lamations endeavoring to incite the Louisianians to revolt, promising to restore 
them to Spain, holding out tempting offers, threatening, entreating, command- 
ing. All this was received with contempt by those to whom it was addressed, 
who, while they might distrust each other, remained universally faithful to their 
country. The Creoles then, as always, were loyal patriots and brave soldiers, 
and even those of Spanish descent did not love the British siifficiently to yield 
to them. However, the knowledge of Nicholls' manauvers caused great anxiety 



^ 




136 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

in the city, and, being I'eported to the government by Claiborne, caused active 
measures to be taken; and the news soon came that volunteer troops would be 
sent from Kentucky and Tennessee, and that Andrew Jackson, the most famous 
officer in the American army, would take command. (Dimitry.) 

The citizens of I^ew Orleans, thinking it time to do something toward the 
defense of their city, held a meeting September 15 (1814) at Tremoulet's coffee 
house, Edward Livingston, a true patriot and brilliant orator, presiding, while 
^d^!^:?:^:^ Richard Relf acted as secretary. A committee of nine men, as follows, was ap- 

ointed to coojjerate with the government for the safety of the state: Edward 
Livingston, Pierre Foucher, Dusan de Jia Croix, Benjamin, George M. Ogden, 
Dominique Bouligny, J. Noel Destrehan, John Blanque and August in 
Macarty. 

During the meeting the charge of disaffection toward the government, made 
by the British, was indignantly denied, and on the 2-ith of the month the com- 
mittee published a fine address written by Livingston, which did much to excite 
the patriotism of the city. But when Legislature assembled N'ovember lOtii 
little was done, the mutual distrust and lack of confidence crippling the entire 
body, and six weeks after it convened we find Louis Louaillier, chairman of the 
committee of ways and means, complaining that "No proof appears of patriot- 
ism, but in a disposition to avoid all expense, all fatigue." In fact, suspicion 
and hesitation and confusion ruled the city until the arrival of General Jackson 
December 2, 1814, when order and confidence were restored, proving how much 
the personality of a great man can do. Even the dread of England, which had 
humbled "the mighty Napoleon," failed to benumb and paralyze the efforts of our 
brave New Orleanians toward the defense of their country. 

There is a little story told to the effect that the old housekeeper of J. Kilty 
Smith, at whose home on the Bayou St. John Jackson was received, was much 
disappointed when she saw, instead of an imposing looking general, "an ugly 
old Kaintuck flat boatman." But whatever his appearance, Jackson was a mili- 
tary genius, and his power was felt from the moment of his arriving in New 
Orleans. 

An interesting episode previous to these events was the expedition against 
the Baratarian smugglers (by some called pirates), who, with their brave leaders, 
Pierre and John Lafitte, occupied the Island of Grand Terre. On his arrival 
the indefatigable Colonel Nicholls had made overtures to this band, offering 
John Lafitte $30,000 and a captaincy in the British army. This offer was re- 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 137 

fused; and Lafittc iiistoad proffered his services to Governor ClaiUorne. The 
governor, acting on the advice of the oiRcers of the army, militia and navy, re- 
fused this offer, and instead sent an expedition, which captured the Baratarian 
stronghold in September, 1814. Jackson, however, accepted the services of the 
Lafittes and the Baratarians, who fought so well that they received the general's 
thanks and a full pardon at the close of the war. 

The trooj^s at this time in Xew Orleans did not present a very formidable 
appearance ; in the seventh and forty-fourth regiments of the United States be- 
tween seven and eight hundred men ; Major Blanche's battalion of volunteers, 
500; two regiments of state militia, containing about 1,000, besides 150 sailors 
and marines, and a battalion of free colored men, making in all an aggregate of 
2,000. On the river were two men-of-war, the ship Louisiana and the schooner 
Carolina, but neither was in a state of preparation. When, on December I'Jth, 
General Carroll had arrived with 2,500 Tennesseeans, and on the 20th General 
Coffee with 1,200 riflemen from the same state, the forces amounted to between 
six and seven thousand men, including United States regulars, Louisiana volun- 
teers and militia and the Tennesseeans. Those old enough to be exempted from 
duty had joined in companies of veterans, formed to preserve order. The people 
were by this tim,e aflame with zeal, and were working tooth and nail for the 
preservation of their city. 

On the 18th of December Jackson reviewed all troops in i^ew Orleans, and 
a fine address was read by Edward Livingston to the embodied militia, to the 
battalion of uniform companies and to the men of color. The following is a 
brief extract : 

" Xatives of the United States: They are the oppressors of your infant 
political existence with whom you have to contend ! They are the men your 
fathers conquered whom you are to oppose. Descendants of Frenchmen! Na- 
tives of France ! They are English, the hereditary, the eternal enemies of your 
ancient coiuitry, the invaders of that country you have adopted, who are your foes I 
Spaniards ! Remember the conduct of your allies at St. Sebastian and recently 
at Pensacola, and rejoice that you have an opportunity of avenging the brutal 
injuries inflicted by men who dishonor the human race." 

Major-General Villere of the state militia with 600 men reached the city 
on the 29th. 

Later (early in January) General Thomas and General Adair, with k',000 
poorly equipped Kentuckians, joined our forces. So ragged and miserable were 



138 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

these men, and also some of the Tennesseeans, that on the suggestion of Louail- 
lier an appropriation of $6,000 was made for their relief. This was swelled 
from other sources to $16,000, and the ladies of New Orleans made up the ma- 
terial purchased into wearing apparel, which in about a week was distributed 
and put to iise. We are, however, anticipating events, for an affair of much 
importance took place about the 12th of December. This was the Battle of 
Lake Borgne. 

In November the magnificent fleet of the British, at least fifty armed ves- 
sels, was sighted off Pensaeola. The largest was the Tonnant, an eighty -g-un 
boat, won by Nelson at the battle of the Nile, and commanded by the dreaded 
Admiral Sir Alexander Cochrane. Among the ships M'ere five of seventy-four 
guns, one of fifty, one of forty-four, several of thirty-eight, one of thirty-six, 
one of thirty-five, several of thirty-two, five of sixteen guns, three bomb crafts, 
eleven transports and various other vessels; in all, about 1,000 giuis, 10,000 
sailors and the army of 7,500. The entire British expedition against Louisiana 
amounted to 14,450, in three divisions, General Sir Edward Packcnham being 
commander in chief. General Gibbs commanding the first division. General Lam- 
bert the second. General Keane the third. The fleet was under Admirals Coch- 
rane, Codrington and Malcolm. The British fleet reached the entrance to Lake 
Borgne December 10, 1814, and light draft vessels with troops immediately 
entered that body of water. A little American flotilla of five gun-boats, 182 
men and twenty-three guns, \mder Commander Thomas A. Jones, was then recon- 
noitering in Lake Borgne. Pursued by the enemy (forty-three barges, with as 
many cannon and 1,200 men, under Captain Lockyer), and prevented by the 
winds from escaping, the little flotilla stood at bay, near the Rigolets, and after 
a gallant fight both Jones and Parker, who took his place, being severely 
wounded, was compelled to surrender to the enemy. The American loss was 
ten men killed, forty-five wounded ; of the British nearly 300 were killed and 
wounded. This battle left New Orleans defenseless, and the enemy master of 
the lakes. 

Jackson had been indefatigable in measures for tJie defense of New Or- 
leans. He had visited the forts and had them strengthened, and others estab- 
lished. He had had Bayou Manchac and other outlets leading from the Mis- 
sissippi to the lakes, closed ; and after the battle of the 12th had sent Major 
Lacoste with the dragoons of Felicina, and the battalion of colored men to the 
rear of the city. Another "colored" battalion was formed, chiefly of refugees 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 139 

from St. Domingo, and placed under the command of Major Daquin. Seven- 
teen thousand dollars ■was given to Jackson to use in such fortifications and 
batteries as he might deem necessary, and $11,000 more was afterward given 
him for the same purpose. Hands were asked of the planters to assist in build- 
ing, and were supplied in great numbers. Debts were forgiven, inducements 
held out to volunteers, the writ of habeas corpus was suspended, and strict mar- 
tial law declared. The people did everything in their power to assist. Special 
mention should be made of the fact that the French subjects, instead of taking 
shelter in their nationality, eagerly volunteered their services, being urged to do 
so by the French consul, the Chevalier de Tousac. 

On the night of December 21, a detachment of the British army (which had 
landed at Pine Island), reached Villere's Canal, through the Bayou Bienvenu 
(it is thought, owing to the treachery of some Spanish fisherman). On their 
way they captured a little band of nine Americans, stationed as an outpost on 
the Bayou de Catiline. On the 23rd, a force of about 3,000 British troops sur- 
rounded Villere's plantation, in which was a company of militia, and took them 
all prisoners. Yoimg Major Villere, however, made his escape, and, having 
killed his favorite dog to avoid detection on the road, reached the city about 
two o'clock, in time to warn General Jackson of the enemy's approach. Jackson 
hastened to station his men in v^hat he thought the best manner; a detachment 
of artillery, with two field pieces and a body of marines being sent in advance ; 
the Tennessee riflemen, Mississippi dragoons and Orleans riflemen, to a planta- 
tion two miles below the city, followed by the battalion of negroes, 44th regiment, 
and a battalion of the city militia. Claiborne and two regiments of the state 
militia imdertook to guard the Gentilly Road in case of a possible approach from 
Chef Menteur. The Carolina, under Commodore Patterson, was sent toward the 
enemy. 

Jackson, in this emergency, acted with great promptitude and energy. The 
same quickness and activity on the part of the British might have made Xew 
Orleans theirs. But they delayed, and when at lialf-past seven, Jackson and 
his troops having reached the Villere plantation, the Carolina fired a terrific 
broadside in among the British, they were fairly dazed for a moment, and a 
hundred of them were slain before they had grasped the situation. Most of 
them, in fact, were engaged in preparing supjier. 

When ready for battle, Jackson's left wing was drawn up in line between 
Lacoste's and Laronde's plantations. The seventli and forty-fourth regiments 



■J 



(^ 



140 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

formed a battalion before the enemy, and soon commenced fire. To the right 
■were Planche's and D'Aquin's battalions, and toward the wood, eighteen Choc- 
taw Indians, commanded by Captains Jugeaut and Allard. To Colonel Eoss 
was given superior command of the battalions of militia. Coffee's division came 
later, to fall on the rear of the enemy, and 350 of the state militia, stationed at 
English Turn, imder Captain Morgan, advanced to assist, upon hearing the guns, 
but, not being able to find their way in the darkness, retreated. The artillery 
occupied the high road. 

The Br +ish boats were, meanwhile, busily landing reinforcements to the 
number of 2,500 men, the 21st, 44th and 93rd regiments, and a division of ar- 
tillery. The Isr regi:>ient was stationed at an angle of the road. Other troops 
were stationed on the sides of the levee; outposts were between Laronde's and 
La Coste's plantations, and among the negro huts of the latter place. A detach- 
ment of the rocket brigadb was placed behind the levee, and a few cannon near 
Villere's sugar works. In all, there were 4,500 of the enemy; less than 2,200 
of our men. The battle that followed Jackson's command, "Now, boys, give it 
to them for the honor of America," was full of confusion in the darkness. At 
one time, some of Pla^iclie's men took the 44th for British troops, and com- 
menced firing on them. But, though nothrag was really gained, neither side be- 
ing victorious, the British loss was over 400, killed, wounded and prisoners ; 
ours, 24 killed, 115 wounded and 75 prisoners. This is on Engineer Latour's 
authority. 

Meanwhile, in the city, great anxiety was felt, owing to a report that Jack- 
son had given orders to blow up the powder magazine and set fire to the houses 
if the enemy were successful ; and also that the British were inciting the slaves 
to rebellion. Confidence in the General, however, returned with the morning. 

After the battle of the 23rd, Jackson complimented : " The 7th, led by 
MajorPwie, and the 44th, by Colonel Boss ; the battalion of city militia imder 
:Major Blanche, who behaved like veterans; Savary's brave colored men; the 
city riflemen, and Colonels Butler and Piatt, Major Chotard, Colonel Haynes, 
Messrs. Livingston, Duplessis and Davezac, Colonel de Laronde, Major Villere 
of the Louisiana Militia, Major Latour of the engineers, and Drs. Kerr and 

Elood." 

Jackson decided at daybreak to retire to his position behind Rodriguez 
Canal, in reality an old mill-race, partly filled and covered with grass. 

On the 27th the British, by hot shot, set fire to the Carolina, and after she 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 141 

had been abandoned by the crew, her powder magazine blew np. On the 28th, 
their artillery played on the Louisiana, but she answered with such tremendous 
fire that after seven hours of cannonading, the enemy's columns were broken and 
forced to retire, to the great credit of the Louisiana and of Lieutenant Thomp- 
son. The British were forced to abandon several batteries which they had 
erected on the river the night before. Rockets were thrown all day, but while 
terrifying at first to the American forces, unaccustomed to such means of war- 
fare, they did little damage to troops drawn up or behind ramparts. On the 
28th we lost 7 men killed, 10 wounded, among the former Colonel Henderson of 
Tennessee. The British lost perhaps two or three hundred. 

On the 1st, as soon as a heavy fog had lifted (about 8 a. m.), three batteries 
of the British opened fire on General Jackson's headquarters, but were answered 
so vigorously that about 1 p. it. two were abandoned. The swampy ground in- 
terfered greatly with the progress of the British. 

About this time the second division of the Louisiana militia, under Major 
General Thomas, arrived from Baton Kouge. 

The culminating battle of the war occurred on the 8th, which is to-day cele- 
brated as a legal holiday. Jackson had intrenched his forces behind the ancient 
mill-race that ran, in appearance, like an old draining ditch along the Bodriguez 
and Chalmette plantations, five miles below the city. A parapet was raised, 
which on the 8th extended cannon proof as far as the woods. The levee had 
been broken in places, and the water allowed to flow in so as to insulate the 
enemy as much as possible. In making the embankment, cotton bales were tried, 
but did not prove cannon proof. o~^ ^'^"^^ '"^ ^^ "*■■*■" ~ ^~*- ^"^—f^^-^^--^^-*^ 

The American troops were stationed as follows : 

On the levee road Battery No. 1, imder Captain Humphre^^s of the TJ. S. 
artillery ; in the most elevated position, seventy feet from the river bank. Battery 
2, imder Lieutenant Norris; 90 yards from No. 1, and 50 from No. 2, Battery 
No. 3, imder Captains Dominipa and Bluche; 20 yards from No. 3, Battery 
No. 4, imder Lieutenant Crawford ; 170 yards from No. 4, Battery No. 5, 
imder Colonel Perry and Lieutenant Kerr; 36 yards from No. 5, Battery No. 
6, under Lieutenant Flaujeac ; 190 yards from No. 6, Battery No. 7, imder Lieu- 
tenants Spotts and Chauveau ; 60 yards from No. 7, Battery No. 8, under a cor- 
poral of artillery. Blanche's Battalion was between 2 and 4 ; D'Aquin's colored 
regiment between 4 and 5. 

At the bend where the woods began, in a miserable mud Ijole, General Coffee >^ 



^ 



142 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

and General Carroll, with their Tennesseeans and Kentuckians, awaited the 
enemy. There was a redoubt on the river, and a company of the Seventh Regi- 
ment, under Lieutenant Ross. 

On the British side were regiments 4th, 44th, 21st, 85th, 93rd and 'JSth. 

A thick fog enabled the enemy to approach very close, sixty or seventy 
deep, before they were perceived. They had repaired their abandoned batteries. 
When Jackson gave the sigiial, and his men three cheers, a perfect volley of artil- 
lery ensued on both sides. 

On the opposite bank of the river, with batteries which Commodore Patter- 
son had erected, was General Morgan with the Orleans contingent, the Louisiana 
militia and Kentucky troops. 

The enemy continued to press forward for an hour in spite of the incessant 
fire. General Patkenham, the commander. General Gibbs and General Keane 
were mortally wounded, and the command fell to Lambert. It was evident after 
a while that the British were falling back. Colonel Rennie, the brave com- 
mander who, with a detachment, stormed the redoubt, was killed just as he 
leaped on the wall, and the city riflemen mowed down his men. 

But as victory seemed certain on the left of Jackson's line, the right fell 
back. There is much excuse to be made for this, as they were in an exceedingly 
difficult position — in a regular swamp, faint with hunger and greatly fatigued. 
General Humbert with a reinforcement of 400 came to their aid ; but it was not 
until a truce had been sought for to provide for the dead and wounded, and 
Lambert during its negotiation had crossed the river, that Jackson was able to 
retake the former excellent position of his right-hand troops. 

Across the river General Morgan was attacked by the British, under Colo- 
nel Thornton, and, being taken by surprise, his men were routed. But the 
British did not follow up this victory, and it did not benefit them. 

The day was really ours when, at 10 o'clock a. m.. General Lambert rie- 
quested a temporary truce that the dead and \vounded might be cared for. The 
actual fighting is said to have lasted only about an hour. The detachment which 
Lambert expected as a reinforcement failing to pass Fort St. Philip, the British 
commander decided to evacuate, and on the night of January 18th the enemy 
silently stole away, leaving, according to Dimitrv, their huts and flags, with 
stuffed unifomis for sentinels. Much credit is due Jackson for the fact that he 
did not attempt to piirsue the enemy, wisely concluding that the lives of his brave 
soldiers were of more account than the glory which might accrue to him from 
taking a number of prisoners. 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 143 

The American loss during the entire campaign consisted of 55 killed, 85 
wounded, 93 missing; total 238. Only 13 were killed and wounded on the 8th. 

The entire British loss, according to Major-General Lambert, was as follows : 
Killed, 1 major-general, 1 lieutenant-colonel, 2 majors, 5 captains, 2 lieutenants, 
11 sergeants, 1 drummer and 266 rank and file ; wounded, 2 major-generals, 3 
lieutenant-colonels, 2 majors, 18 captains, 38 lieutenants, 9 ensigns, 1 staff of- 
ficer, 34 sergeants, 9 drummers and 1,126 rank and file; missing, 3 captains, 12 
lieutenants, 13 sergeants, 4 drummers, 452 rank and file ; in all, 289 killed, 1,242 
wounded and 484 missing, an aggregate loss of 2,015. 

In the brief relation of the foregoing battles I have followed rather closely 
the accounts of Major Latour and of Judge Martin, both of whom are careful 
historians and were present on the scene of action. Major Latour speaks poet- 
ically of the laurel and cypress growing in such abundance among the swamps 
near the scene of these events. The laurel seemed to wave for the Americans ; 
the cypress for the brave British soldiers, who, after fighting against the famous 
army of N^apoleon, fell before our inexperienced militiamen. 

In reality, the Battle of New Orleans was fought after the War of 1812 
was at an end ; for the Treaty of Ghent had been signed on the 24th of Decem- 
ber, but the news did not reach this country till the 18th of February. It was not 
till March 13th that Jackson was officially notified of the conclusion of the war, 
and in the meantime, being determined to preserve martial law, he had become 
involved in controversies with the editor of the Louisiana "Gazette," whom he 
"muzzled" for publishing premature news of peace; with the French consul, 
who dispensed certificates of French citizenship to assist in evading the military 
rule, and whom Jackson ordered to leave the city in three days; with Louis 
Louiaillier, who published in the Louisiana "Courier" an article criticising these 
high-handed proceedings ; with Judge Dominie A. Hall, who granted to Louiail- 
lier a writ of habeas corpus; and with Mr. Hollander, who expressed disapproval 
of the general's actions. The three last offenders were arrested, but on the ar- 
rival of news from "Washington were released. Afterwards Jackson was fined 
$1,000 by the United States District Court, which fine he paid without com- 
plaint. At the close of March he left the city. 

On January 23rd a solemn Thanksgiving was held in Xew Orleans. There 
■was a grand procession of soldiers, and in Jackson Square, under a triumphal 
arch erected where his statue now stands, the great commander was crowned with 
laurel by a yoimg girl representing Louisiana. 



144 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

Congress aftenvards passed resolutions congratulating Louisiana on her 
brave part in the contest with Great Britain, and extending a full pardon to 
the Lafittes and their gallant Baratarians. 

When Texas asserted herself as a free republic; when the United States 
determined to adopt her into its ovni dominions; when the Alamo and Cross 
atrocities, and the outrageous behavior of Santa Anna, had precipitated war be- 
tween this country and Mexico. Louisiana did not prove backward in assisting 
her neighbors. !Many reasons made this seem right and wise. One was the 
suspicion afloat tLat England, desiring the emancipation of slaves in the United 
States (for her own financial advantage), had "bought" Mexico, and would fur- 
nish that country with funds necessary for carrying on a war with the United 
States. Of course, anything that tended to interfere with slavery would be ob- 
noxious to the Southern States. But this was only a rumor, though, in view of 
coming events, an interesting one. The real cause of the enthusiasm of New 
Orleans dviring the Mexican War, and her zeal in sending troops to take part in 
the struggle, is to be found in her SA-mpathy for Texas, her indignation against 
the Mexican atrocities, and the natural courage and love of adventure among her 
young sons. So when General Sam Houston, "president of the new republic," 
visited this city May 24th, 1845, and spoke in behalf of his country, he found 
a ready and enthusiastic response to his eloquence. 

A meeting at the "Banker's Arcade," Dr. 1). Bullard, chairman, and Alex- 
ander Walker, secretary, was held April 22, 1845, at which a committee of 
twenty-five was appointed to form resolutions in regard to the question of Texas 
annexation, which resolutions were to the effect that the proposed annexation 
of Texas was "a great American measure," and that "the doctrine which would 
exclude a new territory because slavery exists in it, conveys ... an injuri- 
ous imputation upon the slaveholding states already in the Union." 

Texas became a part of the United States by "joint resolution," which 
passed Congress, and was signed by President Tyler March 1, 1845. 

About this time General Edmimd P. Gaines, stationed in the vicinity of 
New Orleans, sent a request to Governor Mouton that he might raise in Louisiana 
two regiments of volunteers and two companies of artillery with eight field pieces. 
This reqiiest was immediately granted, and $100,000 was voted by Legislature 
to the assistance of Texas. It may as well be here mentioned that General 
Gaines had not tlie proper authority tor acting as he did ; that he showed great 
ofiiciousness ; that the matter was afterwards brought before the administration 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. i45 

at Washington, and that his conduct was finally excused on account of the patri- 
otic if somewhat exaggerated, zeal he had displayed. 

During August, 1845, excitement in jSTew Orleans became intense. "The 
war'' was a constant topic. Volunteers came forward readily. On the 19th 
Captain Forno's first company of volunteer artillery (100) was mustered into 
service of the United States. Various troops passed through the city on their 
Avay to the scene of action, adding to the general interest. On the 21st Major 
Gally's company of volunteer artillery, the cannoneers (123 in number) was 
mustered in. It was officered as follows : Captain, E. L. Bercier ; senior first 
lieutenant, Thomas Trelford ; junior first lieutenant, Gustave Percaux ; second 
lieutenant, F. H. ilenriqueux. 

"The ?f ative American Artillery Company" was officered by Captain Henry 
Forno, Senior First Lieutenant J. E. Ealer, Jimior First Lieutenant W. J. 
Lewis, Second Lieutenant David A. Bickel. 

In I^ovember Hon. John Slidell, being appointed by the president envoy- 
extraordinary and minister plenipotentiary to Mexico, visited the capital of that 
country, but was refused a hearing, and returned to the United States. 

In the early part of May Captain Forno and Colonel Doane opened lists for 
the enrolling of volunteers, and by the evening of the 2nd had secured seventy. 
On that evening was held a meeting of the officers of the Louisiana Legion to 
discuss the raising of volimteers, at which Brigadier-General Augustin presided ; 
one by the Louisiana Volunteers, and one by the Washington Battalion, which 
was addressed by General Persifer Smith, so untiring in his efforts and after- 
wards so gallant a soldier. 

Business and public meetings were also held. On the 4th a cash bounty of 
$10 being given each recruit, the work went on briskly, and about 1,000 men 
were enrolled. The citizens of New Orleans were indefatigable, and Mr. Ben- 
jamin Story placed $500,000 at the disposal of the state for use in the war. 

During this month Captain Marks raised three companies and part of a 
fourth. Colonel Hunt two, and Colonel Langdon reported that his ranks were 
rapidly filling. By May 7th these companies were organized. 

Clinton Guards, Captain Chase ; Orleans Boys, C. F. Hunt ; Company A 
Orleans Riflemen, Captain Head; Louisiana Grays, Captain Breedlove; Ger- 
man Yagers, Captain Soniat ; two companies Louisiana volunteers. Captains 
Glenn and Stockton; Company B Orleans Invincibles, Captain White; Native 
Americans, Captain Stockbridge; Eclaireurs No. 1, Captain Crevon; company 



146 STANDARD HISTORY OF SEW ORLEANS. 

of Tigers, Captain Emerson. On the 10th that fine brigade the "Louisiana Le- 
gion," offered themselves. General Lafayerte Sanders received a commission 
from General Gaines to raise a regiment of mounted infantry. 

By May 15th, the four regiments asked for by General Taylor were or- 
ganized, and contained the following numbers of men : 

Colonel J. B. Walton's regiment, colonel and staff, 3 ; Captain Isaac F. 
Stockton's company, 66 ; Captain E. C. Stockton's company, 63 ; Captain J. W. 
Bryce's company, 61; Captain Thomas Glenn's company, 64; Captain J. B. 
Breedlove's company, 72; Captain George Tobin's company, 61; Captain H. 
B. Case's company, 82 ; Captain P. Soniat's company, 64 ; Captain J. M. Van- 
dergriff's company, 65 ; and Captain G. W. White's company, 67 ; total in the 
regiment, 668. 

Colonel J. F. Marks', the Jackson regiment, colonel and staff, 11; Captain 
S. C. Head's company, 66 ; Captain C. S. Hunt's company, 75 ; Captain R. G. 
Comstoek's company, 98 ; Captain E. H. Fountain's company, 75 ; Captain 
Eeal's company, 100; Captain M. Willard's company, 104; Captain G. M. 
Graham's company, 96 ; Captain J. W. Keene's company, 68 ; Captain E. A. 
Stewart's company, 96; Captain Staple's company, 93; total in the regiment, 
882. 

Colonel James H. Dakin's regiment, colonel and staff, ; Captain A. F. 

Eudler's company, 65; Captain Smith's company, 64; Captain McXemara's 
company, 65 ; Captain E. Crevon's company, 61 ; Captain G. S. Eosseau's com- 
pany, 112 ; Captain A. G. Blanchard's company, 63 ; Captain Sewall's, 65 ; Cap- 
tain Woodland's, 60 ; Captain Gryce's, 90 ; and Captain Eicardo's, 71 ; total in 
the regiment, 716. 

The Montezuma regiment, colonel and staff, ; Captain Depasher's 

company, 64; Captain P. Wirth's, 82; CaiDtain C. K. Johnson's 64; Captain 
George Doane's, 77 ; Captain J. F. Girault's, 63 ; Captain George Price's, 62 ; 
Captain Buhler's, 62 ; Captain Galbraith's, 61 ; Captain Ozier's, 62 ; and Captain 
John E. Smith's, 71 ; total in the regiment, exclusive of staff, 668, and in the 
four regiments, 2,934. 

May 13th William de Buj's, late major-general, but enrolled as a private 
soldier, was appointed inspector-general of volunteer troops on the Eio Grande ; 
Lewis Texada was appointed volunteer aide de camp to General Gaines. 

On the I7th a fine sword was presented to General Smith by the Washington 
Guards. 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 147 

War was announced by President Polk May 11th to have actually begun. 
On the 13th Congress, declaring that ''by act of the Kepublic of Mexico," such 
was the case, called for 50,000 volunteers. 

In 'New Orleans, during the month of May, Colonel Peyton's regiment, the 
Taylor Guards, Orleans Blues, California Guards and various companies from 
the parishes of Mobile were formed, a total of about 500 men. On the 18th, in 
the Place d'Armes, was held a review of the Louisiana Legion, with the follow- 
ing companies : Orleans Guards, Captain P. Gardere, 60 ; Musqueteers, Cap- 
tain Mondelle, 70 ; Catalan Guards, Captain Veosca, 63 ; Cazadores de Orleans, 
Captain Trigo, 64 ; Eclaireurs d'Orleans, Captain Desrargue Lambert, 70 ; and 
Major Gally's battalion of artillery (200), which alone could be mustered into 
United States service. 

On May 19th five companies of the Fourth Eegiment left on the Mary 
Kingsland for Brazos St. Tago ; two of Colonel Dakin's and two of Colonel Da- 
vis' on the Ondiaka. On the 22nd General de Buys was presented with a sword, 
and on the 24th various dissatisfied officers resigned. 

On N^ovember 30th another requisition for troops was made upon Louisiana, 
limited to five companies of infantry of sixty-four men each, New Orleans be- 
ing the place of rendezvous. 

On Saturday evening. May 15, 1847, there was a grand illumination of the 
city: its hotels, private residences, court house and cathedral all brilliantly 
lighted and decorated with transparencies in honor of recent victories in Mexico. 
The first municipality was said to outdo the rest of the city. 

]^cw Orleans was kept constantly in touch with the military spirit of the 
times by the pasing and repassing through her streets of United States troops, 
both on their way to the scene of war and returning from it. On the 11th of June 
the bodies of Colonel Henry M. Clay and Colonel McKee, who had been stabbed 
to death while wounded on the field of Buena Vista, and that of Captain Lincoln 
lay in state at the arsenal on St. Peter street. November 25th Generals Quit- 
man and Shields and Colonel Harney were entertained at the St. Charles Hotel, 
and December 3rd a large procession formed in honor of General Taylor, on his 
way home from the "War." 

When the Louisiana troops returned a splendid triumph was given them 
(July 8, 1848), 10,000 people having collected to watch them march up St. 
Charles to Tivoli Circle. And in the evening, at the corner of Canal and Caron- 
delet, a patriotic address was made them by the governor, to which Colonel de 
Kusey replied, and a fine collation served them at the Place d'Armes. 



148 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

Some complaint was made by the local newspapers that the Louisiana troops 
were not given a chance to distingvTish themselves. But we should not forget the 
valor of General Smith, in whose brigade was Captain Blanchard's company of 
Louisiana volunteers, and who distinguished himself at Monterey, Contreras, 
Churubusco, Chapultepec and the capture of the City of Mexico; he was made 
brigadier-general in 1856, while Zachary Taylor himself, who became president 
November, 1848, had been for years a resident of this state. 

It is hardly worth while to touch upon the causes of the Civil War, except 
in so far as is necessary to make the courage and patriotism of the Southern 
soldiers well understood. It was not a conflict between the oppressors of a virtu- 
ous injured race, and the noble rescuers of that race, who came, like angels from 
heaven, with the flaming sword of war ; neither was it a struggle between pure 
and disinterested patriots on one side and cruel, unjust tyrants on the other. 
We are beginning at last to understand the virtues and failings of both Xorth 
and South. While slavery is an evil, its abolition a part of the world's progress, 
it is nevertheless a phase itself of evolution. It is the only condition possible 
at a certain stage of development, and the follies, atrocities and general worth- 
lessness of the negro evinced at certain periods since his attainment of citizen- 
ship make it very doubtful -whether he was quite ripe for freedom in 1863. 
Moreover, while slavery was by no means an easy or a happy state for the negro, 
it was better and higher than the wild savagery and cannibalism of his native 
Africa. Again, if the North was violent and insolent in its manner, the South 
showed a tendency to take tiro readily. ISTo one can deny that the war was a 
struggle of interests. If slavery had been as advantageous in Massachusetts or 
Maine as it was in Mississippi or Louisiana, all the abolitionists in the world 
would have been unable to shake the determination of a sagacious and not un- 
mercenary government, and the Southerners while defending their homes, and 
what they considered sacred rights, had also an eye to their pockets. The fol- 
lowing extract may be cited from the New Orleans "Daily Crescent," January 
3, 1861, in speaking of secession: 

"In the results which it will accomplish it will cause our city to advance 
rapidly in the path of commercial greatness ; it will secure this by concentrating 
the slave power from which nine-tenths of our wealth is derived. If a Southern 
Confederacy result, New Orleans must become its great emporium and mart, 
exporting its vast productions, and importing — which she does not do at all now 
— the foreign commodities for which they are exchanged. The manufactures 



STANDARD HISTORY OF XEW ORLEAXS. 149 

and mines and internal improvements of the South in their great development 
will have their agencies and marts in our midst. Our population will augment 
rapidly, hands will multiply with ample reminieration, and real estate attain a 
value it has never reached before. Prosperity will prevail in all channels and 
avenues of business, and over $200,000,000 by Northern authority, whic-h are 
now- expended annually by the South in Xorthern states, will from necessity be 
expended in our o^\ti cities and towns." 

The two sentimental events that influenced the people of the Xorth, while 
the government was preparing its own line of conduct, the publishing of *'Uncle 
Tom's Cabin" and the John Brown Raid, are now acknowledged to be the work 
of ignorant, unreasoning fanatics, who, like children playing with matches, and 
absolutely indifferent to the welfare or lives of others, were ready to set fire to 
anything for the gratification of their own narrow and fatal desires. 

But while we deny to John Brown and Harriet Beecher Stowe the martyr's 
crown, which so many would award them, it would be unjust not to acknowledge 
that they believed themselves in the right, and acted with unselfish and perhaps 
charitable motives. Many of the extreme abolitionists of the IvTorth were noble- 
minded men and women, whose views had been distorted and whose heads were 
somewhat turned. As for the Southerners, men and w-omen, they showed during 
the great conflict a courage, a cheerfulness, a patriotism, a perseverance, imsur- 
passed and perhaps unequalled in the military history of the world. 

From the time of the annexation of Texas slavery became a vexed question. 
The laws concerning fugitive slaves became more and more troublesome. The 
acquisition of California increased the difficulty of the position. The United 
States increased, expanded almost daily. What should the new states be — 
slave-holding or free ? All these things can only be touched upon. The split 
in the Democratic convention held at Charleston, S. C, April 23, 1860, was the 
beginning of the political ruin of the South, and when the Republican party 
elected Abraham Lincoln in November, secession was bound to follow. 

South Carolina left the Union December 20, 1860. This began tlie move- 
ment that ended with the Civil War. The people of Isew Orleans were at- 
tached to the Union, and for some time public sentiment wavered. But it was 
bound to turn at the end toward secession. Various meetings were held and soci- 
eties formed. At a "Grand Rally for the Union," held in Lafayette Square, 
Tuesday, May 8, 1860, and addressed by Isaac E. Morse, Michael Hahn and 
Judge Riestand, the call for Union men w-as signed by 107 names, beginning 



ISO STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

with E. W. Huntingdon and ending with Michael Hahn. This was, of course, 
previous to the secession of South Carolina. So was a mass meeting for state's 
rights four days later at Odd Fellows' Hall, the call heing signed by 600 citizens, 
headed by the name of W. E. Miles and ending with that of E. B. J. Stuart ; a 
meeting at the same place May 17, presided over by J. W. Zacharie and addressed 
by J. Madison Day, to ratify the Citizens' ticket for mimicipal offices, Lucius W. 
Place being candidate for mayor and J. Milton Eelf for street commissioner ; 
and a meeting May 30, also at Odd Fellows' Hall, in favor of John Bell for pres- 
ident of the United States. The call to this meeting was signed by 679 persons, 
and speeches were made by Mr. C. Eoselius, Hon. Eandall Himt, Mr. Jones and 
others. 

After South Carolina's bold move it was felt that some decided measures 
must be taken. A meeting was held January 2 at Odd Fellows' Hall by the 
"Southern Eights Association," and addressed by H. D. Ogden, Lieutenant- 
Governor H. M. Hyams, Professor J. D. B. de Bow, A. Fabre and Captain St. 
Paul. The next evening the Second Ward Southern Eights Association held 
a large meeting at No. 9 ISTew Basin and at Drvade's Market ; J. M. Eeid pre- 
sided over a similar meeting, at which B. S. Tappan and others made addresses. 
A meeting at Concert Hall by the Yoimg Men's Southern Eights Association 
followed, at which Colonel Lockridge and H. J. Leroy made speeches approving 
the action of South Carolina. The desire for secession grew stronger, and was 
evinced with gi-eat enthusiasm at a meeting in Odd Fellows' Hall January 4, 
1861, addressed by C. M. Bradford, B. S. Tappan, C. Clinch, John Claiborne, 
Harry Hayes, T. J. Semmes and T. Hunter, and at another meeting at the 
Ninth Street Market, addressed by Judge Walker, General Miles and Dr. Austin. 
Finally, when, on January 7, 1861, an election was held for delegates to the state 
convention, the results were as follows : 

Co-operation. Secession. 

Durant 3,918 P. E. Bouford 4,321 

Hoot 3,936 F. Labotut 4,325 

Roule 3,848 W. E. Adams 4,279 

Dufour 3,963 T. H. Kennedy 4,320 

Jonas 3,902 J. J. Michel 4,290 

Members of the convention elected from the several representative districts 
in New Orleans were as follows : 

First District, T. J. Semmes, J. N. Marks, B. S. Tappan, secession; second, 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 151 

J. A. Eozier, secession, W. T. Stocker, co-operation ; third, J. McCloskv, £. W. 
Estlin, A. H. Gladden, J. B. Slonson, secession ; fourth M. O. H. Norton, 
secession ; fifth, J. Hernandez, B. Aregno, secession ; sixt!i, J. Pemberton. seces- 
sion ; seventh, G. Clarke, J. Bernaiidez, co-operation ; eighth, O. LeBlanc, co- 
operation ; ninth, P. S. Wiltz, secession ; tenth, W. K. Miles, W. M. Perkuss, A. 
Walker, secession. 

The 8th of January. 1861, Avas ct^lebrateJ -uith great enthusiasm by all the 
military bodies in New Orleans^ as follows : (general Tracy's brigade, including 
the Washington artillery, the Louisiana Guards, Louisiana Grays, Orleans 
Cadets and Sarsfield Guards, Jefferson Rifles and General Palfrey's Brigade, 
including the Orleans Artillery, Louisiana Poot Pifles, German Yagers and sev- 
eral other companies. 

The following day, by order of Governor Moore, the Crescent City Rifles, 
forty-nine men, under Captain Gladden, Washington Artillery, seventy-two 
men, Captain Oscar Voorhies, second compaiiy. Chasseurs a Pieds, Captain S. 
Meilleur, forty men, Orleans Cadets, Captain Chas. Dreux, thirty-nine men, 
Louisiana Guards, Captain S. M. Todd, forty-five men, and Sarsfield Guards, 
Captain O'Hara, in all 201 men, setting out for the United States Arsenal at 
Baton Rouge, captured 50,000 stands of small arms from that place, four howit- 
zers, twenty pieces of heavy ordinance, one battery of six-pounders, one of twelve- 
poimders, 300 barrels of powder, and a quantity of ammunition. Col. J. B. 
Walton was in command of the whole expedition. 

On the tenth two companies of the Orleans artillery, under Captains Gomez, 
V. Hebard, first company of OI;ass('ui\^ a Fieds, Captain St. Paul, Chasseurs d' 
Orleans (1814-15), German Yagers and Lafayette Guards, 166 men altogether 
were ordered by the Governor to demand the surrender of Forts St. Philip and 
Jackson, and hoist the Pelican flag in place of that of the United States. About 
this time forty other men went up to Baton Rouge, and companies were organized 
by Captains Fremaux and Abodie, and Lieut. Mark L. Moore, Lieutenant- 
Colonel John A. Jacques organized a company of 100 men. Volunteers came 
forward rapidly. 

In the convention at Baton Rouge, Ex-Governor !Mouton presiding, the 
secession of Louisiana was decided upon, and January 26, 1801, went into effect. 
The committee of fifteen reporting was composed of Jno. Perkins, Madison, A. 
Dechuet, Ex-Governor, A. B. Roman, E. Sparrow, F. Gardere, L. J. Dupre, C. 
RoselinS; W. R. Miles, G. S. Lewis, G. Williamson, A. Talbot, T. J. Semines, A. 



152 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

Provosty, W. R. Barrow and J. K. Elgee. The vote for secession was 113 to 
seventeen. The convention came to the City Hall, Xew Orleans, and took 
charge of municipal affairs, which were immediately reconstructed to suit the 
new condition. On this occasion the Louisiana flag was raised for the first time 
over the City Hall. An inventory of the Custom House and Mint, made Febru- 
ary 11, 1861, shows value to the amount of $3,420,984.15. Seven delegates were 
sent to the convention of southern states held at Montgomery. 

On the 11th of April, 1861, four companies of about 400 men, commanded 
by Major C. M. Bradford, among them the Orleans Cadets, under Captain Chas. 
D. Dreux, left for Pensacola to join Colonel Gladden's regiment, and General 
Traces brigade, General Palfrey's Louisiana regiment and Major Augustin's 
battalion of Orleans Guards were ordered to assemble at their armories by Majoi^ 
General Lewis. 

Company B of the Crescent Rifles was Dreux's Louisiana Batallion. Com- 
pany A was officered by Captain S. W. Fisk (killed in the war). First Lieutenant, 
Thad. A. Smith, Second Lieutenants, N. T. N. Robinson and T. A. Fairies; 
Sergeants M. C. Gladden, W. E. Huger, D. D. Logan, W. M. Bridges ; Corporals 
W. Norton, W. G. O'Regan, W. P. Clark and S. R. Garrett. Military organi- 
zations were formed rapidly. Garibaldi Rifles, second company of Louisiana 
Foot Rifles, Captian Cornish's Southern Cadets, Walker's Rifles, Louisiana 
Guards, Crescent Blues, Major Coppen's Zouaves, who owed so much to the 
generosity of J. W. Zacharie; later the Jefferson Light Guards, "La Turcos," 
Chasseurs de Bayou, Bienville Guards and Montgomery Guards. But this is 
somewhat anticipating matters. The fall of Fort Sumter, under General 
Beauregard's attack, was celebrated April the 14th by the Orleans Artillery, 
who fired 100 guns at Jackson Square. In April also the fourth company of 
Louisiana Guards, with eighty-five men, prepared themselves for the defense o| 
the city. The Pelican Fire Company No. 1 organized for the same purpose. 
Other companies organized in April were the "Rough and Ready Rangers," 
ninety men, Orleans Cadets, Tiger Rifles, Perritt Guards, a company of sappers 
and miners. The purchase and equipment of the "Sumter" first confederate war- 
ship, was an important event of this month and so was the fair for tlie benefit of 
the soldiers, held by the indefatigable women of this city in Odd Fellows Hall. 
The proceeds were $12,. 516. 35. A fair was held afterwards at the St. Louis 
Hotel which netted a much larger sum. Toward the close of April Camp 
Metairie, at the Metairie race course was established, the name being afterwards 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 153 

changed to Camp Walker. It held about 4,000 men, and being unhealthfiil, was 
abandoned for a camp in Tangipahoa Parish. There was also a camp at what is 
now Audubon Park, then called Camp Louis. 

Companies formed in May were Company A of the Irish Brigade, and A of 
the American Rifles, Louisiana Rifles, Mercer Rifle Guard, Coast Rangers, 
Polish Legion, Violett Guards, named after W. A. Violett^ and wearing a violet- 
eolored uniform, Southern Pilot Guards, Taylor Cadets, Stephens Guards, Wash- 
ington Light Guards, Orleans Rifle Rangers, Lafayette Rifles, Perseverance 
Guards, Orleans Home Light Guards, Civic Guards, Ci'escent City Guards, Chal- 
mette Rifle Guards, Jefferson Davis Cadets. About 2,000 men had now left the 
city, and from 10,000 to 15,000 in or around it were ready for action. On the 
27th of the month the famous Washington Artillery left for Virginia, after an 
ovation at the City Hall and addresses by Rev. Dr. Leacock and Rev. Dr. Palmer. 

In June was formed the French Legion of five companies, composed of 
French citizens living in New Orleans, who generously offered their services to 
the government ; and in the following month, Lieutenant-Colonel Chas. Dreux, 
the first Louisiana officer to die for the South, was buried near the Bayou St. John, 
the address being delivered by Lieutenant-Colonel Adolphus Olivier. During 
this month was held a sale of property captured by Confederate privateers, 
amounting to $30,000. 

July 29, at Merchants' Exchange, was held a large meeting of citizens, at 
which $1,800 were contributed for the relief of wounded Confederate soldiers. 
Wm. A. Elmore presided at this meeting and Dr. Palmer and Judge Ogden made 
earnest and energetic addresses, the former referring to the great power of cotton 
and its influence upon the world. A standing committee of twenty-four was ap- 
pointed. 

On the .30th of July, the new iron Water-Works Building at the foot of 
Canal street, was given to the people by the City Council I0 be used as a depot 
of supplies, many planters having offered to send articles of produce if they could 
be properly disposed of. This noble charity, managed largely by Thos. Murray, 
came in the nick of time, for by the first of August the pittance of $10 per month, 
which had been paid to families of volunteer soldiers, had to cease, owing to the 
poverty and embarassments of the city. The blockade of the Gulf coasts caused 
great suffering among the poorer people and the generous gifts of the planters 
prevented actual starvation. For eight and one-half months the free market 
was open twice a week (beginning August 16), and the number of families re- 



154 STANDARD TIISTOBY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

ceiving help, from 723 the first day, reached a maximum of 2,000. When, April 
29, 1862, Commodore Farragiit reached the city and the storehouse was closed, 
1,940 families came for the last generous donation. On this day were distrib- 
uted eight bullocks, 140 busliels of cornraeal, six tierces of rice, four hogsheads 
of sugar, fourteen barrels of molasses, two barrels of mackerel, two boxes cod- 
fish, 400 cabbages, 80^0 bimches of leeks, twenty-four sacks of peas, one sack of 
turnips, two barrels of mess beef, one tierce of bacon, two sacks of beets and two 
barrels of sauerkraut. Perhaps the average nimiber of families receiving help 
the entire time may be stated as about 1,875. No finer or truer charity ever ex- 
isted, for those who gave were beginning themselves to feel the hardships of war. 

There were other charitable organizations at work in the city. One asso- 
ciation of twenty-five gentlemen at 58 Gravier street distributed supplies for the 
wounded soldiers. The women were indefatigable in their work, and the energy, 
determination and patriotism they displayed during these wretched years, has 
made them immortal. They urged the men to fight, sending old hoop skirts to 
those who preferred home comforts to battlefield hardships. They displayed 
unflinching patriotism, sometimes foolish and exaggerated, biit the outcome of 
true courage ; and in charitable work they were untiring. A Soldiers' Aid So- 
ciety, ofiicered by Mrs. P. G. Laidlaw, president ; Mrs. L. A. Whann, vice-presi- 
dent; and Mrs. H. M. Smith, secretary, sent clothing and delicacies to camp; 
and later was formed a society, of which Mrs. Parnele was secretary, for cloth- 
ing the children of soldiers. This society by January 7, 1862, had received 
$1,247.50 and a quantity of clothing. 

$100,000 was appropriated August 9, 1861, for the defense of the city, 
which sum was placed in the hands of Major-General David Emmamiel Twiggs. 
The following month there was another public sale of property brought into port 
by privateers. S'he ship, American Union, $15,500 ; J. H. Jarvis, $14,250 ; C. 
A. Farwell, $17,500; Ariel, $18,250; Lemuel Dyer, $1,150; bark Chester, 
$3,500; State of Maine, $11,000; schooner E. S. James, $500; a total of $81,- 
650. 

On the 23rd of November, 1861, a great military review was held, in which 
25,000 soldiers took part, and which as many ladies enthusiastically witnessed. 
At this time William Kussell, an Irish correspondent of the London Times, 
stated in an article, that if the Confederate finances were as sound as their fight- 
ing, they would have a great chance for success. The New Orleans papers re- 
plied that a country which could send 400,000 to 500,000 men into the field and 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. i55 

maintain thcni tlierp a? lonp: as was neccssarv, must be in a sound financial con- 
dition. 

In December were organized the Carondelet Light Infantry Company, the 
Edward Thompson Guards and the Crescent City Guards Xo. 3, composed of 
lis men. 

In January came a rumor of General Butler's arrival, but this was some- 
what premature, though a few soldiers had landed from ''The Constitution," at 
Ship Island. But at this time the capture of Xew Orleans was in contemplation 
and had been assigiied to General Butler. 

On February 15, 18G2, nearly all the fighting forces were ordered out of the 
city; the Louisiana Legion Brigade (General Buisson), consisting of two com- 
panies of artillery and three regiments of infantry; the First Brigade, of four 
regiments, an Irish regiment and several unattached companies. These were 
organized int« the militia of Louisiana, and on the 23rd, Buisson's Brigade and 
the Second Brigade, under General Labuzan, went into camp, and the First Bri- 
gade, Second Volunteer Brigade, General Tracy's and General Powell's Brigade 
were also called into service a little later. 

The European brigade, composed of French, English and other companies, 
was organized February 21, 1862, Major C. T. Buddecke, colonel; Major G. 
Delia Valle, lieut. colonel; Captain D. W. Sherman, major. 

About this time Beauregard issued a call for 5,000 men from Louisiana. 
Great confidence was felt in this general, while Albert Sidney Johnston, whom 
we now acknowledge one of the greatest southern soldiers, was censured for the 
flanking of Bowling Green, Ky., the advance up the Tennessee and Cumberland 
Kivers of the Union men, and the capture of Fort Donelson and Xashville. The 
general feeling just then, was that the South must he defended in Western Ten- 
nessee, and every thing was done to obtain volunteers, the companies of which 
were more popular than those of the militia, a private of the former occupying 
a much higher social position than one of the latter. 

Here may be inserted a list of Louisiana troops in the Army of Tennessee, 
when troops from the same state were brigaded by order of the War Department. 

First Louisiana regular infantry, under command of Col. D. W. Adams, 
succeeding Colonel Gladden (killed at Shiloh) ; 11th Louisiana, Col. S. F. 
Marks; 12th Louisiana, Col. S. M. Scott; 13th, Col. R. L. Gibson; 16th, Col. 
Preston Pond; ITth, Col. Hurd; 18th, Col. Mouton; 19th, Col. B. L. Hodge; 
20th, Col. Reichart; 25th, Col. S. W. Fisk; 21st Louisiana, Col. Kenqedy. 

Three companies of Clack's Battalion of Confederate Guards. 



IS6 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

Fifth Company Washington Artillery: Captains, W. I. Hodgson, C. H. 
Slocomb; 1st lieutenants, W. C. D. Vaught, J. A. Chalaron; 2nd lieutenants, 
Thos. L. Hero, Thos. M. Blair, A. J. Leverich, Chas. G. Johnson ; orderly ser- 
geants, A. Gordon Bakewell, John Bartley ; surgeon, J. C. Legare. 

Orleans Guards Battery, Miles Legion of Artillery, Watson's Battery, Point 
Coupee Batteries, Boon's Battery, Guy Dreux Cavalry Co., Orleans Light Horse 
(Lee's), Scott's 1st Louisiana Cavalry Co. 

On March 15, 1862, the city was placed under martial law by General Lov- 
ell, and all men refusing to take the oath of allegiance to the Confederate States 
were ordered to leave that district, which was placed under martial law. Wm. 
Freret, Cyprian Dufour, Pierre Soule and Henry D. Ogden were appointed pro- 
vost marshals. The price of provisions was lowered, beef being from eleven to 
seventeen cents a pound, and corn from $1.10 to $1.25 per bushel. Measures 
were also taken to prevent the use of gold and silver in place of Confederate 
currency. 

Albert Sidney Johnston li;:ving been killed in the Battle of Shiloh, was 
buried on the 1 1th, in the St. Louis cemetery, Rev. Dr. Leacoek officiating. 

In this battle (Shiloli) thousands of brave Louisiana troops took part, and 
many of our men lost their lives. 

We now come to a very painful passage in the history of New Orleans. The 
passage of our forts by Admiral Farragiit, was, it is true, a great naval manoeu- 
vre: but we should not forget the heroic defense made by Forts Jackson and 
St. Philip; the wretched, flimsy gunboats opposed by the Confederates to Far- 
ragut's magnificent forces and well equipped fleet ; nor the unprepared condition 
of 'Sew Orleans, from which General Lovell had wisely withdrawn his small 
forces, rather than lose them entirely to the Il^nion Army. 

At noon, April 24th, the Union admiral was before New Orleans. Ter- 
rible dismaj' and excitement prevailed. The cotton in the city "the King" on 
which so much was supposed to depend, was burned — $1,500,000 worth. So 
were other things that might serve as booty to the "Yankee" army. Thanks to 
the European brigade, order was kept in the city, and the more violent were pre- 
vented from setting fire to everything. 

The hanging of young ilumford, which occurred about this time, is still 
referred to with gTief and indignation by those who recall the sad event. The 
small Confederate army, under General Lovell, had wisely retreated, so that re- 
sistance to the enemy was of no avail. Still the mayor refused to surrender, and 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 157 

no agreement, had been made, when on April 27, the Commodore had the United 
States flag hoisted over tlie mint, and when a few daring men (Vincent Heffer- 
man, William B. Mnmford, N. Holmes, John Bums and James Keed) tore it 
down, and brought it to the ground. This fact renders the subsequent' execution 
of Mnmford, by Butler's orders, criiel and unjust. 

A bitter day for New Orleans was the 1st of May, 1862, and it was with 
anything but a holiday spirit that the people watched Butler's landing, and his 
grand street parade, the order of which was as follows : First Lieutenant Weigel 
of Baltimore, who was capable of leading the way, having been through the 
streets; the fife and drum corps of the 31st Massachusetts, the band of the 4th 
Wisconsin, General Butler awkwardly trying to keep step, and his staff, all on 
foot; Captain Everett's battery of artillery, the 31st Massachusetts, Col. O. K. 
Gooding, Gen. Williams and staff, and 4th Wisconsin. They marched along the 
levee to Poydras, then to St. Charles, to Canal and to the Custom House, where 
the 31st Massachusetts remained that night. The "True Delta" refusing to print 
Butler's proclamation, two of his officers, with a file of soldiers, took possession 
of the printing office and were able to produce a few handbills, which were dis- 
tributed. 

A controversy shortly began between Butler, in his headquarters at the St. 
Charles Hotel and Mayor John T. Monroe, owing to the question as to which 
should call upon the other for the purpose of discussing matters (New Orleans, 
since the secession of Louisiana, had been the seat of government in the state). 
Finally the mayor yielded, and with the Hon. Pierre Soule and various prom- 
inent citizens, called upon the general. A street riot, however, broke up the 
conference for the time being. It was finally agreed that the mayor should con- 
tinue to exercise his civil authority. 

There is no more delicate or dangerous subject for the handling of American 
historians, than the character of General Butler. He was looked upon so long 
in the South, and is still looked upon by many, with such loathing, horror and 
detestation, and there is so strong a tendency with some northerners to make a 
hero and a saint out of him, that it is very difficult to choose the medium which 
shall present this man as he really was. It is certainly not the task for a work 
of this kind. Yet the period of his occupancy here cannot be passed over in 
silence. That he was coarse and rough is an undoubted fact; "brutal," add 
those who lived thi-ough his rule in New Orleans. Of course, the views of our 
poople must necessarily have been colored by their sufferings, their passions 



158 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

their misfortunes, and, of course, they were prepared to regard iinfavorablv any 
Union commander who might be imposed upon them. Yet it is doubtful whether 
an absolutely just or generous man would have inspired with hatred, even the 
most gentle and charitable natures, so that after all these years the mildest and 
swcelcst of the older men and women of New Orleans, will flash into rage at the 
very name "Ben Butler." A little courtesy, a little kindness, a little grace of 
manner would have done much to lighten the sorrows of a vanquished and heart- 
broken people. In reading Butler's orders issued at this time, one is struck by 
their plausibility and seeming virtue. Yet there is an ugly ring to them, and 
one cannot but realize that they fairly bristle Avith hatred, and a very unchristian 
feeling of triumph and ju-ide. As to the order concerning the women of Xew 
Orleans, that is something no Southerner can ever forgive. The exact feeling of a 
New Orleans man towards his wife, sister or daughter is something that Butler 
was probably incapable of understanding. He has, no doubt, received more 
blame than he merited, for there is little reason to believe that he intended the 
literal carrying out of his horrible command. The Southern women, as has 
before been stated, were crazed with patriotic enthusiasm. In their warmth, 
zeal and courage they went to lengths that were foolish and extravagant. There 
is no doubt that the soldiers were sometimes inconvenienced and humiliated by 
the behavior of the women in the street, but if Butler had shot or had execiited 
the cause of liis infamous order (who was said to have "spit in the face of 
a soldier"), it is doubtful whether he would have aroused the storm of hate and 
indignation that he did by these words: 

" As the officers and soldiers of the United States have been subjected to 
rei^eated insults from the women (calling themselves ladies) of New Orleans, it 
is ordered that hereafter when any female shall, by word, gesture or movement, 
insult or show contempt for any officer or soldier of the United States, she shall 
be regarded and held liable to be treated as a woman of the town, plying her avo- 
cation." 

This order (Xo. 28), which, if carried out, would have given unbounded 
license to the soldiers, who could interpret as they pleased, the conduct of a 
host of defenseless women, has properly covered with odium the name of its 
perpetrator. With husbands, brothers and fathers away fighting, what misery 
might not come upon the refined, delicately nurtured women of New Orleans. 
Yet no harm did come, and it is doubtful whether Butler intended anything more 
than a cruel sneer at the refined New Orleans society, which he so detested, be- 
cause he was so far beneath it. 



STANDARD nD<TOIlY OF XBW ORLEANS. 159 

We should not deny the fact that Butler fed the starving poor of the city, 
or that he thoroughly cleaned the streets and di'ove out the scourge of yellow 
fever, though it may be stated that any conquering general is forced to do the 
one, and that the other was a measure for the protection of his own soldiers. We 
cannot exonerate him, however, from the charge of permitting the indiscriminate 
robberies and depredations of his soldiers upon our people, and the fact that he 
himself came into possession, about this time, of an immense amount of silver- 
ware, does not add to his credit. He was, perhaps, uot altogether wicked, lie 
was simply low and coarse, and like all men of that nature, when put in a position 
of power, fairly revelled in petty tyranny. 

A controversy between General Butler and Mayor Monroe arose upon the 
issuing of the order just referred to, which ended in the mayor's leaving Xcw 
Orleans. There were also controversies between the general and various foreign 
consuls. But these subjects belong to another division of New Orleans history. 
So does the "handkerchief battle," in which a number of ladies, innocently 
waving farewell to a boat-load of Confederate prisoners on their way to lie ex- 
changed, iiertinaciously continued to wave their handkerchiefs in honor (if the 
"Rebels," even when charged upon l)y Union ti-oops, and forced back at the point 
of the bayonet. 

Some mention should he made, however, of the six prisoners (from Forts 
Jackson and St. Philip), who, towards the end of May, attempted to escape from 
New Orleans and joined the Confederate army, who were captured and con- 
demned to death, but reprieved and sent to Ship Island, an act of clemency for 
which we should give General Butler his due. 

On the 16th of December, 1SG2, General Butler left 'New Orleans, his 
place being taken by Major General iXathnniel P. Banks. On the first of Jiin- 
uar, 1863, General G. F. Shei^ley became military governor of the city, Com- 
modore Farragut being commander of the Gulf squadron. In the spring a large 
number of loyal Southerners, refusing to take the oath of allegiance to the United 
States, were forced to leave Xew Orleans. 

Following are some military statistics of i!few Orleans during the Civil War, 
and a brief glance at officers in commission before the war, according to tiic re- 
port of Adj. Gen. Ben. M. Grirot, in 1860: 

First Division. — Maj. Gen. J. L. Lewis, Col. L. E. Forstall, Lieut. Col. ('lias. 
A. Labui:an, Lieut. Col. Thos. Cripps, Maj. W. P. Williams, ilaj. IT. Laville- 
beuvre, Maj. A. Trudeau, Maj. N. Gunari, Maj. L. Stein, Maj. L. Ilay, ]M.ij. 
Jos. M. Kennedy, Jr. 



i6o STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

Louisiana Legion Brigade. — Brig. Gen. H. W. Palfrey, Maj. J. F. Chatry, 
Capt. E. Beltran, Capt. P. O'Rorke, Capt. W. B. Cook, Capt. Chas. A. Janvier. 

Orleans Battalion of Artillery. — First company. Captain F. Strong; sec- 
ond, Captain F. Stromeyer ; sixth. Sen. First Lieut. Theo. Morans ; fourth, Cap- 
tain J. L. Lamotlie. 

Regiment Light Inf.antry. — Col. Clias. F. Sturcken, Lieut. Col. C. L. 
Mathes, Maj. H. Blaize, Lieut. E. H. Boelitz, Lieut. Herdsfelder, Lieut. G. 
Lugenbuhl, Lieut. Loisenger. 

Chasseurs (1814-15). — First Lieut. F. Ecrot. 

Yagers. — Capt. F. Peters. 

Sharpshooters.- — Capt. F. Christen. 

Fusiliers No. 7. — Capt. F. Sievers. 

Fusiliers No. 2. — Second Lieut. Hy. Walbrech. 

iMJayctte Guards. — Capt. F. Koenig. 

Jefferson Guards. — Capt. F. Wollrath. 

Battalion Chasseurs a Pied de la Louisane. — Maj. 1st 

company, Capt. Hy. St. Paul ; 2nd company, Capt. Sim Meilleur. 

First Brigade.— Brig. Gen. E. L. Tracy, Maj. I. F. "Walker, Capt. R. 
Hooper, Capt. I. J. Daniels, Capt. J. G. McLearn, Capt. J. F. Caldwell. 

Washington Artillery. — Capt J. B. Walton. 

Washington Regiment. — Maj. Jno. Cavanagh. 

Louisiana Greys. — Capt. E. Kennedy ; Regiment Jf ational Guards, Col. H. 
Forno, Maj. G. Stith ; Company C, National Guards, Capt. Chas. Drew; City 
Guards, Capt. W. T. Dean ; Orleans Rifle Guards, Capt. John A. Jacques ; Con- 
tinental-Guards, Capt. Geo. Clark. 

Mississippi Rifles No. 8. — Capt. F. Camerden. 

First Regiment of the First Brigade. — Col. Louis Lay ; 2nd regiment. Col. 
J. J. Daniels; 4th regiment, Col. John Price; 8th regiment. Col. Chas. De 
Choiseul, Lieut. Col. Jas. De Baum ; 9th regiment, Col. R. Hooper, Lieut. Col. 
C. C. Miller. 

Second Brigade.— Brig. Gen. D. Cronan, Maj. Jno. Stroud; 4th regiment, 
Col. Dan Edwards, Lieut. Col. Sam McBurney, Maj. Chas J. Murphy. 

Second Division. — Composed of troops from the parishes, as third, fourth 
and fifth divisions. 

In third division. Pelican Rifles, Capt. W. F. Tunnard. 

It must not be concluded by any means, however, that all these belonging 
to military organizations wont out as "real soldiers" during the war. 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 



i6i 



Forces in field from Louisiana, November 22, 1861, 23,577. At a re- 
view, held November 23, 1861, under Maj. Gen. John L. Lewis, of all vohm- 
teer and regular militia of 1st division, the troops assembling on Canal street, 
the force out nimibered 24,551 ; absent 6,402. 

From the annual report of 1861 for Louisiana we obtain the following: 
Eegiment of artillery. Col. P. O. Herbert ; regiment of infantry, Col. A. 
H. Gladden. 







LOUISIANA VOLUNTEERS. 


1. 


A. G. Blanchard. 


10. 


Mandeville Marigniy, 


2. 


Louis G. De Rucsy. 


11. 


Sam. Marks. 


3. 


Louis Herbert. 


12. 


Thomas M. Scott. 


4. 


Robert I. Barrow. 


13. 


Randall Gibson. 


5. 


Theo. G. Hunt. 


16. 


Preston Pond. 


6. 


I. G. Seymour. 


17. 


S. S. Heard. 


7. 


Harry T. Hayes. 


18. 


Alf. Mouton. 


8. 


H. B. Kelly. 


19. 


B. L. Hodge. 


9. 


Richard Taylor. 







Wheat's Special Battalion Louisiana Volunteers: Maj. C. R. Wheat. 

First Special Battalion Louisiana Volunteers. 

Orleans Cadets, Chas. Dreux, captain. Other companies from parishes. 

Battalion of infantry, Maj. Reichard battalion of artillery. 

First Company Orleans Artillery, F. Gomez, captain; second, Capt. J. P. 
Merlot ; third, Capt. G. Stromeyer ; fourth, Capt. J. T. Theard. 

Companies for active state service: Perseverance Guards, Capt. Jiio. 
Rareshide; Black Yagers, Capt. C. Rabenhorst; Co. A, Sappers and Miners, 
Capt. Jno. Ryan ; Washington Light Infantry, Capt. J. L. Plattsmeier ; Co. C, 
Orleans Cadets, Capt. Jos. Collins ; Co. A, Screwman Guards, Capt. Sam G. 
Risk ; Marion Guards, Capt. R. L. Robertson, Jr. ; Yager Company, Capt. F. 
Peters ; Scotch Rifle Guards, Capt. Purvis ; Co. B, Screwman Guards, Capt. 
J. C. Batchelor ; Allen Guards, Capt. S. Jones ; Twigg's Rifles, Capt. H. D. 
Marks ; St. Mary Cannonicrs, Capt. F. O. Cornay ; Co. A, Orleans Blues, Capt. 
R. Herrick; Florence Guards, Capt. H. Brummerstadt ; McCall Guards, Capt. 
Chas. Herrick ; Co. B, Orleans Blues, Capt. Sam Boyd ; Trailleurs d'Orleans, 
Capt. A. Tissot; Co. B, Twigg's Rifles, Capt. Wash. Marks; Ventress Life 
Guards, Capt. Jos. Goldman. 



i62 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

In tlio a7inual report made Ueeember 10, 1862, v,'e find mentioned twenty- 
sixth and twenty-seventh regiments, from parishes. Battalion Louisiana Defend- 
ers, Maj. Juan Miangohara, and Battalion Yellow Jackets, also from parishes. 
Forces Volunteer State Troops transferred to Maj. Gen. il. Lovell, command- 
ing Department No. 1, C. S. A. First Brigade \^olunteer Troops, Brig. Gen. 
Ben. Brnsson; Orleans Guards, Col. W. Augustin; Chasseurs a Pieds, Col. J. 
S. Meilleur ; Chalmette, Col. Szymanski ; Cazadores Espagnoles, Lieut. Col. IST. 
Soule. Second Brigade: Beauregard, Col. F. A. Bartlett; Jeff Davis, Col. 
A. Smith ; Continental, Col. G. Clark ; Simipter, Col. G. A. Breaux. Battal- 
ions: Johnson Special, Lieut. Col. W. W. Johnson; King's Special, Lieut. Col. 
J. E. King. Tiiird Brigade: Confederate Guards, Col. J. F. Girault; Louis- 
iana Irish, Col. P. B. O'Brian ; Leed's Guards. Col. Chas. J. Leeds. 

Kecapitulation of forces: First Brigade, 2,815; Second, 3,818; Third, 
2,480; total, 9,113. 

These regiments were disbanded when the gun-boats passed the forts, on 
Butler's arrival. Those who did not take the oath were exchanged as prisoners 
of war, being sent to Vieksburg, October 8. 1802. 

The Washington Artillery was first founded by General Persifer Smith, 
of Mexican War fame. In 1839 he encouraged the formation of volunteer com- 
panies in New Orleans, organizing the Washington Regiment, really the foun- 
dation of the present Washing-ton Artillery, in 18-1:0. It grew in importance 
and strength, obtaining a fine armory. In May, 1861, its services were accepted 
by President Davis, it was mustered into service May 26th, a sermon being de- 
livered to the soldiers by Dr. Leacock at Christ's Church, and received $7,000 
from the citizens of New Orleans, the Ladies' Association contributing $500. 
On that morning (the 26th) the roll call for Confederate service Avas as follows: 

Staff: Major, J. B. Walton; Surgeon, Dr. E. S. Drew; Adjutant, Lieut. 
W. M. Owen ; Quarter Master, Lieut. C. H. Slocomb. N^on-commissioned staff : 
Sergt. Major, C. L. C. Dupny ; Quarter Master Sergt., Stringer Kennedy; Color 
Sergeant, L !M. Montgomery. Color Guard : Corporals, G. W. Wood, A. IT. 
Peale, I. L. Jewell, J. H. Dearie. Buglers : F. P. Villavasana and Jo. Kings- 
low. 

First Company : Captain, H. il. Isaacson ; First Lieut., C. W. Squires ; 
First Sergt., Ed. Owen; Second Sergt., J. M. Galbraith; Third Sergt., C. H. C. 
Bi'own ; First Lieut., J. B Richardson ; Second Lieut., H. G. Geiger ; First Cor- 
poral, F. D. Ruggles; Second Corp., E. C. Payne; Third Corp., W. Fellows; 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 163 

Fourth CoriD., F. F. Case. Artificers: S. G. Stewart, W. D. Holmes, Israel 
Scott. 

Second Company: First Lieut., C. C. Lewis, commanding; First Lieut., 
S. J. McPherson ; Second Lieut., C. H. Slocomb; First Sergt., J. H. DeGrange ; 
Second Sergt., Gust. Airae; Third Sergt., H. C. Wood; Fourth Sergt., C. 
Iluchez; First Corp., J. D. Edwards; Second Corp., C. E. Levericli; Third 
Corp., J. Freret; Fourth Corp., B. V. L. Hutton. Artificers: J. Montgomer}' 
and L. Craig. 

Third Company: Ca]3t., M. E. Miller; First Lieut., J. B. Whittington; 
Second Lieut., L. A. Adam ; First Sergt., F. McElroy ; Second Sergt., A. Hero; 
Third Sergt., L. Prados ; Fourth Sergt., J. 1. Handy; First Corp., E. L. Jewell ; 
Second Corp.,' A. H. Peale; Third Corp., W. H. Ellis; Fourth Corp., W. A. 
Collins. Artificers — Jos. Blanchard and Jas. Keating. 

Fourth Company: Capt., B. F. Eshleraan ; First Lieut., Jos. Norcom ; 
Second Lieut., H. A. Battles; Second Sergt., W. J.Behan; Third Sergt, G. E. 
Apps; Fourth Serg-t., J. D. Reynolds; First Corp., G. Wood; Second Corp., J. 
W. Dearie. Artificers: L. Callahan and J. McDonnell. Band leader, J. V. 
Gessner. 

Fifth Company : Captains, W. J. Hodgson and C. H. Slocomb ; First 
Lieutenants, W. C. D. Vaugh and J. A. Chalaron ; Second Lieutenants, Chas. 
L. Hero, Thos. M. Blair, A. J. Leverich and Chas. G. Johnson ; Orderly Sergts., 
A. Gordon Bakewell, John Bartley ; Surgeon, J. Cecil Legare. 

Fonner's Louisiana Battery, noted as being the only Louisiana body of 
militia to remain volunteer till the end of the war, without coming imder con- 
script law, was organized May It!, 18G2, being officered as follows: Chas. E. 
Fenner, Captain ; Thos. J.Duggan, First Lieutenant ; W. T. Cluverius, Jr., First 
Lieut. ; G. P. Harris, Jr., Second Lieut. Discharged for disability — C. J. 
Howell, Jr., Second Lieut. ; Fred Ernest, First Sergt. ; S. R. Garrett, Second 
Sergt. ; J. F. Early, Third Serg-t. ; S. H. Copeland, Fourth Sergt. ; A. P. Beers 
Fifth Sergt. ; E. W. Finney, Sixth Sergt. ; R. Woest, Seventh Sergt. 

The history of the following ten years (from 1863) in this city is a history 
of hard and disheartening struggle. Tlie people had to shake off the burden 
laid upon them by unsuccessful war, and begin again. New Orleans is to-day 
as devoted to the Union as any city in America. It is in a prosperous condition 
and beginning to take a front stand in the world of commerce, of wealth, and 
of scientific improvement. But wiiile all rancor, all l)ittcrness, between XortH 



1 64 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

and South is and should be at an end, it is not well tliat the troubles and hard- 
ships of the past should be forgotten, nor the men and women who bore them so 
bravely and cheerfully. 

The Union men in the city became more and more powerful. The "car- 
pet-baggers" from the North took the management of affairs into their own 
hands. In 1864 there were two governors elected in. Louisiana, — Michael 
Halm, chosen by that district imder control of the Union soldiers ; General 
Henry W. Allen by the rest of the state. The latter is still remembered for his 
good deeds. In 1868 Louisiana once more became a part of the Union, but her 
troubles- were by no means at an end. A time of corruption, of debt and of 
tyrannical rule followed. The Metropolitan Police were always at hand to en- 
force obedience to the TTnion men. Finally, when Warmouth was followed by 
Kellogg as governor, when all other attempts to extricate the state from its po- 
sition proved vain, the White League was formed, spreading from Caddo Par- 
ish to Tfew Orleans, a secret society which became immortal, September 14, 
1874, when a battle was fought of great importance in New Orleans annals, its 
hero being General Frederick Nash Ogden. The conflict was hastened by the 
fact that the Governor seized and retained certain guns that were on their way 
to the White Leaguers. On Monday morning, SepLember 14, 1874, at 11 
o'clock, a mass meeting was held at Clay Statue, Canal street, where resolutions 
were adopted requesting the abdication of Governor Kellogg. This being re- 
fused, the White Leaguers dispersed to arm themselves, and aboiit 4 :30 the 
battle commenced in that portion of the city bounded by Custom House Street, 
Poydras, the Levee and St. Charles Street. The Metropolitan police, about 
1,000 in number, were formed into a regiment under Gen. A. S. Badger, and 
under the supreme command of General Longstreet. They were stationed around 
the Custom House. One wing of about 200 men and one cannon kept up a fire 
on Tchoupitoulas Street, the only crossing not barricaded, and five citizens were 
there wounded ; 250 men with four guns and General Badger, commanded the 
south side of the Custom House. At quarter past four the Metropolitans ad- 
vancing to the Levee, were attacked by the White Leaguers and completely 
routed, and next morning the ?,,0()() colored militia occupying the State House 
surrendered quietly. 

The White Leaguer commands which took part were as follows: 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 165 

CRESCENT CITY WHITE LEAGUE, COLONEI, W. J. FEUAN, COMMANDIXG. 

Section A — Captain W. T. Vaudry. 

Section B — Captain George H. Lord. 

Section C — Captain H. S. Buck. 

Section D — Captain Archibald Mitchell. 

Section E — Captain R. B. Pleasants. 

Section F — Captain Thomas McTntyre. 

Section G — Captain D. M. Kilpatrick. 

The Eleventh Ward White League — Captain E. M. Andress. 

The Tenth Ward White League— Captain Edward Flood. 

The Sixth District White League — Captain H. E. Shropshire. 

The Sixth District White League — Captain Columbus H. Allen. 

The Sixth Ward White League — Captain George W. Dupre. 

The Seventh Ward White League — Captain O. M. Tennyson. 

The Washington White League — Captain A. B. Philips. 

The St. John White League — Captain Charles Vautier. 

Second Ward White League — Captain R. Stuart Dennee. 

The Third Ward White League— Captain J. R. S. Selleck. 

Major Gustave Le Gardeur, with Captain A. Roman's company (the re- 
mainder of his battalion present being unarmed). 

Captain John G. Angell, commanding the First Louisiana Infantry, com- 
posed of the following companies: 

Company A — Captain Euclid Borland. 
Company B — Captain Frank McGloiu. 
Company C — Captain Blanchard. 
Company E — Lieutenant Frank L. Richardson. 

Besides these there were two companies of artillery, one under command 
of Captain John Glynn, Jr., the other under command of Captain H. Dudley 
Coleman. 

In the charge on the Metropolitan Police the White Leaguers lost twelve 
men killed and thirteen wounded, several of whom afterward died. Following 
is a list of the killed and wounded : 

Killed — A. M. Gautier, A. Bozonier, Chas. Bruland, of Colonel Glynn's 
command ; John Graval, of Captain Vautier's company ; E. A. Toledano, S. B. 
Newman, Jr., of Captain Vaudry's company; Wm. A. Wells, of Captain 
Flood's company; James Crossin, of Captain Lord's company; J. M. West, 



1 66 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

Adrien Ferrilan, J. K. Gourdnin, iinattaclied ; Michael Betz, of Captain Phil- 
ips' company; F. Mohrman, of Major Allen's command; James Considine, of 
Captain Blanchard's company ; Wm. C. Eobbins, of Captain Buck's company ; 
and K. G. Lindsey, of Captain Pleasants' company. Wounded — General F. N. 
Ogden, Captain Andrews, Lieutenant Schiedel, John McCormick, James Davis, 
P. McBride, Francois Pallet, Andrew Close, J. K. A. Gauthreaux, Chas. Kit, 
John McCabe, J. H. Keller, D. Soniat, Martin Long, L. Fazende, P. Bernos, 
E. Swanson, F. Fossetelyon, Minor Kenner, W. Matthewson, Ernest Buisson, 
J. Brunean. J. Savage, J. C. Potts, Emmanuel Blessey, R. Aby, W. H. Kilpat- 
rick, M. R. Bricon, W. C. H. Robinson, AV. C. Taylor, Thomas Boyle, Mike 
Betts, Frank Owen, J. IL Cross, John Meru, James McCabe, Wm. Orimond, 

Chas. Kill, J. M. Henderson, J. P. Dalmy, Pollock, W. J. Butler and 

Henry Peel. 

The killed of the Metropolitan Police Avere as follows : 

C. F. Clermont, corporal; J. Kennedy, patrolman, died September 24; J. 
McManus, sergeant ; W. Thornton, corporal ; M. O'Keefe, patrolman ; E. Si- 
monds, patrolman ; F. E. Koehler, supernumerary ; I. H. Camp, patrolman ; 
D. Fisher, patrolman; R. Zipple, supernumerary, unattached; and Armstead 
Hill, volunteer civilian. 

The contribution of Louisiana to the late war with Spain consisted of two 
full regiments of infantry, three batteries of artillery, about 250 men to the 
^avy, from tlie Louisiana N^aval militia, and a niimber recruited for a regailar 
term into the Navy. The first Immune Regiment was organized at New Or- 
leans, Duncan 'N. Hood being Colonel and contained a number of Louisiani- 
ans. About 5,000 men went out from this state, and while, imfortunately, none 
of them were ordered to the scenes of warfare, they made excellent soldiers, and 
were eager for fighting. 

In April, 1898, before the war had begun, a meeting was held of commit- 
tees from the Fourth and Seventh Battalions, Major William C. Dufour, of the 
latter being anxious to form a regiment of tJie two. The Fourth was repre- 
sented by Coo])er, Waterman and Jacobs, the Seventh by Favrot, Friedrichs, 
Livaudais and Elmore Dufour. 

The regiment was afterwards formed of the Fourth and Seventh Battal- 
ions, and of tlic Tliinl, necessary to make the full complement of 12 companies, 
and the attemjit failing to secure jxM'uiission froin tlie War Department to make 
Ivieut. Jacque Lalitte Colonel, ^lajor Eluicr E. Wood was cliosen Colonel, 
William G. Dufnur beinii' Liciitcniant-C'oloncl. 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 167 

On May 1, 1S9S, Col. Wood appointed tis staff as follows: Captain H. 
L. Favrot, adjutant; Captain C. T. Madison, quartermaster; Major J. 0. Arch- 
inard, chief surgeon. Captains M. W. Kainold and F. J. Chalaron assistant 
surgeons,, and Captain H. R. Carson chaplain. On the preceding evening at 
Memorial Hall was held a meeting of confederate veterans, Gen. Lombard pre- 
siding; J. Y. Gilmore, secretary; J. A. Chalaron, of Camp ISTo. 2, Army of 
Tennessee, chairman; Edw. Marks, Camp No. 1, Army of JSTorthern Virginia, 
F. G. Freret, Camp No. 9, Cavalry Association, B. F. Eshelman, Camp JSTo. 5, 
Washington Artillery, A. B. Booth, Camp No. 16, and Henry St. Paul, be- 
ing appointed a committee for drawing up resolutions approving of the war, 
and expressing the determination of the veterans to stand by their coimtry in a 
crisis. 

On the first of May the new regiment went into camp at the fair grounds 
(Camp Foster) where already were the First Louisiana and a couple of regu- 
lar regiments. Col. Ovrenshine, heard from in connection with the Philippines, 
commanded one of the latter. Thanks to the tarpaulins donated by Mr. A. A. 
Maginnis, the boys were supplied with tents, but there were many inconve- 
niences connected with Camp Foster, the water being particularly bad. The reg- 
iment (850 strong) was mustered in by Major Edmund of the Regular Army, 
the last company being mustered in May 25th. On the 30th, the Second Regi- 
ment was ordered to Mobile, and after a march through the central part of this 
city, to the delight of numerous admiring friends and relatives, took the cars at 
the foot of Canal street. They reached Mobile the next morning, remained in 
the cars till the next day, and then went into camp about 7 miles from the city, 
by the side of the First Alabama regiment. Soon after, the First Louisiana ar- 
rived. When Col. Wood had reported to Gen. Coppinger, the Second Louisiana 
was assigned to the first division of his corps ; subsequently it was brigaded with 
the Second Texas and Second Alabama, under Col. Oppfenheimer of Texas. 
Afterwards, when the law authorized each company to contain 106 men, 300 ad- 
ditional recruits were obtained for the Second Louisiana, but on account of yel- 
low fever breaking oiit, strict quarantine regulations being necessary, the great- 
est number attained by the regiment was 1,250. 

On June 26, 1898, the regiment was ordered to Miami, Florida, arriving 
there Jime 28, and soon followed by the First Texas and First Louisiana. On 
July 7th, Gen. Schwan, who commanded the brigade to which the Second now 
belonged, was ordered to Porto Rica, but was not permitted to take his brigade 



i68 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

■with him, and his troops being transferred from the Fourth corps to the Sev- 
enth became a portion of the First division of the aimy, commanded by Gen. 
Fitzhngh Lee. Gen. J. Warren Keifer being in command of the division. On 
July Stii, on account of the exceedingly unhealthy condition of the camp at Mi- 
ami, the division was ordered to Jacksonville, leaving for the latter place Au- 
gust 8tli, a number of soldiers having died on account of their 'experiences at 
Miami. 

On October 22, 1898, the camp, with the hope of soon being sent to Cuba, 
was ordered to Savannah, Georgia, where, December 5th, it was visited by Presi- 
dent McK'inley. The president reviewed the troops, and was pleased with their 
soldierly bearing. On December 24th, the regiment was conveyed on the trans- 
port, Mobile, to Havana, reaching there on the 27tL Here they were assigned 
by Gen. Lee to the excellent camping ground of Buena Vista, on Panorama 
Hill, seven miles from Havana. On the first of January, 1899, the regiment 
was among the first American troops to enter Havana. They marched down 
the Prado. and were reviewed by Gen. Brooke and Gen. Lee in front of the 
Hotel Ingleterra, the honors done our Louisiana boys that day being one of 
which they will always be proud ; that is, the rank given them among the first 
troops. 

At Camp Buena Vista private Hughes was killed by private Buckley, who 
is now serving a life sentence at Fort Leavenworth. This was a very sad 
event. 

On March 18th the regiment was ordered to Savannah, where, on the 18th 
»f Ajnil, its soldiers were paid off and mustered out. They returned to Xew 
Orleans April 20th, regi'etting that they had not been permitted to see actual 
war. 

Following is the roster of the regiment, the names of the several captains, 
and the death roll in full : 

Field and Staff — Elmer E. Wood, colonel ; William C. Dufour, lieutenant 
colonel ; William L. Hughes, major; George M. Hodgdon, major; Frank J. Chal- 
aron, major and surgeon ; Henry L. Favrot, captain and adjutant ; Mozart W. 
Rainold, captain and assistant surgeon ; Allen Jumel, Jr., first lieutenant and 
assistant surgeon; Rufus E. Foster, first lieutenant and quartermaster; Edward 
Dinkelspiel, second lieutenant Company F, commissary; James S. Rankin, ser- 
geant major; John E. Kearney, quartermaster sergeant; Charles L. Babied, 
hospital steward; Peter Wilson, hospital steward; Leonce P. Thibaut, hospital 



STANDARD HISTORY OF WEW ORLEANS. 169 

steward; John W. Sherwood, chief musician; James L. Segar, principal musi- 
cian ; and Louis Fatzer, principal musician. 

Captains — Company A, Harry A. Mackie; company B, Harry A. Beu- 
ners; company C, Arthur W. Jacobs; company D, Placide M. Laraberton ; 
com2>any E, F. W. Matthews ; company F, Carl C. Friedrichs ; company G, 
Frank Oriel ; company H, George A. Cooper ; company I, Samuel McC. Hern- 
don; company K, Andrew J. Boissonneau; company L, John B. Waterman; 
company M, Robert G. Guerard. 

The list of those who died is as follows : 

Bugler A. L. Mugnier, Company H, died July 18, 1898; Lieutenant John 
D. Nelson, Company K, died July 19, 1898; B. Muldoon, Company H, died 
Aug. 3, 1898; E. J. Lassere, Company M, died Aug. 7, 1898; Archie Parker, 
Company H, died Aug. 14, 1898 ; Joshua Davis, Company C, died Aug. 16, 
1898; E. O. Burrows, Company H, discharged Sept. 4, died Sept, 9, 1898; 
Albert Lasch, Company H, died Oct. ]3, 1898 ; J. P. Seigler, Company D, died 
Oct. 12, 1898; Lieutenant S. B. McClure, Company K, died Oct. 17, 1898; 
Captain Elmore Dufour, Company I, died jSTov. 13, 1898; J. D. Hughes, Com- 
pany E, killed Jan. 7, 1899 ; Louis Grelle, Company K, died Feb. 19, 1899 ; 
Julius Keller, Company G, died Feb. 24, 1899; Albert Quint, Company il, 
died Feb. 25, 1899 ; and W. G. Waterman, Company E, died March 28, 1899. 

Lieutenant Gordon L. Sneed, who died at Miami, was buried in New Or- 
leans with military honors. 

The following statistics concerning the Naval Battalion of New Orleans 
should prove of interest : 

This important organization was mustered in with two companies Septem- 
ber 11, 1895, chiefly owing to the efforts of Mr. J. S. Watters. There were 
then 110 on roll. In the next three months, two more divisions were added. 
The battalion first appeared in uniform January, 1896, and gave a ball that 
year, and on Mardi Gras "turned out" 150 strong. In this year, also, the bat- 
talion visited the U. S. battleship Raleigh, camping out at Fort Fads and drill- 
ing on the Raleigh. In August, 1897, the U. S. cruiser Montgomery came to 
Ship Island and the battalion went over on three schooners to visit it. The 
officers' reports concerning this military body were very flattering. 

In 1896, an engineer division was added to the battalion, making five 
divisions. 

In 1898, at the outbreak of war, the command just mentioned was ready 



I/O STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

for service, three parties being organized for coast signal service at Fort Eads, 
Mobile and Galveston. About 115, officers and men, were detailed as a crew 
for the Monitor Passaic, and served on her during the war, at the close of which 
the Government loaned the U. S. "Stranger," a yacht purchased during hostili- 
ties, for the use of the battalion. 

The officers at the time of organization were as follows : 
Captain, J. S. Watters ; Lieutenants, J. W. Bostick, H. P. Carroll, J. C, 
Ford, J. T. Harris, L. W. Bartlett; Lieutenants, junior grade, W. Mc L. Fays- 
soux, A. C. Bell, A. M. Haas, J. H. Parker ; Ensigns, H. G. Shaw, R. Marcour, 
A. W. Socola, S. St. J. Eshelman ; Passed Assistant Surgeon, Will. H. Woods ; 
Assistant Surgeon, E. C. Renaud ; Passed Assistant Engineer, R. C. Wilson ; 
Paymaster, A. Fourchy. 



CHAPTER VI. 



THE FIGHT AGAINST HIGH WATER. 
By a. G. Dueno. 

ACCORDIISrG to the estimate of the Mississippi River Commission, there 
are in the delta or alluvial lands of the Lower Mississippi, 29,790 square 
miles, or 19,065,600 acres of territory subject to overflow. This includes 
portions of seven states, and extends from the head of the St. Francis Basin to 
the Gulf of Mexico, a distance of over eleven hundred miles. This vast area 
is apportioned among the seven states as follows : 

Square Miles. Acres. 

Illinois 65 41,600 

Missouri 2,874 1,839,360 

Kentucky 125 80,000 

Tennessee 453 289,920 

Arkansas 4,652 2,977,280 

Mississippi 6,926 4,432,640 

Louisiana 14,695 9,404,800 

Total 29,790 19,065,600 

"This," says Mr. JTorman Walker, in his report to the Treasury Depart- 
ment on the "Commerce of the Mississippi from Memphis to the Gulf of Mex- 
ico," "is twice as large as the Kingdom of the Netherlands, twice as as large as 
Switzerland, larger than many of the historic states of Europe, and larger than 
the combined areas of Vermont, Massachusetts, Rhode Island and Connecticut. 
It is seven times as great as the arable lands of Egyi^t now or at any former pe- ' 
riod." 

The first white men who entered the Mississippi Valley found the river in 
flood. Both LaSalle, who descended the stream in 1684, and Bienville, who ex- 
plored it in 1699-1700, found the banks under water at several points, and the 
last named, who was in search of a site for his projected settlement on the river, 
fixed upon the location now occupied by New Orleans as the nearest point to 



172 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

the Gulf which was at that time above water. It happened, however, that the 
flood of that year did not reach the usual high water mark, and when, in 1718, 
he came to lay the foundations of his city, the swelling tide so interfered with 
the work that his men were compelled to stop it, and devote themselves to the 
construction of a rude levee in front of the town and some distance above it in 
order to keep it clear of water. This was the first levee in Louisiana, and was 
constructed under the supervision of Sieur Le Blond de la Tour, a Knight of 
St. Louis, and chief engineer of the colony. This temporary levee was worked 
upon every year, being raised and strengthened from time to time, and finally 
completed in 1727, under the administration of Governor Perier, when it pre- 
sented an 18-foot crown and 60-foot base, with a length of 5,400 feet, or slightly 
more than a mile. This was more than the city front, and afForded it ample 
protection. Tt was continued above the city for a distance of 18 miles by a 
smaller levee, and below it by another which extended 14 miles, for the protec- 
tion both of the farmers and of the city. 

As the country around New Orleans was settled the levees were extended, 
and by 1735 they stretched a distance of 42 miles, from English Turn, below 
the city, to a point 30 miles above it. With the exception of that in front of 
New Orleans, however, they were low and weak, and imable to resist the great 
flood of that year which lasted from December to the end of June, 1836, cans^ 
ing great loss, and seriously interfering with the season's planting. They were 
patched up, but in so slight and insufficient a manner that they afforded little 
resistance to the flood, and crevasses became so frequent that the government 
took the matter up, and issued an edict requiring proprietors of land fronting 
on the river to improve their levees and have them in good condition by Janii- 
ary 1. 1744, under penalty of confiscation. This stringent measnre seems to 
have had the desired effect, and during the next half century Loiiisiana suf- 
fered but little loss from overflow. The levees were gradually extended and 
became the basis of the present levee system of the Lower Mississippi Valley, — 
indeed it is possible that some of them exist to this day in those sections where 
there has been but little change in the course of the river. These levees were 
constructed by the proprietors, the government reserving a supervisory power, 
and permitting no neglect on the part of planters. The land so protected was all 
under a high state of cultivation, and in 1752 nearly the whole population of the 
colony was concentrated within an area of 200 square miles. 

The levee continued to advance slowly northward, at the rate of about a 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NtJW ORLEANS. 171 

mile a year, tliougii the cost of building then was relatively much greater than at 
present, the planters being without proper facilities for the work. The slow 
settlement of the country is doubtless due to the outlay imposed by the necessity 
of building these dikes, which was manv times greater than the cost of the land 
and the stock required for its cultivation. In 1782 occurred the greatest flood 
of the first century of the settlement of Louisiana, but there were only a few 
slight crevasses, which were soon repaired, and the planters escaped serious 
loss, as they did also in the years 1780, 1785, 1791, and 1796, though New Or- 
leans was flooded. This experience firmly convinced the inhabitants of the 
value of levees, and the work of construction went on with increased energy. 
In 1812 the levees on the east bank extended from Pointe a la Hache to Pass 
Manchac, a distance of 155 miles, and from the lower Plaquemines settlement 
on the west bank to Pointe Co\ipee, a distance of 185 miles. This 3-10 miles of 
levee had been built mostly with slave labor, and at a probable cost of $6,500,- 
000, a very heavy expense for so yoimg a country. The first serious disaster to 
the Louisiana levees occurred in 1813, with the breaking of the Pointe Coupee 
levee, since known as the Grand Levee, Avhich protects seven parishes from over- 
flow. This levee, the largest and most important, as well as the most exposed 
in the State, has bi'oken several times, each time causing great damage, as the 
overflow extends to the basins of the Atchafalaya, Bayou Teehe, and Grand 
Lake. In 1813 the water in Grand Lake rose from 4 to 5 feet higher than any 
previous year since 1780. Three years later there was another notable over- 
flow, confined almost wholly to the city. The Marate levee at Carrollton gave 
way, and the rear portions of the suburbs were flooded to a depth of from 3 to 5 
feet. The water ran ofl^, however, within twenty-five days, and all damages 
were repaired. By 1828 a continuous line of levees, except at points where they 
were not needed, extended from New Orleans to Red River Landing, 195 miles 
above the city, and 65 miles below it. 

In 1845, in an appeal made by the Memphis river convention to the Fed- 
eral Government for aid in the matter of levee building, it was proposed that the 
flooded lands be given to the States to aid in the building of levees, and in re- 
claiming the swamps. As a result of the appeal Congress in this year, for the 
first time, granted assistance in the construction of levees, and in 1849 passed an 
act donating to Louisiana all the swamps and overflowed lands found imfit for 
cultivation. In 1850 the grant was extended so as to include all the other States 
in the LTnion in which such swamps or overflowed lands were situated, and pro- 



174 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

vided that the proceeds of said lands, whether derived from sale or from direct 
appropriation in kind, "should be applied, exclusively, so far as necessary, to 
the reclaiming of said lands by means of levees and drains." The fimds derived 
from the sale of these lands have been generally turned over to boards of swamp 
commissioners, to be used by them in levee building. The lands received by 
the three river States of Louisiana, Arkansas and Mississippi aggregate 18,545,- 
270 acres. Of these States Louisiana has secured the best results from the do- 
nation. It is still possessed of a considerable revenue from this soiirce, the Mor- 
ganza levee in Pointe 'Coupee having in 1883 been constructed from funds real- 
ized from the sale of swamp lands. The assistance thus given by the Federal 
Government lent a new impetus to the work of levee building, and the following 
ten years were fruitful in good results. In 1860 there were 2,184 miles of em- 
bankments on the Mississippi, with an average height of from 8 to 10 feet and 
a width at the base of from 50 to 75 feet, their width at the top being something 
less than their height. 

As has been stated, the levees, under French rule, were constructed and 
kept in repair by the front proprietors. Later the police jury, corresponding 
to the county commissioners of other states, took charge of the levees in Louisi- 
ana, though in times of danger the riparian proprietors within seven miles of the 
river, whose lands were subject to overflow, were required to aid in warding off 
the threatened crevasse. At such times the farmers and planters met and 
formed a plan of action. Each gave the labor of a number of slaves, according 
to his means, — one giving ten slaves for twenty days or less, another thirty 
slaves for fifteen days. Afterwards districts were formed and taxes imposed 
for levee purposes. 

The manner in which the work was done renders it difficult to arrive at the 
cost of these dikes previous to the war. In 1800 the State engineer estimated 
the cost of the levees then standing in Louisiana at $12,500,000. This estimate 
was based upon the value at ruling prices of the number ot cubic yards of earth 
entering into their construction. According to another report the cost of all the 
levees in the river States from the beginning of levee building up to 1862 was 
$43,759,000, those of Louisiana alone costing $25,000,000. In 1871 a levee 
company was formed in Louisiana, charged with the entire work of levee con- 
struction, a tax of 2 mills on the dollar being voted for the pixrpose of raising 
the necessary fimds. The tax was increased to 4 mills and then dropped again 
to 3. The company was under obligation to build at least 3,000,000 cubic yards 



& 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 17S 

of levees per year, at 50 and GO cents per cubic yard, which would have made 
the expense of levees $1,650,000 per year. In 1876 the chief engineer of the 
State reported that the work done by the company for the preceding three 
years would not replace the wear and tear of the levees, and that they were losing 
ground every year. A tabulated statement of the work done upon the levees 
from 1866 to June 9, 1887, with the cost of the same, shows that under the ad- 
ministration of the company, lasting from 1871 to May 11, 1877, only 7,256,- 
469 cubic yards of levee were made, 3,586,060 of which were constructed before 
October 1, 1872. Since 1877 the work has been done by the State board of en- 
gineers, under the direction of the governor, and the boards of levee commis- 
sioners of the several districts. Wi th the improved methods now in use the cost 
has steadily decreased from 73 2-5 cents per cubic yard in 1867, to 19 1-3 cents 
in 1886. 

The levee fund is provided by a one mill tax imposed by the State, and by 
the sale of the swamp lands voted to the State by the Federal Government. The 
districts are also empowered to tax themselves 5 mills for levee purposes, and 
have done so for several years. In the Tensas district, created by act of the Leg- 
islature, bonds may be issued for the purpose of levee building, and a tax laid 
on lands and crops — so much for each bale of cotton and bushel of corn raised 
in the section subject to overflow and protected by the levees. In addition to 
the money provided by the State and the levee districts, some of the parishes 
have taxed themselves for levee purposes. The railroads subject to inundation 
have also contributed to a levee fund, particularly the Louisville, New Orleans 
& Texas Pacific, which subscribed liberally to the building of the great Bonnet 
Carre dike. Between the years 1866 and 1877 it is estimated that there have 
been expended on levees in Louisiana : 

By State and levee districts .$13,745,148.57 

By Federal Government 1,342,807.00 

By parishes, railroads and planters 800,280.17 

Total $15,888,235.74 

Amount estimated as previously si>ent $25,600,000.00 

Total cost of levees in Louisiana $41,488,235.74 

Adding to this the amounts expended in the states of Mississippi and Ar- 
kansas during the same period we have a total of $25,704,482.44 a? the cost of 



\y(> 



HTANDAi:!) IIISroUY OF NFW OHLI'JANM. 



Ic'M'CH I'l'diii Mfiri|iliiw iliiwii Idi- luriily olif yciirH iiiiil ii liiill. Tin- $i:{,7.'')(),'l()(l.()0 
|il'i\iiHIHly CXIicliilcd jw'cllf- llic ).llMi III II ^'IMIkI IiiIiiI 111' $(111, IT) 1,1 !^l!. II, tlic I'osI 
ipI' Icvcch IVdlM I III' carlii'Ml I iirirn diiwii In April, |SH7. 

N'ol wil ll^'llllllllllf.' ill! liiiw ImIioc mill cNiimsi' llir I.uwcr M iKHinsi|)|ii \'iillry 

litis HIllTrrril hr\'crrl\' riulll llli' i llVriM of lii^'li Wlllrr. Till' ciilisl II II I, I'illl ll|;'ill);' of 

I III' I'h'cl' lii-il iillri-,-; mil' 111 I III' '■ri'iili'iil il illirnl lir:. ill llir \\u\ iil I lir mil i llli'llll IH'i' 
III llir li'M'i'M ill III! rlliririil iliilr. ('Ilii'f i'lll^.'i lii'i'l' 1 1 irli:i I'l Isiill I'sl.i lllll 1 1'< I IIkiI 
7.') |M'I' CCIll, III llir riml iil IrVcr Wnrl. in Lull iyillllll WHS illlr In llirsr rllllllgdH, llllli 

llir ciiiiHi'iiiU'iil I'liviii^' III llii' liiiiikti. Ill iiililil ion III IIiIh Hiiin'rc of il)iiiiiif;;(', ilio 

liiiriiij.'; of iTiivvIIhIi, iiihI IIm' I iiiiiicliiif;; of ruin iiiiihI, lin liikni iiilii i mil, IIH woll 

iiH llir iliHiiil('f.i|'iil inn niiiMi'il liv lii'iivy iinil loiii.'; I'lml inin'il niiiis. 

ili'siili'S llir II Is III' INI'J, IKl;; iiinl I S I (', iili'i'iiily iillinli'il jii, llirl'i' liiivi: 

lii'i'ii iliiriiiji; llii' iii'i'M'iil ri'iiliii'v Hiiincl liiiit', likr ii iln/.i-n yi'iirs in wliii'li llic 
Wlllrr Inis lii'iiKcii llirniifli :ill rrsi I'liiiiiiif;' lioliils, ninl I'liiisril iiini'r ur li'HS ilmmigc 
111 llir llilpH'rlil |ihlllllll mil ■. 'I'lii' ilinsj iiiiljilili' iil llirsr iiir llii' lliiiiils iil' 1^71 
mill ISS.'. In llir lir I iiainril snir liriivy ruins |iri'\'iii In! in Ahirrli I iiriii|i;liiMil 
llii' Inwlmicl lirliiw ('iiii'ii, lilliiif.' llii' swiini|)s iiinl swmii|i rivers, mnl |iriMliiriiij;' 

II rii|iiil ri r 111 llir M ississi |i|ii. In ,\|iril llicsr nlill^; lii'raiiii' cxccHHivr, cNlrliil 
inji; riisl w iinl uvrr llir \'iilli'\s nl llir 'ri'iini'ssi'i' mill ( 'ninlii'i-laiiil ri\i'rs, lie- 
Iwrrll ( 'iilllllirrrr, Mii., ailil llli' l.iniisimia linr llii'ii' wi'l'c loll.T* miles (ll 
iTi'VilMseH mill lil'eiilis. In llie While KiM'i' lliere was a ilesl I'llel iv'e ii\i'i'lli iw, ailil 
in llie \'il/iiii, llie jjl'i'ale I Ire liel nil reeiil'il, line In I'll ill Wa ler alnlie. In I lie 
<>iiai'liila al n llie llnml lirnke all |iri'\iiiiis I'eeni'ils ; a ei'i'\asse in ('arrnll Parish 
llnnileil llie liiillnin lands nl llie Teiisiis; llie Alelia I alaya liasiii wiis in eNlreine 

II I, and llie I'l'i'lie di:-lrii'l ileeph' iniindaled ri'iiiii SainI iM a I'l insN'illi' dnwn. A 

ereVMHsc III llniiiiel ('am'' raised I. like rniili'liarl rain suddenly almiil Iwn feel,. 
(ireiit HiilTcriii^ lireviiiled in luwer LniiiHiiiriii, iiiid liii'^e hiiiiis id' iiiniicy W(H'(m'i)ii- 
li'iliiiled ill New ^'n^k, llnslnii, and nllier Nnrllicrii eilies and Slates lor tlie re- 
lie I' id llie sIlll'V illf; I )n| III la I inn. Unslnii iilniii' eiiiil ri linteil $:'.'!( I, ()(•() In 111 is I iilid. 

'I'lie llnnil ill ISS;! was e\eii iiinre d isasi rolls. Tile rixer was iinnsiially 
liif'li diirini'; llie earl\ winler, lull nn serimis a|i|iri'lieiisioiis were eiilerlained nl 
II fi'iieral oM'illnw. Willi llie lie-;! nil i lit;' of llie yeiir, Imwever, llie rains si'l in 
and I'niil iiiiied willmnl eessalinii dnriiifi' iliMHiiiry, |iarl ienlarly in the valleys iil' 
llie Tennessee and ()|iin, and .'ilmlll \' ieksluil'ii,'. The rixer-- in Miisl Teimcsscd 
were mil >>( luink'- hy llie middle nl' .laniiai'v. In M ississi |i|ii, and Alalimna 
also, serimis llnniU were ri'imrled, while llie .VlehalahiN a nM'rllnwed ila hanks 



STANPAIW If/HTOUy OF ypJV OliLliANS. \77 

to Huch an cxtont an to stop thf; work on thr; Xftw OrleanH Pacific II. It. Still 
thf; rains foil daily, and the river row*. A thorough inupwrtion waH made of the 
levees and niueh work wa.s done on thr^ni, hnt the rain greatly impaired itH ef- 
feetivenesB. On the 28th of January two breaks <>cu:iirr(;<\, one in Madiw^n I'ar- 
i«h, and one F)elow the city in Plaquemines Parish; on the SOth there was an- 
other at L'X'kport on the La Foiirehe. Pehniary 2d Ited River rose, flooding the 
bottom lands U;low Slireveport, and on the 0th the levwis in the Ya/ZKj valley 
broke. After that every day brought a new erevasse, anrl by the middle of the 
month all the bottom lands of Mississippi, Arkansas, and much of Northern 
I/Ouifiiana were under water. On the first of March there were fiftf*n crevasMjs 
in Txjuisiana on the Mississippi, Atehafalaya, and La Fourche. Great destitu- 
tion prevailed, and appeals to the Government were made from Illinois, Mis- 
souri, Tennf^sf^;, Arkansas, fx^uisiana, and Mississippi. 'J'he numU;r of suf- 
ferers by the flfKKl was then estimated at 4'i,<)<)(K On March 8th the Pointe 
Coupee levf* gave way, changing tlie scene of destruction to w;ntral I^juisiana. 
The water ^joured down the Atchafalaya, overflowing the Attakapas district, and 
ruining the finest sugar plantations of the state. 

The water from the Mississippi l>egan to nin off during the last two week» 
of March, but in lower lyouisiana thr; flood continued U) swell through the 
greater 7<ortion of April, and even when the ris<! ceas^^l it suljsided m> slowly 
that it was late in June lK;fore many of the plantations were quite free from 
water. The floo<l may therefore Ik; considered as having lasted fully five 
months. Over a hundred breaks or crevass'.'S v/ere cause*] by it, and 22,000 
square miles of territory, with a fK>pulation of 400,000, were overflowed. Hit- 
lief bureaus were established by the Government during the early days of the 
disaster, and several hundred thousand dollars worth of rations were distrili- 
uted. In lyjuisiana this aid was supplemented by a relief commission v/hich sent 
a fleet to the upper portion of the State to remove the \x-J)J>]o, to safe ground, 
and to furnish forage for the fUxtk, which was perishing by thousands. This 
fleet rescued many pr;ople from dr;ath by starvation or drowning. 

According to the refK»rts prej>ared Ijy the jKilice jurifs at the re<juf;st of the 
governor, for the purp'iw of estimating the h«s entailed ufKm r>;uisiana by the 
flfKKl, it was rhown that 28 out of '><> parishes were involved in it, the damage 
to crops of all kinds amounting to $11,408,000; that to stfx-k, fencfjs, houw;s 
and household grK^ls, hivcxtn and railroads, to *!{,5iiB,000 ; making a grand total 
of $].'), 004,000 loss in I»nisiana alone. In Mississippi the loss was figured at 



178 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

$6,701,000 ; in Arkansas, at $4,033,000 ; in Tennessee and other States, at $1,- 
300,000 ; the amount for all being the pretty sum of $27,038,000. 

The lessons of 1882 so forcibly demonstrated the necessity for good levees 
that since that time the work has been carried on with a vigor and persistency 
which has resulted in giving a nearly complete system of levees to Mississippi 
and Louisiana. In 1884 the flood caused but one important crevasse, which, 
however, was a verj serious one. It occurred at the Davis plantation 22 miles 
above New Orleans, and was caused by the imperfect refilling of a rice flume cut 
in the old levee — a fertile cause of trouble now practically abolished — ^througti 
which the water rushed, cutting out m a short space of time a gap of 1,000 feet. 
Through this immense opening the tide flowed in a converging stream that 
foi'ced its way inland to the distance of several miles, spreading destruction in 
its path. The tracks of the Texas Pacific, and of the Morgan lines of railway, 
wore soon submerged, and all traffic stopped. The two companies united in the 
effort to close the crevasse, but the force of the powerful current, and the 
masses of driftM'ood and debris which it hurled like a battering ram against the 
work, so blocked and impeded it as to compel its abandonment. The gap 
widened, the water spreading itself in a vast sheet of devastation over the coun- 
try, invading adjoining parishes, pouring into the town of Gretna, driving fam- 
ilies from their homes, and carrying destruction and misery wherever it ap- 
peared. The richest sugar district in the State was submerged, the flood ex- 
tending almost to the Gulf, and entailing a loss of over $5,000,000. 

From 1866 to 1887 the cost of high water is computed to have been : 

To the building and maintenance of levees $25,704,482.94 

To crevasses and loss from floods 71,827,600.00 

Total cost of high water in twenty-one years $97,532,082.94 

The Mississippi River Commission, created by act of Congress in 1879, 
and charged Avith the diitj' of suggesting a plan for the improvement of the 
river, and of supervising the work, has recognized the importance of levees as a 
factor in river improvement. From tlie early days of levees in Louisiana it has 
been observed that tlie river in the section where these were maintained was al- 
Avays deep and imobstructed by bars. The Commission, in its first report, in- 
sisted forcibly upon this point,, and it has since lent liberal aid in the work of 
levee building. As a result of the greater care bestowed upon them the levees 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. I79 

liave been able to withstand the force of the floods of the past fourteen or fifteen 
years, and so to protect from serions loss the property along the river. In 1893 
the water reached a higher reading on the gauge than had ever before been re- 
corded, bnt it was kept well within control, and the few slight breaks were re- 
paired qnickly and with comparatively little loss. The fight against high water 
may therefore be considered as won — though in this as in other contests against 
natural forces eternal vigilance is the price of security. 

The following table, abridged from one included in a report of the Missis- 
sippi River Commission, gives the probabilities as calculated from the floods 
occurring within periods of from eighteen to twenty-five years, of high Avater at 
various points along the river where gauges are established : 

Once in everv ten 3'ears there may be expected : 

Feet. 

At Cairo, a flood of 51.5 

At Memphis, a flood of 34.5 

At Helena, a flood of 46.5 

Mouth of White River, flood of 47.5 

At Vicksburg, flood of 49.0 

At Natchez, flood of 4S.0 

At Red River Landing, flood of 47.0 

At Carrollton, flood of 15.6 

The wharves are wooden structures, built against the levee, which is pro- 
tected by a bulkhead of plank. They are, in fact, stagings of jDlank, supported 
by piles twelve feet square, and fifty feet in length, which are driven down into 
the bed of the river by huge pile-drivers as far as possible, and cut otf to the 
proper level. Caps of twelve foot timber are laid upon these, parallel with the 
bank, and boimd together by stringers of 6x12 timber. On these, again parallel 
with the bank, are laid and firmly secured the planks which form the staging. 

Since 1891 the wharves have been leased to a company knoAAoi as the "Lou- 
isiana Improvement Company,"' which, in consideration of the revenues col- 
lected at rates fixed by the ordinance granting the lease, bound itself to expend 
during the first tvw years of its contract $465,000 in wharf improvements, to 
construct and keep in repair wharves, bulkheads and landings between Toledano 
and Piety streets, a distance of four miles, and to light the whole front by elec- 
tricity, the lights to be placed not less than 250 feet apart. They are also re- 
quired to maintain a depth of twenty-five feet of water at the extreipes of their 
line, where sea-going vessels lie, and of twelve feet at the central jxjrtions which 
are i;sed by river-craft. This lease expires in May, 1901. 



i8o STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

The following iiiforiiiMtioii in regard to the wharves is derived from ^Mr. 
Gervais Lombard, engineer of the Orleans Levee Board : 

"In 1893, in fact until May, 1897, when the water in the Mississippi river 
broke all previous records at Xew Orleans, reaching a stage of 19.5 feet on the 
Canal street gauge, the wharves and the levees immediately behind them were 
required to be kept up to a grade of 18.5 feet according to Canal street gauge, 
the zero of which is 2.5 feet below Mean Gulf Level. The Louisiana Tinjirove- 
ment Company, who are the lessees of the wharves and landings, are bound by 
their conlract with the city of New Orleans to maintain the wharves and ap- 
proaches to the same at said grade of 18.5 feet. When the water rose above 
this grade and completely covered the wlnrves in 1897, it was kept o\it of the 
city by a temporary levee or embankment constructed of sand bags. The im- 
mense shipping and commercial interests suifered great inconvenience for 
nearly a month, or until the water subsided. 

" The Orleans Levee Board and the Port Commissioners adopted a new 
grade of 20.5 feet for the levees and wharves, and the wharf lessees, though not 
bound by contract to conform to this new grade, have raised the greater portion 
of the lovee and a small portion of the wharves to 20.5 feet, and as any new work 
is done, or any repairs become necessary, the new grade is conformed to. 

" In the latter part of 1897 the Orleans Levee Board, considering that some- 
thing must be done about the banks of the river in the lower Third district, 
which were caving and sliding into the river, because of the encroachment of 
the channel and the consequent steepening of the bank, employed an engineer 
of considerable repute to devise some feasible plan for staying the encroachment. 
An elaborate system of continuous wharves was recouuncnded, it having been 
observed that the wharf system had imjmn'cd the commercial fi'ont of the city. 
Years before, the Third district had been considerably used as a landing place 
for the commerce of the city, but owing to the rapid and continued caving of the 
banks, and the consequent destruction of all w^harves and improvements made 
upon them, the district was aliandoned as a place of landing, and in obedience 
to the unwritten but universal law which governs such matters in all great cities, 
the improvements were moved farther up the stream. The wharves were at first 
built in the form of piers, projecting out into the river at right angles to the 
shore, b^it great trouble was experienced in maintaining them, owing to the fact 
that the resistance offered to the rapid current by the projecting ends created 
eddies which attacked and undermined the bank, causing the whole thing to 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. i8i 

cave in. LattT the plan of making the wharves continuous, and parallel to the 
bank, was adopted. By this method the wharves do not extend so far out into 
the stream, and so, oflFering less resistance to the current, are found to be more 
stable. Another, and perhaps the principal, reason for the diminished caving 
of the wharves may be found in the fact that the river has ceased to encroach 
xipon the eastern banks where they are constructed, and is actually beginning 
to recede, according to the habit of the great Father of Waters, — which is to 
first eat away the banks on one side for a generation or two, then to replace 
them with interest during another one or two generations, while devouring large 
slices from the other side. 

" The elaborate system of wharves recommended for the Third district has 
been duly constructed, thus extending the wharf system some If miles down 
stream, making a continuous stretch of wharves from the upper end of the Stuy- 
vesant docks, at Peniston street, to a point 100 feet below Egania street, a dis- 
tance of 6|- miles. The success of the Third district wharf system, which was 
constructed in an iinusually substantial manner, is still in the balance, some 
signs of failure having become apparent after the flood season of 1898, although 
the United States government had gone to great expense to assist in protecting 
the banks by means of mattresses of woven willow brush, loaded with rock, and 
simk along the shore line." 

The width of the river in front of New Orleans varies from 1,500 to 3,000 
feet, and the length of the harbor in actual use for steamers and shipping is 
about seven miles on either shore. In 1880 there were on the left bank, where 
the greater part of the active commerce is carried on, 6G wharves capable of ac- 
commodating large steamers two abreast, or sail vessels four abreast, and a 
wharf for river and coasting steamers and barges of nearly li miles front. This 
central wharf or levee forms a large plaza several squares wide, and extending 
from Julia street to St. Louis, and is what is usually meant when "the levee" is 
spoken of. It consists of three divisions, the Grain levee, at the head of Poydras 
street, the Cotton levee, at the head of Canal street, and the Sugar levee, at the 
head of Conti street. In former years, before the establishment of commercial 
exchanges, much of the buying and selling was transacted on this great levee, 
which, during the busy season, presented a scene of bustling activity. It is 
often remarked that the wharves are no longer crowded as they once were with 
cotton bales, barrels and hogsheads of sugar and molasses, and with other pro- 
duce of fields and factories. This, however, does not indicate tJiat the cotton 



i82 STANDARD HISTORY OF. NEW ORLEANS. 

and produce no longer come to ISTew Orleans, or come in reduced quantity. On 
the contrary, they are brought in vastly increased quantities, but the methods 
of handling have been so improved that the wharves never appear crowded. 
Formerly, for instance, cotton was brought down the river by steamboats, of 
which there were great numbers, and which, during the height of the season, 
would arrive piled to the hurricane deck with tiers of bales. These were all un- 
loaded upon the wharves, and -reloaded upon drays or "floats," which transferred 
them to the presses. When readj' for shipment they were all again loaded upon 
floats and hauled back to the wharves where the ocean steamers lay waiting for 
their cargo. Now the gi'eater portion of the produce is brought in by rail, and 
each railroad has a port or terminal dock facilities, with great elevators and all 
the modern machinery for liandling freight in the cheapest and most expeditioiis 
manner. 

Reference has been made to the "making" of the bank on one side of the 
river. The groimd thus added is called "batture," and the city front has been ex- 
tended considerably between the old Place d' Armes, — now Jackson Square. — 
and the foot of Felicity street, since the settlement of the city, amounting, at 
its greatest width, near the foot of Delord street, to nearly 1,500 feet. The cus- 
tom now is to follow up the battxire by an annual extension of the wharves, tlio 
earth being filled in behind them to the level of the levee. 

Several law suits have gro'wii out of disputes between the proprietor to 
whose land the batture has been added, and the corporation, as to the ownership 
of the alluvion, or newly-made ground. The most notable of these suits is that 
brought by John Gravier for possession of the batture in front of his property 
in the Faubourg Ste. Marie. This batture had long remained open to the pub- 
lic, and persons wishing for sand and earth wherewith to fill up their own low 
lots, had been accustomed to obtain it from Mr. Gravier's alluvion without even 
the ceremony of asking leave. When, therefore, Mr. Gravier fenced in a portion 
of this ground, and went even to the length of selling other portions, the public 
felt itself aggrieved, and the proprietor was compelled to have recourse to law 
in order to establish his title. He engaged Mr. Edward Livingston, the cele- 
brated constitutional lawyer, who had recently become a resident of New Or- 
leans, to defend his claim, which Mr. Livingston thought so good that he himself 
purchased a portion of the disputed ground, and proceeded to improve it. This 
excited the community to such an extent that, notwithstanding the decision of 
the court in favor of Gravier, they determined to drive oif the intruder by force 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 183 

of arms. Rallying by thousands to the beat of a drum they marched to the dis- 
puted territory, and were only dispersed by the appeals and entreaties of Gov- 
ernor Claiborne, who promised to have the whole matter referred to the United 
States government. This was done, with the result of bringing on a long and 
acrimonious dispute in which Jefferson took an active part both as President 
and as attorney for the government after his retirement from office. The case 
was finally decided in favor of Gravier and Livingston, but neither of them de- 
rived much benefit from the property in dispute, as other heirs of Bertrand Gra- 
vier, from whom John claim.ed to have inherited his title, put in a claim, and 
the litigants were forced to compromise both with these new claimants and with 
the corooration. 



CHAPTER Vll. 



TIIK (JIUOOI.ES. 

By Henry Riohtor. 

AN iTiti'lli^'ciit iindi'iNtMiKliiii; of the iiicMiiiiii; of llic word ('roolo, iis uschI in 
LouisiaiKi, iiMirtt li;irk liiick, tlii-oui;li lirwihlcriiii; ot vmolofjiciil imitations, 

to tli(> orif;iiKil Mini i;cnuinr sense, llic rh/ition. of tlio word as us<'il in IIk^ 
Spiinisli colonics years iK^forc the coinplox society of tlio earliest sottlenicnts at 
New ()i-|('ans and vicinity decreed the iiecossity for a differentiating nomencla- 
ture, (lesci'il)iiig the different.kinds of peoples, and gave rise to its employment. 
Etymologists are agreed that the word, in its remotest philological analysis, 
comes from the Latin iTfiirc, to create (Spanish criollo) implying, in a sens(\ 
creations of the molhci- country in a new clime, Creoles; yet, whatever he the 
genesis of the word, it will come l!om(^ to on(^ wiio lalioriously studies the writ- 
ings referring to the suhjecl. ( I will not say authorities, for, in all sincerity, 
there are none) that, while elymologieally the word has a very distinct and, to 
tlie impartial i)hilologist, un(M]nivocal meaning, to the great body even of well 
informed writers as W(dl as to (he nuiss of mankind, the word means nothing. 
Nor is this to !«> wondered at whi'n we consider how tew words possess narrow 
and explicit meanings, e\eii the word iiKin. descriliing originally the ideal 
type, intellectually and physically symmetrical, having comi- to hi' the common 
symbol for athletes and cripples, |)hilosoph(M's and ])iekpockets. 

'IMie general misunderstanding t>f the word, prevailing even among scholars, 
is excm|ilitieil in (he delinition given in th' ('enlnr\' Dictionary, wherein the 
following appear^: "In Louisiana: [a] originally a native descended from 
l"'ri'nch ancestoi-s, who had settled thei-e; later, any native of l'"'r(>nch or Spanish 
descent by either pai-enl ; a person belonging to the French-speaking portion of 
tli(> whit(> race. [h) \ native born negro, as distinguished from a negro brotight 
from .Vtrica." 

To the tirst part of this d'tiniiion, namely, that the original signifieatioii in 
Louisiana (d' the word "Creole" was thai of a native desc(>nd(>d from French 





/Z^Q^..^-t^-*^-<^f>4 ^:/_jz..^ 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 185 

ancestors who had settled there, exception is to be taken on the score of its being 
incorrectly restrictive. One of the earliest writers upon matters pertain- 
ing to Louisiana, M. Bossu, a French captain of marines, who vis- 
ited Louisiana during the time of the governor, the Marquis de Vau- 
dreuil (1740-53), a scientist trained to definiteness and accuracy of 
statement — botanist and ornithologibt — has said : "The Creoles are those 
that are born of a French man and a French woman or of Euro- 
pean parents." Even in those early days we have the testimony ot a scholar 
to the indefinity of the word. Again, the second statement of the Century 
definition is incorrect, for the same reason applicable to the first; it is too re- 
strictive. There are, and have always been in Louisiana, since a period so 
nearly contemporary with the beginning of the use of the word "Creole" in 
the territory as to admit of no argimient on the accuracy of the assertion, Creoles 
of German descent, and of Irish descent, and there are progeny of these whose 
names would inevitably be mentioned by the informed in an enumeration of 
representative Creole families of the state, such are the Waguespacks of St. 
James (German), the McCarthys of New Orleans (Irish), Pollocks (Scotch- 
Irish). 

The last sentence of the Century definition is, in respect of the significa- 
tion of the word in Louisiana (and I take it to be axiomatic that the meaning 
of a word must be sought among the people, the exigencies of whose social life 
gave rise to its employment), an injustice to the Creoles, to whom the title prop- 
erly belongs, and an injury as pronounced as it is difficult to explain. In plain 
truth, no white Louisianian ever calls a negro a Creole. Therein lies the key 
to the whole misunderstanding. It is the negroes themselves who delight in 
the title, who seek by every means to gather to themselves something of the 
dignity of their masters, who adroitly turn to the account of that ambition for 
identification with the whites, which is at once one of the most marked and 
sinister characteristics of the race, every turn in the confusion which tliis unfor- 
tunate word creates. And there are circumstances in league with this tendency 
which it may be well to examine: First, the misinformation (I liesitate to 
ascribe it to anything so petty as prejudice) of writers; second, the fact that 
the dominant lexicographical meaning imputed to the word emlxidies the idea ot 
its referring to negroes. 

That most sincere, prudent and painstaking examinator, Lafcadio Hearn, 
has left, among other monuments to his genius in these parts, a quaint little 



i86 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

volume bearing the title "Gombo Zhebes," in wliich are preserved proverbs from 
"six Creole dialects," enumerated as those of French Guavana, Hayti, New 
Orleans, La., Martinique, Mauritius and Trinidad. Hearn uses the word in 
its Islands sense, in its general application throughout the volume, but in the 
introduction he is careful to prefix the adjective colored when he refers to ne- 
groes. If the word of itself implied the possession of negro blood even in the 
Islands, this most careful and selective etymologist would not have used the 
superfluovs prefix colored. Yet the fact remains— despite Hearn's curious ob- 
servation, that even in the Islands and Colonies the word does not necessarily 
involve the idea of negro blood — that in those places and as of these places, the 
word means, in its quickest use, negro. 

Gayarre, in his scholarly and indignant pamphlet, "The Creoles of History 
and the Creoles of Romance," wherein he inveighs against the fictionist trifling 
with matters too close to fireside honor for any but the calm and honorable por- 
trayal of the faithful pen, has made the same point as that made by Hearn. 
He says : "The word Creole in the course of time was so extended as to apply 
not merely to children born of European parents, but also to animals, vegetables 
and fruits, and to everything produced or manufactured in Louisiana. There 
were Creole horses, Creole cattle, Creole eggs, Creole corn, Creole cottonade, etc. 
The negroes born within her limits were Creoles to distinguish them from the 
imported Africans and from those who, long after, were brought from the United 
States." 

Here, then, is the sharp point: that the negro, ever in Louisiana a chattel, 
was but given the distinguishing name of his master, and his master's effects. 
As the eggs of his master's hens were Creole eggs and the kine of his master's 
field were Creole cattle, so he was a Creole negro. There were creole Negroes, 
not negro Creoles ; and upon the bald fact represented by this ultimate analysis, 
corruption and all the vices and vagaries of the languages of a polyglot country 
have labored to rear the bewildering fabric of confusion into which this most un- 
fortunate of words has resolved itself to-day. 

Gayarre himself, the passionate champion of the Creoles of Louisiana, 
gives us a plain, rational definition : "Creole means the issue of European par- 
ents in Spanish or French colonies." P. F. de Gournay, in a scholarly article 
published in the Magazine of American History, and obviously deriving its in- 
spiration from Gayarrc's pamphlet, sharply defines Creole, "The descendant of 
a Colonist." An old lexicon published at Philadelphia in 1835, The Encyclo- 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 187 

pedia Americana, edited by Francis Lieber, based upon the seventh edition of 
the German Conversations-Lexicon, gives a definition, which, carrying v?ith it 
the warranty of German carefulness, as well as that of having been written at 
a time nearer the birth of the word, is of interest as verifying what has already 
heen said. The definition is as follows: "Creole (from the Spanish criollo) 
is the name which was originally given to all the descendants of Spaniards bora 
in America and the West Indies. It is also used for the descendants of other 
Europeans, as French, Danes, in which we say French-Creole, Danish-Creole 
* * *." It is significant that no reference is had to negro Creoles, though 
there were thousands of human beings in the West Indies, contemporary with 
this writing, who might have been so called had not the unyielding distinctive- 
ness of the word prevented its being so employed. Further along in the same 
writing, is foimd the following: *'In the West Indies the Creoles have always 
enjoyed equal rights with native Europeans. Before the declaration of inde- 
pendence by the colonies of Spanish America, there existed marked lines of 
distinction between the difiPerent classes, foimded on differences of birth. The 
Chapetones were European by birth and first in rank and power; the Creoles 
were the second ; the Mulattoes and Mestizoes (descendants of white and black 
or white and Indian parents) formed the third class; negroes and Indians the 
fourth." 

The word in Louisiana has saiffered from abuses difficult and dangerous to 
analyze. Those entitled to the name have, with a generosity and hospitality 
characteristic of their class, admitted to the honorable privileges of the title, 
families in no sense entitled to its distinction. Such have been persons coming 
here since the colonial period, speaking French, taking up their residence in the 
Creole section, adopting the manners and customs of colonial descendants, yet 
no more entitled by any valid argument to be called Creoles than a Louisianau 
taking up his residence in Staten Island after the colonial period, might lay 
claim to the distinction of Knickerbocker. So it is that, with negroes, bastard 
children and ill-informed writers and lexicographers on the one hand seeking to 
Africanize the honorable word, and greedy tradesman, or ambitious or obscure 
vulgarians, planning to elevate themselves commercially and socially under the 
magical mantle, it would be strange, indeed, did not a confusion exist, which 
tlie splenetic and the designing have not been slow in turning to account. Yet 
the fact remains that, at this late day there is no stemming the tide of misuse 
to which the word is a victim, and the old and genuine Creoles, admitting to 



1 88 Sl'ANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

tlic'ir ranks tlio newcomers — with a proper moderate reserve to themselves — are 
tliemselves contributory towards the destruction of a term which, in its Louisiana 
sense, has been accepted througliout the civilized world as among the proudest 
warranties of a gentle, cultured, patrician people to be found on the Western 
]Iemisphere. 

'I'lu' homo life of the Creoles has ever been one of repose, affection and n>- 
finement. They are an intensely domestic people, loving their homes an<l tlieir 
families, cherishing the tenderest and most considerate affection for their kins- 
men to the remotest degree, and recognizing them with no diminution of respect 
and esteem, even when adversity mav have widely separated their ways of life. 
It is not surprising that a people so affectionate, coming of Latin blood, heated 
by the warm suns of a semi-tv(>i)ieal country, should be endowed with violent 
prejudices and passions. So it was that the duello flourished among them as 
a favorite institution, and many is the proud scion of the race has fallen upon 
the field of honor. The favorite duelling place of the Creoles was at "The 
Oaks," now tlie Lower City Park, and the more immediate scene of some of the 
most famous encounters was at a eolleetion of oaks known as "Les Trois 
Soeurs," situated near where is now a Jewish burying ground at the intersection 
of Gentilly Road and the track of the old Ponchartrain railroad. 

Partly as a consequence of the custom of duelling and partly as a cause of 
that custom, the Creole's inherent respect for women became a reverence. 
AVives, sisters and sweethearts shared with the church the holiest respect of the 
Creole gentleman's daily life. Courage, activity and endurance have ever beeii 
characteristic of the Creole men, as distinguishing as. the beauty and virtue of 
the women. In every war in which thev have been engaged thev have won the 
name of being the most patient and enduring under hardship and fatigue, and the 
most gallant, daring and unconquerable in action. They possess a fine faculty 
of adaptability, their cheerful, buoyant, merry nature, making the most of re- 
pose and perpetually fortifying itself for the surprising expenditure of energy 
they are able to pxit forth when occasion arises. 

Leaving care to slaves, the Creoles of the prosperous days before the Civil 
War, at once kept an eye to the material wants of life, and cultivated the most 
princely and refined society of the day, educating their sons in Paris, their 
daughters in the refining and spiritualizing atmosphere of Catholic convents, 
and so producing a race of fiery, spirited, chivalrous, cultured men and delicately 
beaiitiful, modest and charmingly feminine women. 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 189 

A significant and instructive event in connection with the Creoles of New 
Orleans occurred on the twenty-fourth day of J\ine, in the year 1886, when 
by act before Charles T. Soniat, notary public, was chartered the Creole Asso- 
ciation of Louisiana. The objects and purposes of the association are set forth 
in the cliarter, by-laws and rules of the association, as follows: "Literary, so- 
cial, charitable, and mutual benevolence ; to give one another mutual aid, as- 
sistance and protection within the powers of this organization ; to disseminate 
knowledge concerning the true origin and real character, and to promote the 
advancement of the Creole race in Louisiana." Article third of the charter au- 
thorized the association to organize branches in each of the parishes of the state, 
and as an earnest of the detenuination of piirpose of the organization, Article 
Nine provided that no dissolution of this association shall take place so long as 
ten members in good standing shall remain willing to continue. This charter 
was originally signed by the following gentlemen: A. Schreiber, F. P. Poche, 
Charles J. Villere, And. L. Remain, G. A. Lanaux, A. C. Landry, John Augus- 
tin, Paul E. Theard, L. And. Burthe, Octave Morel, Frank D. Chretien, Geo. 
H. Theard, J. B. Levert, Chas. Letellier, Ete. Camilla Mire, James M. Augus- 
tin, Louis Burthe, L. V. Porche, Chas. de Lassus, Chas. T. Theard, D. Burthe, 
Alcee Fortier, Chas. F. Claiborne, Jno. L. Peytavin, Ete. Blanc, P. L. Bouny, 
Just. Comes, Charles Parlange, Anthony Sambola, Hugues J. Lavergiie, L. E. 
Lemarie, B. Sarrat, Placide J. Spear, C. E. Schmidt, Albert Paul, Horatio 
Lange, Geo. W. Hopkins, F. Leonce Fazende, A. Mendes, Thomas Layton, J. 
O. Landry, Wm. Sanchez, Dr. A. B. de Villeneuve, C. A. Phillippi, Leon Fa- 
zende, A. J. de risle, F. Formento, M. D., C. M. Isley, Henry Chiapella, Jno. 
C. Delavigne, Th. Soniat du Fossat, Cyrille C. Theard, Adolphe Calonge, E. 
J. Meral, E. Surgi, Jas. Thibaut, Paul Fortier, R. La Branche, J. E. De Wint, 
U. D. Terrebonne, Thos. J. Cooley, Jr., P. Alb. Roquet, Raoul Dupre, Alex. 
Laroque Turjeau, B. M. Nebrano, Chas. Laudumiey, Chas. Fuselier, Geo. 
Staigg, Lamar C. Quintero, James Legendre, J. N. Augustin, Dr. A. H. Parra, 
James L. Lemarie, E. Bermudez, G. T. Beauregard, R. T. Beauregard, George 
W. Dupre, Geo. Guinalt. Ernest Miltenberger, Jules J. d'Aquin, H. J. Ma- 
lochee, Wm. J. Grahan, Jas. Freret, John A. Betat, J. T. Morel, Oct.. Robert, 
Charles de Gruy, Charles Fourton, F. C. Fazende, C. T. Soniat. 

A piece of private history, not heretofore divulged, explains why so dis- 
tinguished and typical a Creole name as that of the historian, Charles Gayarre, 
should not have been signed to the charter. Tlic letter is now given, not only 



190 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

because it is typical of the sensitiveness of the race of which Louisiana's illus- 
trious historian was so distinguished an exponent, but because it casts a quiet 
side-liglit upon the proud and self-sacrificing character of Gayarre himself. 
The letter is addressed to Charles T. Soniat, notary public, under date of June, 
1886, and reads as follows: 

Dear Sir: — I lately received a postal card requesting me to call at my ear- 
liest convenience at your office, No. 13- Carondelet Street and sign the charter 
of the Creole Association of Louisiana. The postal card is not signed, but pre- 
suming that it comes from your office, I address my reply thereto. 

I regret to say that, b(Mng uncertain of my daily bread, I cannot join any 
association that would entail any expense on me, and without being in that re- 
spect on a footing of equality with all its members. 

Very respectfully, 

Charles Gayarre. 

The meeting at whicli permanent organization of the Creole Association of 
Louisiana was accomplished, was held at the old Grunewald Opera House, June 
20, ISSG. At the meeting the following officers were elected : President, 
P. P. Poclie ; vice-president, Charles A. Villere ; recording secretary, A. L. Ro- 
main ; tiuaiicial secretary, Major John Augustin; treasurer, A. C. Landry. 

The president of tlie association, a late Justice of the Supreme Coui't of 
Louisiana, being absent from the city at the time, the address of the occasion was 
delivered by Col. Villere, a lineal descendant of the Villere of the Lafreniere in- 
surrection, and vice-president of the association. This speech was widely re- 
produced in journals throughout the country at the time, being accepted as an 
authoritative enunciation by the Creoles, through their own selected mouth-piece. 
The speed', which was very long is hero reproduced in its more important parts: 

Ladies, Genflemeii and Brothers: — The object of this meeting is to lay be- 
fore the Association tlie by-laws and rules adopted by the Board of Control. It 
hai< also a greater oltject — to spread fulhM' information with regard to our inten- 
tions. To those wiio liavc nr)t stopped to study our organization, let me give 
the assurance that they and their children are to receive benefits from its suc- 
cess. Wo are working for all, "and it shall be like a tree planted by the rivers 
of water that lir<>ngh( forth his fruit in his season; bis leaf also shall not wither." 

As your jjrosiding officer, allow me a few remarks on the spirit, the scope 
ami [uii'posf of the Assoeiation you are requested and urged to join. * * * 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS: 191 

They (the press) realize that we, as Creoles, are combining, not for the advance- 
ment of the few to the detriment of the nianv, but having seriously at heart the 
prosperity and aggrandizement of the whole State controlling a might, which, 
strong in favor of good govei-nment, could and should, at the proper time, be 
utilized. 

If such an organization is indispensable, the very attacks it has received 
evidence. It is also clear that Creoles have a dormant power which, if vivified, 
woidd be a factor of no mean significance. We shall strive to emulate others. 
We hope to do, in our sphere, as much good as the New England, the Hibernian, 
the German, the French, the Swiss, the Italian and other organizations long in 
existence, and of which numbers of us are members in the best standing. 

We have adojitcd the appellation of Creoles in no exclusive sense. To 
have rejected it would have been a confession of weakness ; it would have been 
a retreat, and Ave are mutually pledged to forward march. As Creoles we are 
known; our manhood revolts against an unfavorable discrimination. As Cre- 
oles we entered the race, and we see plainly great results for all, for ourselves, 
for our posterity. 

Let no craven heart enter our ranks. Let no man, repudiating the tongue 
in which his first prayers were lisped, join us. Let no one so lost to shame, so 
miserably mean, so abject as to curse his fathers, come to us. But come the 
brave, patient, the industrious — come, come, crowd our phalanx, and engage in 
the great work so s]dendidily mauguarated. 

We, Creoles of Louisiana, claim our share of pluck, energy, intelligence and 
patriotism. Our ancestors colonized the thin, vast limits of Louisiana ; they 
were the first on this continent to sow the seeds of independence and to water 
it with their life's blood, and fnuu sire to son a most chivalrous spirit was trans- 
mitted. We wish to write the history of our people, to hold them up to the 
light of day, to draw them out of their blameable retirement, to keep fresh in 
the memory of all, not only the names of tlie early settlers, but to hold up as 
exemplarv of great citizenship, the careers of Claiborne, Livingston, Johnson, 
Walker, Porter, «Boyd,', Ogden. Guion, Nicholls, Morse, Thurmann, Fenner, 
Minor, ISTott, Palfey, Baker, Gordon, White, Martin, TJrquhart, Eost, Eustis 
and hosts of others who have made of this State a garden spot and controlled her 
destinies in their day and generation. 

Where now stands an incomplete and neglected monument, Creoles, un- 
armed, faced the veterans of England, defending all that is most sacred to man. 



( 



192 STANDARD HISTORY OP NEW ORLEANS. 

From Texas to tlie halls of the Montezumas they acted a glorious part. In the 
late war, liow snliiime their record ! every battle field is an historic tale of their 
Tinsnrpassed valor. They were not mere soldiers — stipendiaries of power — they 
were educated men, who knowing their rights, dared maintain them. 

On the 14tli of September, a date which should ever be memorable and 
dear to freedom, and especially so to this great and hospitable city, Creole boys 
rushed to the front and vied in heroitm with veterans of many a hard fought 
battle. * * * Who dares assert that Creoles have been unworthy of public 
trust — who dares assert that they have not been jealous of their country's honor 
as of their own ? Have they not given proofs of common sense, practical knowl- 
edge, and of the highest order of talent ! I refer to the records — they speak in au- 
thoritative tones ^ * * The Creoles of Louisiana have, for this state at least, 
an interest ; they have adopted principles of such liberality ; they are prompted 
by desires so laudable, that they feel confident of the support of all classes, having 
within the State material or sentimental interests. * * * We have launched 
an argosy freighted with influence on the true position to be occupied by all 
those, either of Creole origin or connected with the valiant race by sympathies, 
ties of blood or affinity. The necessity of this Association, organized under 
allspices so favorable to its full and proper development, has long been felt, ami 
the minds of our liest and truest men were occupied how to combine the shat- 
tered forces. "There is a tide in the affairs of men — " To^ay we are a cor- 
porate body, and we point with exultant pride to the names of our members — 
soldiers with untarnished fame, jurists and lawyers honored by erudition, 
unrelenting labors, and integrity of a noble profession ; physicians whose ac- 
quirements, researches and abnegations should thrill the heart of any commu- 
nity with admiration and gratitude. * * * "We are battling for our rights, 
and under a name, scoffed at, ridiculed, blackened, tortured, deformed, carica- 
tured ; our vindication is of importance far and wide. This is our soil ; we are 
in the house of our fathers. It would take the eloquence of Gratton or of 
Emmet, the persuasive power of Parnell, to convey a feeling as deep as it is 
natural to the human heart. We have an abiding confidence in the discernment 
of the generous community in which we live, and I feel assured of the influence 
and kind services of the pure, self-sacrificing, intelligent women of our State, 
and in the name of the Creole Associfition, I express the respect and gratitude 
of strong and proud men to the fair and accomplished daughters of our beloved 
Louisiana. 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. I93 

The following letter from the Secretary of the Association was pnblislu'd 
at the time (June, 1S8G), in the Picayune, and is interesting as explaining some- 
what more in detail than the speech of Col. Yillere, the aims and ambitions of 
the Creole Association : 

" Editor Picayune: The very kind notice given of the birth of the 'Creole 
Association" by the Picayune, the Times-Democrat, the Statb and the Bee is 
thankfully acknowledged by the founders of that society. It has encouraged 
the members of the Provisional Board of Control to crave a space in your col- 
umns, so as to further elucidate whatever may seem to be still obsciire or mys- 
terious, and in order to develop more fully the exact scope and purpose of the 
organization. 

" As clearly indicated in its declaration of principles, its paramount ob- 
ject, in fact, the very cornerstone of the whole structure, is to disseminate 
knowledge — not sporadically, but continuously — concerning the true origin and 
real character of the Creoles of Louisiana, hoping thereby to destroy the nuniy 
jirejudices still existing against tliem — begotten, no doubt, by ignorance, but 
fostered by hate — one of the most painful and revolting of which is, that they 
are of an inferior race and not the equals, as a class, of their fellow-American 
citizens of another ancestry. 

" It is truly amazing that the descendants of the earliest settlers of the 
Southwest, who are to Louisiana what the descendants of the Dutch and the 
Huguenots are to New York and South Carolina, should be so persistently mis- 
represented as the Creoles, whose ancestors, be it remembered, bore that name 
and received it with becoming pride, as letters patent of nobility issued to them 
in commemoration of numerous deeds of endurance, valor and industry; while 
on the other hand, the Knickerbockers of New York and the French Protestants 
of South Carolina are considered to-day as the very best in the land and eagerly 
cling to the traditions of the past. 

" Yet such is the stern, palpable fact, which is to be met squarely and not 
evad"ed, and whicli cannot be denied, for the evidence is overwhelming; and 
that, in spite of the occasional efforts of the press of this city to throw light 
upon the subject, and even while that great congress of American nations, the 
late Exposition, had thrown open to view the earlier records of Louisiana's his- 
tory, and could and did point with particular pride to the 'Creole Exhibit' as 
one of the most complete, as it was assuredly the most replete with gems of ar- 
tistic and* historic value, that could be found therein. 

" To correct erroneous impressions, to refute falsehood and to prove by well 
authenticated history that the origin of the Creoles is as pure and honorable as 
that of any other race in the land, is a pnrpose which challenges the approval of 
all Creoles, who venerate the memory of their ancestors ; and which must, as it 



194 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

already does, meet with tlie encouragement and the assistance of all patriotic 
Louisianians, of any ancestry, who should scorn to live on terms of social equal- 
ity with a race of men which would tamely submit to abuse and slander. 

" Our brethren of a different ancestry have the assurance that we do not 
propose to be exclusive, and that their co-operation is not only acceptable, but 
earnestly desired and resjieetfidly solicited. 

" Another prevalent prejudice against the Creoles is, that as a class, they 
are ignorant, indolent, dull of intelligence and callous to progress. Thus, in 
onv time we read from correspondents of the press, who are now describing the 
resources of Western Louisiana, the bold assertion that the tardy advancement 
of that section of the State is attributable to the character of its early settlers, 
who were typical Creoles and Acadians, and too indolent for the exigencies of 
a rising country. 

" It is far from our piu'pose to deny that among the Creoles, as well as 
with all other races, there are ignorant and slothful people. On the contrary, 
one of the objects embraced in the progi'amme is to awaken that very class of 
our people to the necessity of education and to the demands of progress. But 
at the same time we intend to demonstrate and to protest against the injustice 
of selecting the weakest element of a race, and to hold it up as a type of that 
race. Why should writers of romance and of contemj^oraneous history seek 
their models of Creoles from the wild and unimproved prairies of the Attakapas 
and of the Opelousas, while they turn their faces from the many representative 
Creoles of this city and of other portions of the State, wlio yield to none in intel- 
ligence, in patriotism, and in refinement? 

" In contrast with the beniglited Creoles, who are unjustly described as 
types of our race, we turn our eyes to those same parishes, which have given 
birth to and reared the ]\Ioutons, de Blancs, de Clouets, Olivets, Grevembergs, 
Fuseliers, Delahoussayes, Lastrapes, Simons, Gerards, Debalions, Garlands, 
Dupres, Dejeans, Voorhies, Chretiens, LeBlancs, Martels, Diimartrats and 
a host of others, whose names are synonomous with intelligence, valor and 
honor in that region and throughout Louisiana. 

''These and many other similar objects are the land-marks of our fields of 
labor, and we suggest that they are as foreign to the formation and promotion 
of a political party as science or political economy; and we respectfully submit 
that all insuniations to the contrary are as unfounded as they are unauthorized. 

"By order of the Board of control, 

"A. L. Roman, Recording Secretary." 

Commenting upon the organization of the Creole Association, the Times- 
Democrat, of June 2 1 St, had the following to say: 

" Such a movement, so plainly indicated, should have been started long be- 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 195 

fore this, for it appears fully time, now that the whole country is busy talking 
and inquiring about them (the Creoles), when writers pretending to say what 
they are, have stated that they are not, for themselves to rise to a point of per- 
sonal explanation, as it were, and let the world know something authentic. 
Owing to these and many other considerations, the meeting to-day, at which 
the ladies have been invited, will be of great interest, and we heartily wel- 
come this inaugural movement of our native-born." 

In connection with the organiztion of the Creole Association, an effort 
was made to establish a paj^er, "Lo Trait d'Uniou," which should be, in a way, 
the official organ of the body. The late A. L. Roman was director of this 
projected paper. It was to have been published by the Creole Publishing & 
Printing Company of Louisiana, of whom the following gentlemen composed the 
board of directors : A. L. Roman, Emile Rivoire, Alcee Fortier, John Augns- 
tin and Lamar C. Qiiintero. 

The Creole Association proved to be a chimera and was short lived. It 
contained within it what was the inevitable germ of dissolution, to wit: political 
aspiration. The late Hon. P. P. Poche was spoken of as Governor, and an ef- 
fort was made to focus the influences of the Creole Association upon his can- 
didacy. Internal differences ensued, and in the course of a short while the Cre- 
ole Association had passed out of existence, and with it, the Trait d'Union, which 
was to have been its organ. 

Among some old documents foimd in the archives of Charles T. Soniat, 
who was one of the prime movers in the establishment of the Creole Association, 
ami the notary who drew up all the papers, I found upon a yellowed piece of 
paper an almost imdecipherable scrawl Avhich possesses a peculiar interest. It 
is much interlined and changed, and evidently represents the idea of Mr. Soniat 
and his friends as to the true meaning of the word Creole. It reads as fol- 
lows: " N^one but white Louisiana Creoles shall be admitted as members in this 
organization. The Louisiana Creole is one who is a descendant of the original 
settlers in Louisiana under the French and Spanish governments, or, more gen- 
erally, one born in Louisiana of European parents, and whose mother-tongue is 
French." Beneath this and on the same piece of paper, scribbled in lead pencil 
in another handwriting, is the following in French : ''LTn natif descendant de 
parents Europeens parlant la langue Francjaise on Espagnole." 

Glued, undated, into an old scrap book lent me by a sweet-eyed Creole lady, 
is the tribute to Creole women, which follows. It is the truest and most sym- 



196 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

pathetic appreciation of the inspiring subject I have seen. No alien pen could 
have written what is at once so uioilcst and so faithful, so I make sure it was 
written by one of themselves. The article is signed simply E. P., and I would 
I knew who wrote it, that the name might be here set down : 

" Not obvious nor obtrusive, but retired, and with but few traces of archi- 
tectural display, the Creole's home is, nevertheless, the Creole's delight, and the 
pleasantest realization he has had of the poet's dream of Arcadia. It is so, as 
well to others than its merrydiearted inuuites wlio may have been so fortunate 
as to Ik? welcomed within its guarded penetralia, whether they find it located 
near the whispering waters of one of the beautiful bayous of Louisiana, on the 
skirts of the M'aving grass of its prairies, by the musicdiaunted shores of the 
G\i\i, or scarcely seen through the foliage of oaks and magnolias overshadowing 
quiet, out-of-the-way villages, or in some of t!ie quaint old streets of the almost 
deserted qiiartier Franrais of ihe ancient city of the Creoles. As these old 
Creole homes have been, from father to son, inhabited by persons similarly 
educated and endowed with the same peculiar tastes, the only changes which 
they have undergone are such as were adapted to the needs of each successive 
occupant, without materially altering the original design of the homestead. 
Their reverence for it as the liome of their fathers has prevented them from 
making siicli additions even to its immediate surroundings as might offend the 
genus-loci of it, or disturb the repose of the sequestered, unsuspected paradise. 
The old trees — venerable centenarians of the forest — renuiin to this day where 
they were planted, untouched and unchanged only in their pendant moss-growths 
Avhich hang from limb to limb like so many gray beards. The same expansive 
parterres, with curiously ornamental beds, in which flower the prolific vegeta- 
tion of southern climes; the same shell garden walks, bordered with trailing 
ivy and violets, are still there as tliey were arranged by the cunning hands of 
their ancestors. Winds, dews, and sunshine, indeed, seem to have leagued with 
each generation, as it came, against such influences as would mar the beauties of 
the old homestead, or steal from the revered demesne any of its wealth of flower 
or foliage, or in any way disturb the peacefid harmony of form and color which 
have been so pleasantly preserved in the long lapse of years. 

" And so the cliarming old Creole homstcad comes down to its occupants of 
to-day one of the few memorials of olden times, worth preserving, that has been 
well preserved. There are so many pleasant things all about its rooms and gal- 
leries and gardens that one wonders if thei'e be anv nook or corner to stow a 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 197 

new one in. There conies a time, however, during the warm snnnner months, 
when an added c.liarm is bestowed upon the old homestead that comes to its 
neighborhood ahnost as a spell of enchantment. The pretty Creole maiden, 
born to it some dozen happy years before, returns to it, from the convent, where 
she had gone for her education, to spend the summer vacation at home. Like 
all delicately-reared Creole children, the little demoiselle is such a creature as 
Vesta and Venns would have moulded, had they been asked to form a petite 
model which could be e.Kpanded in a given time into mature beauty. One looks 
at the pretty and playful, yet sedate girl, and realizes in her budding beauties 
of form and feature the assured expectancy of future loveliness as one may, 
looking at the well-fonned and healthful bud, predict the beautiful flower, or 
in the blossom anticipate the golden fruit that is sure to come in due season. 
Although she may not have crossed the flowery borders of young maindenhood, 
one can realize the fascination slumbering in her dark eyes, as their richly-fringed 
lids droop timidly over them, softening, but not diminishing their brilliance. 
Already her petite figiire is formed with the subtle grace and lightness of a 
fairy, and her voice is as musical as the song of a bird, the rustle of forest leaves, 
or the rippling of waters, touched by aerial fingers. Of course, the little Creole 
maiden takes kindly to music. Life and melody were twin-born with her. She 
has been, as it were, cradled into song. It is mother's milk to her. Her earliest 
lullabies were operatic airs. She comes of a musical family, and, as in infancy, 
its essence supplied her inward feelings, it has quickened her outward observa- 
tion as she has grown up. She would be untrue to the traditions of her family, 
the female portion of it at least, if she were not a lover of the art musical. She 
is fond of the flowers of every hue that decorate the old gai'den-walks, whicli 
in their delicate loveliness, seem akin to her, and of the feathered songsters of 
the woodlands, who cease their song to listen to hei's, when in the long summer 
vacation she visits their haunts, and feeds the in with her own hands. 

" Although the Creole maiden is naturall}' merry and vivacious, there is 
none of that wild rompishness about her for which others of the same age, but 
of difl"crcnt training, are often distinguished. Though, at the sound of her 
voice, Sisyphus would rest ui)on his stone and pause to listen, there is none of 
that boisterous merriment which, in other households, defy the rules of etiquette 
and the frowns of mothers. And yet in all the merry-makings of the neighborhood 
demoiselle seems at the summit of girlish felicity. In the gay parties given her 
as she is about to return to her stud es in the convent — the feast which ushers in 



I9S STA^'DAED II] STORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

the fast- — she is the merriest of all the demoiselles assembled, and in the livelier 
measiires of the gay cotillion her tiny feet are scarcely visible in the mazes of 
the dance, fluttering indistinctly in the air like humming bird's wings. 

" A year or two elapses — probably more, as fortune smiles or fro\vns upon 
tlie family. One day there comes into this old Creole homestead, with its oasis 
of verdure, a yoimg girl, pretty as its flowers, happy as its birds. It is our 
little demoiselle of the vacation. She has finished her education at the convent, 
and enjoyed a brief but gay season at home or with some of her schoolmates. 
Orange blossoms shine like stars in the midnight of her hair, and a single rose- 
bud nestles in the white wonder of her bosom. She returns to her home with 
the benedictions of Holy Church, a Creole bride. One who had known her when 
she conned her lessons in the convent's shpdowy aisles, realizes that she has 
not disappointed the promise of her girlhood. And seeing her now, the pretty 
bud expanded into the consummate flower, surely it is treason to any of the higher 
forms of beaiity to regret the maturity of that which was so beauteous in its bud- 
ding glories, and with 

The flower to close. 

And be a bud again. 

"Travel where you will, you will not meet with one so fair, so fresh, so 
smiling, so gi-aceful, merry, and easily contented as she. See her once, whether 
in the happy family circle or in the dancing throng, and it is a picture framed 
in memory's halls, undimmed forever. The sun of a Southern clime has mel- 
lowed and matured what the graces of nature, art and fortune assisted iu form- 
ing. Hers the charm that gives brilliancy and play to every feature. Hers the 
manner that purifies and exalts all who come within the reach of its influence. 
Piers the featui'es that delight the eyes, and gladden the hearts of poets, artists 
and sculptors. She is a special providence to the little world she moves in. 

"Of course hers is at once one of the brightest names of the illuminated 
page of society. In accordance with the law and custom of her peculiar circle, 
she selects her acquaintances and makes up her list of visiting friends, and is 
fastidious in her selection. She could not be more so if the destiny of the re- 
piiblic were at stake, l^one but the select are to be found at her receptions, and 
to be admitted at her reunions is a much coveted honor. All of the surround- 
ings of her home, even down to the little bits of porcelain of rare 'Faience de 
Diana de PuUiers' — the hcirlctimis (if lidnovcd ancestors — are cumme il faut, 
elegant and refined. Her days are passed in fetes and entertainments of every 
description. 



STAXDAED HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. i99 

"Is the fair Creole hride given over to the gauds and fopperies of fash- 
ionable life ? Nay. The brighter parts of her character, which shine with in- 
creasing lustre with each passing year, have had their source in another school. 
Her unbounding generosity, her trae nobility of thotight and feeling, her cour- 
age and her truth, her pure, unsullied thought, her untiring charities, her devo- 
tion to parents and friends, her sympathy with sorrow, her kindness to her 
inferiors, her dignified simplicity — where could these have been learned save 
at the altars of her faith ? At matins and vespers the profane eye that w-ould 
disturb her devotions might see la belle Creole kneeling at the Prie dieu of her 
oratory, before the Holy Virgin, of unblemished Carrara, with as much aban^ 
donment of spirit as others display before shrines where cardinals officiate, and 
scores of acolytes fling their censers. 

"As the years pass the family tree has added branches to it. And as the 
family increases does the Creole matron give up her pleasant receptions and 
hah dansants? And has the fashionable world only left to it a memory and a 
tear for what was so brilliant and recherche ? Not so. Not for her the recluse 
life of the household cypher or the nursery drudge — 

Retired as noontide dew. 
Or fountain in the noonday grove. 

" It would be pitiable — worse, it would be false to all family tradition. Be- 
side that, society wotild rebel. Emeutes would prevail. Madame gracefully re- 
sumes the throne she had only temporarily vacated, and the social circle con- 
tinues to be distingiiished for its elegance and refinement. She unites the 
duties of home with the charms of social life. Her graceful influence is felt in 
both, pleasantly reminding one of the orange tree of her own sunny groves, 
which bears in its beautiful foliage in the same month the golden fruit of ma- 
turity with the fair blossoms of its spring. 

"With all her wealth of maternal affection, the Creole matron is not im- 
prisoned in her nursery to be devoured by her children. She has renewed her 
youth in her children. With her maternity 

Another morn 
Has risen upon her mid-noon. 

"Born of one, she is in her own person that masterpiece of nature's work 
— a good mother. Her motherly virtue is her cardinal virtue. Care for her chil- 
dren seems to have contributed indeed to the numbed and the sensibility of the 
chords of sympathy and affection. These tender offices of maternal affection 



zoo STAXDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

are, as it were, ber field duty, wliile the other and manifold cares of the liouse- 
iold are her rejDose. 

''The Creole matron, however, does not squander upon the infancy of her 
children all the health necessary to their youth and adolescence, nor does she 
destroy their sense of gratitude and her own authority, and impair both their 
constitution and temper by indiscriminate and indiscreet indulgence. She is 
a good little mother, and bestows her maternal care in quality, rather than in 
quantity. She economizes her own health and beauty as she adds both to her 
offspring. 

"The Creole matron is all the fonder of what her sterner sisters of the 
K^orth deem frivolities because of her children. For them the gay reception, and 
the graceful dance are i^leasaut and harmless pastime, and recreation even ac- 
eeptable methods of education. In such indulgences her children learn that 
ease of manner, grace of movement, and the thousand little prettinesses which 
are so adorable in after years. She has nursed ber babies, prepared tiliem for 
their studies in the convent school, and she thus finishes an important branch 
»f their education which the school b-joks have neglected to furnish. 

'"Aiul thus la Ijcllo Creole grows up almost to womanhood under her 
loving eye. She is not permitted to lorm intimacies outside of home, nor yet 
witii the first come friends, the ordinary associates of the family, however good 
and respectable they may be, unless they are in manner and feeling acceptable. 
She is a brilliant little gem ; one, however, possessing only the brilliancy with- 
dut the hardness of the diamond, but soft and yielding, and too apt to receive 
impression from coarser materials. The watchful care of the Creole matron 
may be somewhat rela.xed as the mind of demoiselle becomes more perfectly 
formed though the invisible rein is still held with a firm, though gentle hand. 

'"Tlio Creole matron is the inevitable duenna of the parlor, and the con- 
stant attendant chaperone at ail public assembles. Outside of the sanctuary of 
demiosellc's chamber as important a factor in all her movements as the air she 
fcreathes, this, her guardian angel, is at her side, an ever-vigilant guide, and 
protector against aught that may offend the fine feeling, the noble pride, or the 
generous heart of demoiselle. And when the time comes for la belle to marry 
she does not trust her own unguided fancies, ilthough she may have read in story 
books of gallant knights, and Lad many jsleasant dreams of such heroes as live 
©nly in the pages of poetry and romance. The Creole matron saves her all the 
trouble in the perplexing choice of a husband, and manages the whole affair 



STANDARD 111 STORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 201 

with cxtroinc skill, tact and al)ility, exactly as sncli tliini;-^ sliotilil be inanao'ed. 
The preliminaries arranged, the selected husband in fiduro is invited to the 
house, the drawing-room cleared of all superfluities, and the couple left to an 
agreeable tete-a-tete, during which they may behave like sensible children and 
exchange vows and rings. The nuptial mass at the chiirch follows, as there is 
no breaking of engagements or hearts in Creole etiquette, and a series of honey- 
moons also follow of never ending 

Delicious deaths, soft exhalations, 

Of Soul, dear and divine annihilations; 

A thousand vmknown rites 

Of joys and rarefied delights. 
" In the Creole matron's matrimonial experience there are neither marriage 
automatons, nor luipitied wrecks on folly's shore. 

" The Creole matron grows old, as she does everything else, gracefully. Slie 
has not been shaken by the blasts of niany passions, or enervated by the stimu- 
lants of violent sensations. There is no paled reflex of her youthful warmth 
in the glance she gives to the past, with its buried joys, or the present, with its 
all-pervading contentment and happiness. She defies cai'e, determines that the 
torch of friendship shall be inextinguishable, and demonstrates, in her own ex- 
perience, that the loves of capricious youth can he perpetuated in frozen age. 

" Althottgh the vile spirit of avordujwis has added magnificence to her em- 
bonpoint, and her waltzing days are over, her pretty well-shaped feeet still beat 
time in unison with the spirit of its music. Although hers is stateliness to the 
very summit of bumble pride, it is yet softened by the taste of its display. She 
is an artiste of conversation, and her bon mot is uttered with such natural avoid- 
ance of ofl'ense, and the arch allusion is so gracefully applied that she gives one 
the idea of a new iise of language, and yet she is a marvelotis listener. Her 
complaisance is ever ready; words come of themselves upon your lips merely 
from finding themselves so obligingly listened to; and whilst others seem to 
follow the conversation, it is she who directs it, who seasonably revives it, brings 
it back to the field from which it has strayed, restores it to others without show- 
ing it, stopping at the precise point where they can resume it, and never going 
beyond it, lest her marvelous tact in its skilful management should betray it- 
self. And thus, without perceiving it, she has led the thoughts of others, helped 
to elicit them, giiessed them before they were expressed, supplied them with 
words, and gathered them on the lip, as they come into happy utterance. And 



202 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

the gay world may not know how much of the stately dignity the polished ease, 
the refined elegance that reign supreme in her household is the inspiration of its 
gay mistress, who remains, in age as in youth, the life and ornament of it. 

" And so with the snows of many winters on her head and the sunshine of 
many summers in her heart, surrounded by three or four generations of children, 
hlessing and blessed, the Creole matron is at length gathered to her fathers. 
And the beautiful flowers of the earth toll where she, the still more beautiful 
flower — in life — lies buried in the consecrated ground of the Holy Church, and 
sunlight and starlight are not the only visitors to its ever fragant and welcome 
shade." 



CHAPTER VIII. 



THE MEDICAL HISTORY OF NEW OELEANS. 

r 

By Dr. Gayle Aiken. 

THE gradual development of medicine in the city of New Orleans is a subject 
of peculiar interest. We see before us a battlefield, on which a gallant little 

army of devoted men contended with gigantic forces of disease, pestilence and 
death. To trace the unselfish and heroic lives of some of the physicians of the past 
and of the present, to describe the environment in which they labored, the successive 
visitations of epidemic maladies which they combated, and thus to give some idea 
of their tremendous life work, will be the purpose of the present chapter. 

The city of New Orleans, situated in latitude 29 degrees, 57 minutes and 15 
seconds, and in longitude 13 degrees, 5 minutes and 45 seconds from Washington, 
with an elevation of to 17 feet, possesses a semi-tropical climate, and the preva- 
lent moisture of the atmosphere is clearly shown by the following table : 

TAKEN FROM THE WEATHER BUREAU RECORDS EXTENDING BACK TO 1870. 

Partly 
Mean Prevailing Clear Cloudy Cloudy Rainy Rain in Hygrom- 
Months. Temp. Winds. Days. Days. Days. Days. Inches. etry. 

January 54.0 N. 9 12 10 11 5.44 74= 

February 58.7 

March 62.3 

April 69.0 

May 74.8 

June 80.6 

July 82.6 

August 81.8 

September 78.2 

October 70.1 

November 61.2 

December 55.9 N. 9 11 11 11 4.63 74' 



N. 


9 


10 


9 


10 


4.68 


71» 


S.E. 


11 


11 


9 


10 


5.46 


71 = 


S.E. 


11 


12 


7 


6 


4.96 


71' 


S.E. 


12 


14 


5 


9 


4.95 


71' 


S.E. 


9 


15 


6 


14 


6.49 


74-' 


S.E. 


9 


17 


5 


16 


6.88 


74* 


S.E. 


8 


17 


6 


14 


6.20 


75= 


E. 


12 


12 


6 


11 


5.05 


74' 


N. 


16 


10 


5 


7 


3.21 


72 


N. 


12 


9 


9 


9 


4.26 


72» 



204 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

On February 13, 1899, the temperature fell to 6.8 above zero, the coldest 
weather known in this city during the century. The river presented a remarkable 
spectacle, being full of floating ice. In spite of this intense cold the yellow fever 
germ survived, and quickened into life in the following summer. 

It will be seen that for si.\ months of the year the prevailing winds are from 
the southeast, and during those six months we have the heaviest rainfall. The air 
is saturated with moisture and the penetrating power of the solar rays is obstructed. 
In consequence of this the extremes of heat so often felt in more northern latitudes 
are rarely experienced here, and sunstrokes and prostrations from heat are of in- 
frequent occurrence. For this reason, also, radiation takes place very slowly, and 
the summer nights are almost as warm as the days; but the winds which prevail 
during this season, being from the southeast, and passing over the Gulf of Mexico, 
bring healthful influences, chlorine and other antiseptic properties, and thus render 
our summers generally healthy, with a smaller death rate than in the winter. 

In such an environment, tropical and malarial diseases found a ready 
foothold, and the early settlers were decimated by these maladies and by small-pox. 
The first appearance of yellow fever is lost in the obscurity of a past, the records 
of which have been almost obliterated. This was due to various circumstances. The- 
unsettled, nomadic, and yet monotonous life of a struggling colony presented little 
that seemed worthy of record, and the transference of Louisiana from France to 
Spain, from Spain to France, and from the latter to the United States, resulted in 
the loss of documents of public interest, since they were written in foreign tongues, 
and have long been hopelessly entombed in the archives of distant lands. The early 
physicians, too, who came to the colony, often had in view the sole object of acquir- 
ing a fortune and returning to their European homes, and while in Louisiana had 
no thought of collaboration or organization for scientific research and record. It 
is, therefore, wisest to acknowledge that the introduction of yellow fever is still an 
unsolved problem, and has been attributed to many different sources. Dr. Dowler 
avers that yellow fever did not appear in New Orleans for nearly a century and a 
half after the Northern States had been devastated by many epidemics. Noah 
Webster, in his work on "Pestilence," says that when white men arrived in New 
England in 1620, some of the Indian tribes had been reduced in numbers from 
thirty thousand to three hundred, by a terrible fever two years previously. The sur- 
vivors asserted that those affected "bled from the nose and turned yellow, like a 
garment of that color, which they pointed out as an illustration." 

It seems probable, however, that yellow fever has had lodgment on the shores 
of the Gulf of Mexico since the Europeans first settled on them. The sailors of 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 20S 

Columbus were attacked by a violent fever in the West Indies, and Cortez found 
a similar disease, with the characteristic "black vomit,"' much dreaded by the 
Aztecs, whose cities were sometimes half depopulated by its ravages. LaSalle and 
his soldiers found a deadly fever lurking on the shores of the Mississippi, where 
many of these hardy pioneers sank into nameless graves. As early as 1647, Mr. 
Richard Vines, physician and planter in the Barbadoes, records an "absolute plague 
of fever," and Mr. Hughes, in his "Natural History of Barbadoes," quotes Dr. 
Gamble's statement that the "new distemper, pestilential fever, or Kendal fever," 
was most fatal in 1691. 

In the French Islands this fever was called "fievre de Siain" and was believed 
to be a sinister gift from the effete civilization of the far East to the newly planted 
life of the AVestern world. It seems certain that yellow fever first appeared in 
Martinique after the arrival of ships from Siam, but as these vessels had touched at 
Brazil, where this form of sickness had prevailed for years, it seems doubtful if the 
disease can be referred to so distant a source. Dr. Joseph Jones, an eminent author- 
ity, declares that "yellow fever has been sporadical in two continents since men born 
under a cold zone were exposed, in low, torrid regions, to miasmatic atmospheres." 

It seems probable that the familiar type of fever known as "yellow" was 
brought to Louisiana by French settlers from the West Indies. The summers of 
ITOl and 170-1 are recorded as most unhealthy, "la maladie" being very prevalent 
In the latter year the Chevalier Tonti, Le Vasseur, the Jesuit Donge and thirty 
soldiers newly arrived, died of it. In 1701 Sauvolle succumbed, and the biographers 
of Iberville declare that he had an attack of fever at Biloxi, in 1702, which affected 
his constitution to such a degree that he M'as obliged to return to France to restore 
his health. It may be doubted whether this was genuine yellow fever, as the famous 
soldier and pioneer afterwards died of it in Havana in 1706. Bancroft, who, it is 
presumed, examined carefully into the facts, notes the great havoc made in Mobile 
by yellow fever in 1705. The depletion of Bienville's soldiers in 1739 by the same 
pestilence is mentioned by contemporary writers, but nothing further on the sub- 
ject is to be found until the influ.x of refugees from St. Domingo in 1791 brought 
an invasion of the same scourge. 

The governors of Louisiana made gallant efforts, according to the limited 
sanitary knowledge of the day, to improve the health of the little city. As early as 
1726, M. Perrier, on being appointed governor, was charged as follows: "Whereas, 
it is maintained that the diseases which prevail in New Orleans during the summer 
proceed from the want of air, and from the city being smothered by the neighboring 



2o6 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

woods, which press so close upon it, it shall be the care of M. Perrier to have them 
cut down as far as Lake Pontchartrain." Towards the end of the century, Baron 
Frances Louis Hector de Carondelet, governor of Louisiana, constructed a canal 
from the city to the lake for drainage purposes. All the laborers engaged in the work 
were carried off by yellow fever, and a violent epidemic ensued. This epidemic of 
1796 was the first to attract widespread notice, and the first to be authentically 
recorded in New Orleans, but the total absence of medical works and journals ren- 
ders it impossible to give statistics on the subject. A small pamphlet was published 
in 1796, dedicated to Baron Carondelet, bearing the title, "Medicaments et preces 
de la methode de M. Masdevall, medccin du Roe d'Espagne, Charles IV, pour guein 
tontes les maladies epidemiques, putrides ou malignes." This early benefactor of 
our colony, M. Masdevall, is said to have been very successful with the Spaniards 
and negroes, but the American settlers yielded less readily to treatment. These 
same Americans were accused of bringing the fever into New Orleans during the en- 
suing years, until 1S0.3, for numbers of them came annually, in pursuit of commerce, 
from New York and Philadelphia, where yellow fever raged at that time. The 
Count de Vergennes declared Louisiana to be the first country of the world, as to 
the mildness of its climate and its happy situation, and the yellow fever was em- 
phatically the "stranger's disease." The medical authorities of the day waged a 
furious controversy over the importation or non-importation, the contagion or non- 
contagion of the fever ; a dispute not always confined to words, since we read in Dr. 
Dowler's history of the fever that two physicians of Jamaica, Drs. Bennett and 
Williams, upheld their opinions at the sword's point, fought a duel over the mooted 
question, and were both killed! 

With varying intensity and at longer intervals or shorter, the disease appeared 
up to 1816. In the following sixty-five years it infested the city every year, although 
sometimes mildly and sporadically, with only two exceptions, viz., in 1821 and 1861. 
It was heavily felt in 1817, 1819 and 1820; a fatal epidemic occurred in 1824, an- 
other in 1832, and a still more dreadful one in 1847, when two thousand eight hun- 
dred and four victims perished. 

The year in which New Orleans sufl'ered most severely was 1853 ; the first two 
deaths were reported in the month of May, and the number increased in an alarming 
manner; in July there were 1,521 deaths, and in the month of August 5,133 oc- 
curred from it. It declined very rapidly from that time, and lingered in the city 
until December, four deaths being reported in that month. During the four months 
when the fever was at its height, 7,849 deaths plunged the community into gloom 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 207 

and mourning. No satisfactory explanation of the unusual and excessive virulence 
of the disease during this outbreak has ever been formulated. The mortality from 
other causes was also appalling, the total number of deaths being 1.5,787. This 
shows a total percentage of 102.43 per 1,000. Only one year in the past eighty-five 
has equalled this fatal '53. In 1832, the terrible cholera year, the death rate 
amounted to 147.10 per 1,000. Thus 1853 stands at the head of the list for the 
greatest mortality in yellow fever, and second in the percentage of deaths from all 
causes in the last eighty years. The improved sanitation and medication of the 
day induce the firm conviction that '53 will maintain its sinister pre-eminence, and 
that our city will never again be subjected to such devastation. A notable fact 
connected with that epidemic is that only eighty-seven of the deaths were reported as 
natives of ISTew Orleans, 3,855 were not classified, and the remaining 3,907 were 
nearly all Irish and Germans. The year 1858 was the next most malignant fever 
year. The population had increased to 165,450, and the reported deaths from yellow 
fever were 4,855—29.30 per 1,000. Next, 1847 follows in order of severity, 2,804 
deaths being reported, 25.80 per 1,000. The year 1878 is next in order; death rate 
from yellow fever, 19.20 per 1,000; 1837, with a mortality of 19 per 1,000; 1833 is 
sixth in order, mortality 17.30 per 1,000; 1867 is seventh in rank; mortality, 17.10 
per 1,000. In this year the fever began in June, slowly increased in July, was de- 
clared epidemic in August, raged violently during September and October, dimin- 
ished rapidly in November and disappeared about the middle of December. The 
number of cases was much greater in proportion to population than ever before, 
but the type of fever was much milder, and the mortality less in consequence. The 
number of cases in the city has been variously estimated at from 40,000 to 60,000. 
The mortality among the United States troops stationed here was much higher 
than among the citizens. Dr. Delery comments upon the remarkable fact that many 
deaths occurred among the native creole population of French descent. Other no- 
table features of this epidemic were its mildness among the negro population, its 
sad severity among children, the occurrence of many fatal cases after cold weather 
had set in, and the fact that it was preceded and followed by many cases of cholera 
and dysentery. 

The year 1878 was the last of the terrible epidemics with which this city has 
been afflicted. From its inception the fever was most malignant in type, attacking 
all classes indiscriminately, especially young children. The blind panic of rhe 
people was increased by exaggerated reports in the newspapers; never was such 
selfish and unreasoning terror manifested during previous epidemics. The popula- 



2o8 STANDARD IIISTOEY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

tion fled in pverv direction, abandoning friends and kindred; parents even deserted 
their children, and the little ones were found dead in bed with their shoes on, having 
died unattended and alone. The number of eases reported was 23,540 and the 
number of deaths 4,056. Probably the mortality due to yellow fever was larger, for 
many cases were reported as malarial, hemorrhagic fever, pernicious fever, congest- 
ive fever, cerebro-spinar meningitis, etc. The saddest fact connected with this epi- 
demic was the appalling death rate among children under sixteen years of age. 

From 1880 to 1897, except for an occasional sporadic case, the city was en- 
tirely free from yellow fever. In 1897-98 and '99 it again made its appearance, and 
although the type seemed to be extremely mild, the great majority of those attacked 
recovering after a very short illness, yet many of the cases presented the disease in 
its most malignant form, the patient growing rapidly and steadily worse from tlie 
first development of the characteristic symptoms, until death ended the suffering in 
a few days. 

The first case in 1897 occurred at Ocean Springs, Miss., Past Assistant Surgeon 
Wasdin, Marine Hospital Service, making the diagnosis and announcement. On 
September 6 the first ease was reported in New Orleans by Dr. Sydney L. Theard. 
The patient was a child, recently arrived from Ocean Springs, and it died after a 
short illness. The city at this time was full of fevers, autumnal, bilious, intermit- 
tent, remittent, etc., which continued throughout the fall. When it is considered 
that very many of the practitioners in New Orleans had never seen a case of yellow 
fever, nineteen years having elapsed without an epidmic, it is not unreasonable to 
suppose that errors in diagnosis were made, and that many cases reported as such 
were not yellow fever. A very mild type had apparently replaced the malignant fever 
of former years. The writer treated about ninety cases of fever between September 
1 and December 1, with only three deaths; two of these had received no treatment 
until the end was near, because of fear of house quarantine. 

In all cases reported to the Board of Health, flags were tacked on the resi- 
dences of the patients and guards placed at the doors night and day. The strictest 
house quarantine was enforced as far as possible, inflicting the greatest hardship, 
in many cases, and frequently proving utterly valueless as far as the isolation of the 
patient was concerned, for the otlicr occupants of the houses passed in and out 
through side and back doors. In one place, where the writer was attending a fever 
patient, step-ladders were used by the people of the house and their friends, who 
climbed over the l)aek fence into their neighbors" premises at will, and passed thence 
into the street, wliile the guard sat, supremely unconscious of it all, at the front 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 209 

door. One noticeable and suggestive fact concerning the fever of 1897 was the 
number of cases occurring on St. Charles and Jackson avenues. These streets are 
paved with asphalt and kept scrupulously clean ; how shall we explain the prevalence 
of fever on them, whereas on man}' unpaved and uncared-for streets, notably Gal- 
vez street, which has a wide, uncovered, dirty and ill-smelling canal in the center 
of it, filled with stagnant water, not a single case of yellow fever was reported ? 

Notwithstanding the terrible reports circulated by some of the N'orthern ])a- 
pers as to the condition of affairs in New Orleans, the city, during the summers of 
'97, '98 and •'99 was comparatively healthy, and the mortality reports show a 
smaller death rate than we find for the same period of time in winter. 

A backward glance over these three years leads to the conviction that the 
greatest cause of alarm and panic was the exaggerated rumors and statements with 
flaming headlines in the public press. The fever of these years was of the mildest 
type; no disease was ever milder, or occasioned less actual suffering. Epidemics of 
typhoid, small-pox, diphtheria, scarlet fever or la grippe in other cities, with far 
greater suffering and mortality, occasion no such alarm and excitement. The rav- 
ages of past epidemics, the mortality and loss, have been fairly stated; it is only 
fair also to add that in the entire valley of the Mississippi, an area of nearly one- 
third of a million square miles, the aggregate mortality from yellow fever up to the 
present time will not exceed that of a single year in old Spain, where it has 
amounted, by official reports, to one hundred and twenty thousand, in localities free 
from swamps and even mountainous in character. (Dr. Bennet Dowler.) 

It is not the province of this paper to discuss the stiology, morbid anatomy, 
symptoms, etc., of yellow fever. But it is proper to add that the cause of this disease 
is the micro-organism discovered by Professor Guiseppe Sanarelli of the University 
of Bologna, Italy, and named by him "bacillus icteroides." 

To save the reader the trouble of wading through an account of the fever as it 
prevailed each year, and as a matter of convenience and reference, I append a table, 
chronologically arranged, giving the number of deaths from fever each year from 
1817 to 1900, and the population of the city during those years. No record of 
deaths previous to 1817 has been found: 



2IO 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NE^V ORLEANS. 



Popu- No of 

Year. lation. Deaths. 

1769 3,100 Fever intro- 
duced by slaves 
from Africa 
(Norman) 

1787 5,284 

1788 5,338 

1791 6,245 Fever 

1796 8,756 Fever 

1799 8,810 Fever 

1800 8,940 Fever 

1801 9,038 Fever 

1804 12,165 Fever 

1808 17,081 None 

1809 17,120 Fever 

1810 17,242 None 

1811 18,235 Fever 

1812 19,229 Fever 

1813 20.212 None 

1814 21,216 None 

1815 22,209 None 

1816 23,303 None 

1817 , 24,196 823 

1818 25,190 116 

1819 26,183 425 

1820 27,176 400 

1821 29,441 

1822 31,706 808 

1823 33,971 1 

1824 36,236 108 

1825 38,501 49 

1826 40,766 5 

1827 43,031 109 

1828 45,296 130 

1829 47,561 900 

1830 49,826 117 

1831 52,455 2 

1832 55,084 400 

1833 57,713 1,000 

1834 60,342 95 

1835 62,971 284 

1836 65,600 5 

1837 68,229 1,300 

1838 70,858 17 

1839 73,487 800 

1840 76,116 3 

1841 78,745 1,325 

1842 81,374 211 

1843 84,003 487 

1844 86,632 148 

1845 89,261 2 

1846 102,070 160 

1847 108,699 2,804 

1848 115.503 872 

1849 122,511 769 



Year. 



Popu- 
lation. 



No. of 
Deaths. 



1850 129 

1851 138, 

1852 147 

1853 154 

1854 156, 

1855 158, 

1856 161. 

1857 163, 

1858 165, 

1859 166, 

1860 168, 

1861 169 

1862 171, 

1863 172 

1864 173, 

1865 174 

1866 178 

1867 181 

1868 184 

1869 187 

1870 191 

1871 193, 

1872 196 

1873 198 

1874 201 

1875 203 

1876 206 

1877 208 

1878 211 

1879 213 

1880 216 

1881 218 

1882 220 

1883 223 

1884 226 

1885 228 

1886 231 

1887 234 

1888 236 

1889 239 

1890 242 

1891 247 

1892 252 

1893 258 

1894 264 

1895 275 

1896 280 

1897 285 

1898 290 

1899 294 



,747 


107 


,599 


17 


,441 


456 


,132 


7,849 


,556 


2,425 


,980 


2,670 


.404 


81 


,828 


200 


,450 


4,855 


,500 


92 


,670 


15 


i,907 





,134 


2 


i,361 


2 


:,588 


6 


,815 


1 


1,042 


185 


,269 


3,107 


,496 


3 


,723 


3 


,418 


588 


,412 


54 


i,406 


39 


;,900 


226 


,394 


11 


:,888 


61 


1,382 


42 


;,876 


1 


,371 


4,056 


1,865 


19 


1,359 


2 


1,500 





1,705 


4 


1,150 


1 


1.019 


1 


!,856 


1 


.,725 





,,160 





1,578 





1,123 


1 


1,039 





'.180 





!,027 





1,533 





i,149 





1,000 





t,039 





1,156 


298 


1,020 


57 


1.826 


23 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 211 

The first attompt to prevent the introduction of yellow fever by cstablisliins; 
quarantine was made in 1817. Although far from perfect, it was still a pledge of 
more efficient and scientific development. The first suggestion for quarantine re- 
striction was made by the first American Governor of Louisiana, W. C. C. Claiborne. 
Public opinion was distinctly unfavorable, however, and an Act of the Legislature 
in 1.S19 repealed the Act establishing a Board of Health, and invested the Governor 
with authority to establish quarantine at discretion by proclamation. Dr. Dupuy 
de Chambery wrote a sketch of the yellow fever in 1819, and claimed that the fever 
was neither contagious or exportable. This was an opinion generally held by the 
medical faculty of that day, but Governor Villere and his successor, Governor Rob- 
ertson, believing strongly in quarantine, urged the Legislature to pass laws for its 
enforcement. This was done in February, 1821, a Board of Health was created, 
with full powers to enforce a quarantine based upon the most rigid code, and pro- 
tected by heavy penalties. The quarantine station, established at English Turn, 
cost $22,000. The Board was composed of twelve members, with Mayor Joseph 
Roffignac as president ex-officio. These measures appeared to be effective, since no 
yellow fever appeared in 1821, but as the city was visited by terrible epidemics in 
1822 and 1824, the quarantine laws were finally repealed in February, 1825. 

Another Board of Health was established in June, 1841, consisting of nine 
members; three aldermen, three physicians and three private citizens, with ample 
powers to adopt and enforce sanitary measures. In spite of their efforts, the fever 
raged that year, numbering its victims in the thousands. This Board of Health 
was dissolved in 1844, and the General Council invited the Medico-Chirurgical So- 
ciety to take charge of the sanitary interests of the city. A committee of nine 
members was appointed, and acts were passed from time to time, but the present 
system of quarantine was not established until 1855, after the terrible years of '53 
and '54. An appropriation of $50,000 was made, and a quarantine station erected 
about seventy miles below the city. Dr. Sam'l Choppin holding the position of quar- 
antine physician. A State Board of Health was established and a thorough and 
systematic method of quarantine gradually evolved. In 1859 there were but ninety- 
two deaths, in marked contrast to the terrible mortality of 1858, when 4,855 
individuals died of yellow fever. During the war the blockade of Gulf ports and 
the enforced cleanliness of the city saved the community from any visitation. In 
1870, Dr. C. B. White, president of the Board of Health, introduced the disinfection 
of premises with diluted carbolic acid. Although the fever had already gained a 
foothold in the city, it did not spread, and Dr. White, in 1872, recommended the 



212 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

use of the same disinfectant in cleansing ships and cargoes at quarantine station. 
In 1874 Dr. Alfred W. Perry designed and constructed a machine for pumping 
sulphuric acid gas into the holds of ships. The quarantine detention was relaxed 
by an Act of the Legislature in 1876, and vessels allowed to come to the city after 
a brief stay of a few hours at the station. The terrible year of 1878 followed and 
in May, 1879, Mr. William Van Slooten, chemist to the Board of Health, suggested 
the disinfection of ships by high temperature. It was impossible to carry this out, 
as the Board was not supplied with sufficient money, but it was decreed that vessels 
should be detained for twenty-one days, scraped, fumigated, drenched with carbolic 
acid, whitewashed and painted. 

Dr. Joseph Jones, who assumed the duties of president of the Board of Healtli 
in April, 1880, devoted his remarkable scientific attainments to the preservation of 
the health of the community. He, too, constructed an improved machine for 
pumping sulphur fumes into the holds of ships. Dr. Joseph Holt was the real in- 
ventor of the present system of quarantine. In 1884 Dr. Holt substituted a solution 
of bichloride of mercury for the carbolic acid and obtained from the legislature an 
appropriation of $30,000 to put in operation his plan of maritime sanitation. In 
1885 an apparatus was erected, consisting of a sulphur furnace, with a steam-pro- 
pelled fan attached, connected with a twelve-inch galvanized conductor leading to 
the hold of the vessel. Dr. Holt also built a heating chamber for the disinfection of 
clothing, bedding, etc. Dr. C. P. Wilkinson, president of the Board of Health in 
1688, suggested some improvements in the heating chamber, and an entirely new 
plant was constructed in 1889. Dr. S. R. Olliphant, president of the Board of 
Health in 1890, still further improved the mechanism of this plant, perfecting the 
"Louisiana system of maritime sanitation." Its efficacy is in no way to be ques- 
tioned, because of the introduction of yellow fever in '97, the disease having origi- 
nated in Ocean Springs, Miss., and being brought into the city by the railroads. 

The presidents of the State Board of Health, since its organization in 1855, 
have been Drs. Samuel Choppin, G. A. Nott, A. F. Axson, S. A. Smith, C. B. 
White, F. B. Gaudet, Samuel Choppin, Joseph Jones, Joseph Holt, C. P. Wilkinson, 
Samuel E. Olliphant and Edmond Souchon. 

In May, 1898, an act was passed providing for the establishment of local par- 
ish and municipal Boards of Health. The State Board of Health consists of Dr. 
Edmond Souchon, president; Dr. Hampden, S. Lewis and Dr. C. A. Gaudet, of 
New Orleans; Dr. J. C. Egan, of Caddo; Dr. R. A. Randolph, of Rapides; Dr. T. T. 
Tarleton, of St. Landry, and Dr. W. G. Owen, of Iberville. Dr. G. Farrar Patton 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 213 

is secretar}'. Drs. Lewis and Gaudet having resigned, have been succeeded by Dr. 
Arthur Nolte and Dr. P. B. McCutcheon. 

The Board of Health of the city of New Orleans consists of Dr. Quitman 
Kohnke, chairman and health officer; Dr. Paul Michinard, Dr. Alfred C. King and 
Messrs. Horace N. Beach and John Delery. Dr. Sydney L. Theard is secretary 
and sanitary officer. This board employs a chemist and a bacteriologist, and has the 
use of the fine laboratories of the medical department of Tulane University. Dr. 
Edmond Souchon is of the opinion that these two bodies, if properly supplied with 
funds, would save the city from further visitation of contagious disease in an epi- 
demic form. 

Asiatic cholera has also played a very important part in the history of New 
Orleans. The first authentic record we have of its appearance in this city was in 
1832. An epidemic of yellow fever already prevailed, when the horror of the situa- 
tion was deepened by the announcement that cholera had been reported, a case having 
been discovered on October 25. It spread with alarming rapidity, and out of a 
total of 8,090 deaths that year from all causes, 4,340 were ascribed to cholera. This 
was the darkest year in the history of New Orleans, the death rate reaching the 
enormous proportion of 147.10 per 1,000. The population at this time was 55,084, 
and more than one-seventh succumbed to disease. The following year, '33, was also 
marked by a cholera visitation ; this disease claimed 1,000 victims out of a total of 
4,97G deaths. It reappeared in 1848, destroying 1,646 inhabitants. The city was 
infested with this malady for seven years; in 1849 it raged in an alarming manner, 
carrying off 3,176 victiras. This was its last virulent visitation. In 1850, '51, '52, 
'53 and '55 it was heroically combated by the medical profession, and many able 
treatises were written on the subject. The gradual disappearance of cholera has 
been, at least, one hopeful feature of the pathological history of the city. 

Small-pox, also, committed great ravages among the early settlers of Louisiana 
and before the introduction of vaccination. Thirty-five years after the foundation 
of the colony, historians notice the prevalence and fatality of this disease. Vaccina- 
tion was introduced a little later than 1802, and since that time, up to 1861-1865, 
New Orleans has been almost exempt from destructive epidemics of sraall-pox. In 
1849 the deaths from small-pox were 133 ; in 1857, 103 ; in 1858, 108. During the 
civil war the disease committed greater ravages, the deaths in 1864 being 605 ; in 
1866, 613; and in 1870, 528; 1877 was the year in which small-pox reached its 
height, 1,099 deaths from it being reported. During the forty years extending from 
1844 to 1883, there was a total of 7,070 deaths from this cause. 



214 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

We have reviewed the devastations caused in our community by various epi- 
demic diseases. The remainder of the chapter will be devoted to short sketches of 
some of those whose duty and ambition it was to foil the attacks of these terrible 
foes to human life. The earliest physicians who visited the struggling colony and 
ministered to the sick have left but few names to be gratefully remembered by pos- 
terity. In 1710 Dr. Jallot is mentioned; in 1722, Dr. Navarre, and the famous 
Dr. Masdevall, who practiced in 1796. These are the only three names on record in 
the eighteenth century. The early years of the nineteenth century are more prolific. 
Dr. Martin, Dr. Eollins, Dr. McConnell all left distinguished reputations, w^hile Dr. 
Davidson and Dr. Kerr won distinction in the epidemics of 1817, 1819 and 1822. 

Dr. Edward Barton, a Virginian by birth, settled in ISTew Orleans in the first 
or second decade of the century. He made a careful study of yellow fever and 
wrote much on the subject, advocating the theory that, under favorable meteorolog- 
ical and terrene conditions (notably, the digging and upturning of the soil in 
summer), the dreaded disease might originate in the city. This was violently op- 
posed by the believers in the invariable importation of yellow fever, and the perfect 
efficacy of quarantine as a preventive. Dr. Barton filled the chair of Materia Med- 
ica and Therapeutics in the University of Louisiana from 1835 to 1840. He died 
in 1867. 

Dr. William Newton Mercer was a very prominent figure in the New Orleans 
of ante-bellum days. He was a native of Cecil county, Maryland, born in 1792. He 
had every educational advantage during his youth, and was, for several years, a 
pupil of Dr. Benjamin Rush, in the University of Pennsylvania. After graduating 
with honors, Dr. Mercer was appointed assistant surgeon in the army, about the 
beginning of the war of 1812. He came to New Orleans with the army in 1816, but 
was soon ordered to Natchez, where he resided for some years, winning a high po- 
sition in the community by his sterling character and his lofty integrity. Dr. Mer- 
cer returned to New Orleans in 1843, and soon became one of its most honored 
citizens. He erected a handsome dwelling on Canal street, where he dispensed a 
courtly hospitality. His deeds of kindness and charity have left an enduring record 
in this city. St. Anna's Asylum, one of our most worthy charities, was liberally 
endowed by him in memory of the lovely daughter, who died in her twentieth year 
of consumption. In conjunction with Dr. Duncan, of Natchez, Dr. Mercer paid an 
installment due on the home of Henry Clay, who would have been involved in bank- 
ruptcy but for the timely aid so generously tendered to him. Dr. Mercer was, in 
sentiment, loyal to the Union, but he shared all the hardships of his fellow citizens 



■STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 215 

during the war, and was enabled to assist and protect many unfortunate families, 
through the respect and confidence he inspired, even in the Federal authorities. 
He refused to take the oath of allegiance, but gave into the hands of the provost 
marshal a list of all his property, retaining $2,000 in gold for his support. This sum 
he reported to General Butler, who left him in undisturbed possession of it. Dr. 
Mercer lived in New Orleans for some years after the war, the type of a generation 
of courteous and noble gentlemen. 

Dr. Alfred Mercier shed upon the city of his birth not only the lustre of pro- 
fessional ability, but also the soft radiance of literary talents of a high order. Born 
in 18] 6, he lived through the stirring events of the century and died in 1894. Dr. 
Mercier was a graduate of the College of Louis le Grand, having received his med- 
ical education in France. He was the secretary of the Athenee Louisianaise. and a 
leading spirit in literary circles, being a distinguished Latin, Greek and Italian 
scholar. "The Eose of Smyrna," "The Hermit of Niagara," "St. Ybars Planta- 
tion" and "Lidia" are among the most charming productions of his pen. 

Dr. C. A. Luzenberg was born of Austrian parents in the city of Verona, Italy, 
in 1805. His father removed to German)', where the talented youth received his 
education, and acquitted himself so brilliantly that the Mayor of Wissenburg is 
said to have removed his hat in the presence of the elder Luzenberg, saying : "Sir, 
I must uncover my head before the man who owns such a son !" Dr. Luzenberg 
emigrated to Philadelphia in 1819. Becoming deeply interested in tropical fevers, 
he decided to settle in New Orleans, where the field for study would be varied and 
extensive. He accordingly located in the southern metropolis in 1829 and was shortly 
after elected house surgeon of the Charity Hospital. Dr. Luzenberg devoted his tal- 
ent and energy to combating yellow fever, the scourge which then visited the city 
almost every year. He revolutionized the medical practice of the day. Instead 
of using calomel and purgatives, he treated the disease by general and local bleeding. 
This method was met by violent opposition and fierce invective was resorted to in 
the medical journals of the day to combat this heresy. Dr. Luzenberg was the 
first practitioner in New Orleans who excluded light from the apartments of small- 
po.x patients, having noticed its baleful influence in the disfiguring effect of the 
malady. In 1832 the Doctor contracted a wealthy marriage with Mrs. Mary Ford 
and enjoyed an extensive European tour, visiting all the hospitals, studying, com- 
paring, analyzing with inexhaustible energy. His return to New Orleans was 
greeted with enthusiasm. The charitable impulses of his nature led him to devote 
two hours daily to the service of the poor and to offer, during an epidemic, to treat 



2i6 STAA'DAED HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

all indigent Germans gratis. With the wealth now at liis disposal he built a private 
hospital on Elysian Fields called the Franklin Infirmary. The operations performed 
by Dr. Luzenberg entitled him to rank among the foremost surgeons of the century. 
In removing a cancer he made a complete extirpation of the parotid gland; the 
patient, a man of sixty-two, survived and lived, in good health, for several years. 
He also made an excision of six inches of the ileum, and distinguished himself by 
tying the primitive iliac artery for the cure of an aneurism of the external iliac. 
Dr. Luzenberg's specialty was the removal of cataract, and many grateful eyes owed 
the blessing of sight to his skill. This wise physician was Dean of the Medical 
College of Louisiana, which he originated, delivering lectures in the old State House 
on Canal street and giving demonstrations in the Charity Hospital. Dr. Luzenberg 
also filled the chairs of Anatomy and Surgery in 1835. This man of strong charac- 
ter, fearless and outspoken, was persecuted and maligned by many enemies, and 
his life was embittered and saddened by their machinations. He withdrew voluntar- 
ily from the college, but was expelled from the Physico-Medical Society, and sued 
for mal praxis in the Criminal Court. The suit was carried to the Supreme Court 
of Louisiana, where Dr. Luzenberg was triumphantly acquitted. He endured these 
trials with dignity and courage, turning a deaf ear to those who counselled flight, 
or withdrawal from the scene of so many labors. He remained, endured and con- 
quered. He now devoted himself entirely to the Charity Hospital, and in spite of 
opposition was elected an administrator, and afterwards vice-president, a position 
which he held for the rest of his life. The research and experience of years were 
to have been embodied in a work on yellow fever, but although he collected much 
data, it was never arranged and completed. In 1839 Dr. Luzenberg founded the 
"Society of Natural History and Sciences," and in 1843 he formed and incorporated 
the "Louisiana Medico-Chirurgical Society." In 1843 he was appointed physician 
to the Marine Hospital. As there was no government hospital, he appropriated 
his own, and filled the house with comforts and the garden with curious specimens 
of vegetable and animal life to amuse the invalid sailors. They were removed from 
his care for political reasons, and he then received into his hospital the invalided 
soldiers of the Mexican war. Dr. Luzenberg's health failed in 1848, and he left 
the city to find strength at some Virginia springs, but died en route in Cincinnati, 
July 15, 1848. 

Dr. Erasmus Darwin Fenner inherited his love of medicine from his father, 
a distinguished physician of a fine North Carolina family. He graduated at the 
University of Transylvania, Ky., and commenced to practice in Jackson, Tenn. He 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 217 

married in 1832, but lost his young wife in 1837, and cherished her memory with 
unswerving fidelity throughout his long and useful life. In 1840 he removed to 
New Orleans with his little son, to whose education he devoted all his leisure hours. 
Then ensued some years of poverty and obscurity, through which the Doctor strug- 
gled sturdily towards the prominence and success which he finally achieved. In 
1844 he published, in collaboration with Dr. A. Hester, the New Orleans Medical 
Journal. So low were the funds of the two editors that the Journal was published 
on credit, but each number managed to pay its way, until it was absorbed in the 
New Orleans Medical and Surgical Journal (1848), a publication to which Dr. 
Fenner contributed largely and brilliantly. Three of his most valued articles were 
two accounts of the yellow fever prevailing in 1846 and 1848, and a pamphlet enti- 
tled, "History of the Epidemic of Yellow Fever in New Orleans in 1853." Dr. 
Fenner was an ardent advocate of sanitary measures, but his advice was indifferently 
received. The earnest object of his life was attained when he established, with the 
aid of some kindred spirits, the New Orleans School of Medicine, in 1856. The 
faculty of the new school was as follows : 

Dr. E. D. Fenner, Dean of the Faculty and Professor of Principles and Prac- 
tice of Medicine. 

Dr. J. M. W. Picton, Professor Diseases of Women and Children. 

Dr. Thos. Peniston, Professor Chemical Medicine. 

Dr. Samuel Choppin, Professor of Surgery. 

Dr. C. Beard, Professor of Anatomy. , 

Dr. Howard Smith, Professor of Materia Medica. 

Dr. I. L. Crawcour, Professor of Medical Chemistry. 

Dr. A. F. Axson, Professor of Physiology. 

Dr. Warren Brickell, Professor of Obstetrics. 

Dr. Anthony Peniston, Adjunct Professor of Anatomy. 

Dr. Fenner's eloquence and energy secured to the students and professors of 
the school all the privileges of the Charity Hospital. He also procured from the 
Legislature an appropriation of $20,000 for enlarging the buildings and increasing 
the museum. The new school opened in 1856 with a class of seventy-six students. 
It closed its doors at the beginning of the civil war on two hundred and forty-seven, 
many of whom shouldered their muskets until the close of the fateful struggle per- 
mitted the survivors to resume their interrupted studies. The school was used as 
a negro school during Federal domination, but was reorganized and reopened in 
1865. Dr. Peniston being dead, the chair of Anatomy was filled by Professor 
Henry F. Campbell, of Georgia, and that of Physiology by Dr. Alfred C. Holt of 



2i8 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

Mississippi. After a few sessions, and after the death of Dr. Tenner, the New Or- 
leans School of Medicine ceased to exist. 

Dr. Tenner originated the Louisiana Hospital in Eichmond during the war 
and proved his devotion to his native South by refusing to take the oath of allegi- 
ance. He was banished by General Butler, and went to Mobile, where he remained 
until the end of the war. He returned to New Orleans when peace was established, 
resumed his extensive practice, and was pursuing his career with unabated energy, 
when he suddenly succumbed to fever. May 4, 1866. Dr. Tenner was a man of 
sociable and lovable character, and was remarkably devoted to children. He left 
an honored name, which has been worthily borne by his son. Judge Charles E. 
Tenner. 

One of the most widely-known physicians of New Orleans, remarkable alike 
for great talent and virile and heroic personality, was Dr. Warren Stone. He was 
professor of Surgery in the University of Louisiana for thirty-five years, and sur- 
geon of the Charity Hospital for thirty-nine, so that his name would seem to be 
identified with all that is wisest and best in the history of both institutions. He 
first saw the light in the remote town of St. Albans, Vt., in 1808. A fine mother 
gave him a frame of superb proportions and iron nerve, and a nature full of lofty 
ambition and honorable ideals. Dr. Stone's education was conducted by private 
tutors, as the schools of that day were but poorly equipped, and he became a pupil 
of Dr. Twitchell, an eminent surgeon and physician of Keene, N. H. He fre- 
quently declared that he was indebted to Dr. Twitchell for the most valuable portion 
of his extensive professional knowledge. He was an ardent student, and when he 
graduated from the medical school in Pittsfield, Mass., in 1831 he was thoroughly 
equipped in all the practical branches of medicine. In 1833 he started from Boston, 
by sea, for New Orleans, but the brig Amelia met with violent storms, cholera ap- 
peared among the passengers and crew, and the unfortunate vessel finally ran 
aground on Tolly Island, at the entrance to Charleston harbor. The unfortunate 
passengers were supplied by the generous people of Charleston with all needful and 
medicines, and Dr. Thomas Hunt, a distinguished physician, rendered devoted at- 
tention to the sick. The Amelia was burned as a necessary sanitary measure, but 
another vessel being chartered to convey the passengers and crew to their destination, 
Dr. Stone at last landed in New Orleans, friendless and poor, at a time when yellow 
fever and cholera were both raging. Through the kindness of Dr. Cenas, young 
Stone received some employment in connection with the Charity Hospital. His 
unusual ability and industry soon made a favorable impression upon all around him. 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 219 

When Dr. Hunt, with whom he formed a warm friendship during the sad days on 
Folly Island, removed to New Orleans from Charleston, and was appointed resident 
surgeon at the hospital, he secured for Dr. Stone the position of assistant to Dr. 
Picton. So clearly were his abilities demonstrated in this post that he was ap- 
pointed resident surgeon of the hospital in 1836. One of his biographers says, in 
reference to this advancement : "Never was so elevated a professional office so mer- 
itoriously acquired; never was one so ably and satisfactorily filled. Now was fully 
inaugurated a career never enjoyed by any surgeon in America. Known and en- 
deared to the people by his services in the hospital, particularly in the free 
dispensary, which was filled by a large and anxious crowd every mid-day in the 
week; elected in 1836 lecturer on Anatomy, and in January, 1837, professor of 
Anatomy by the petition of the admiring class, and, on the resignation of Prof. Lu- 
zenberg, lecturer on surgery, he became, at the next session, professor of Surgery, 
the leading and most eminent surgeon and physician in the city, the most cele- 
brated and popular professor in the school, until his resignation in 1872." 

In November, 1849, Dr. Stone operated successfully in a case of traumatic 
aneurism of the vertebral artery, by incising the sac, turning out the coagulum 
and controlling the artery by a graduated compress. He also enjoys the humane 
distinction of being the first to use chloroform for the alleviation of suffering, in 
New Orleans, on the 25th of February, 1817. 

Dr. Stone built and conducted a private infirmary at the corner of Canal and 
Claiborne, for some years, from 1859 to 1867. Dr. William Kennedy, a prominent 
physician of the day, was associated with Dr. Stone in this, and although much 
practical good was achieved, the enterprise was financially unsuccessful and was 
finally abandoned. At the outbreak of the war, Dr. Stone was appointed Confeder- 
ate surgeon-general of the State of Louisiana. He was present at the battles of 
Bull Eun and Shiloh, and devoted his fine surgical skill to the alleviation of the 
wounded soldiers. When New Orleans was in the hands of the Federals, he was 
sent to Fort Jackson, where he treated the Federal soldiers free of charge. But, 
gladly as he rendered aid to the suffering, regardless of sectional or political feel- 
ing, he was never in the least "reconstructed," but remained to the end an en- 
thusiastic Democrat, the devoted friend of Jefferson Davis. Dr. Stone lost the 
sight of one eye in 1841 from an inflammation contracted from a little patient. Dr. 
Stone was a frequent contributor to the Medical Journal. Among his important 
articles may be mentioned "The Treatment of Wounded Arteries," "Ligation of the 
Common Iliac Artery," "Inflammation" (1859), and "Pulmonary ■ Tuberculosis" 



220 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

(1866). The wise physician, so kind of heart, keen of wit, generous of hand, laid 
down the burden of his earthly cares, and entered into his rest, December 6, 1872. 

Dr. T. G. Eichardson, born in Lexington, Ky., in 1827, received a complete 
medical education in the University of Louisville, and afterwards enjoyed 
years of profitable intercourse with the celebrated Dr. Gross, whose private pupil 
he was. He was appointed demonstrator of Anatomy in the medical department 
of the University of Louisville, immediately after his graduation in 1848. He 
accepted, in 1856, the chair of Anatomy in the Pennsylvania Medical College. He 
acquired a reputation at the age of twenty-nine, by the publication of a text-book 
entitled "Richardson's Elements of Human Anatomy." While in Philadelphia, 
Dr. Eichardson edited, with Dr. Gross, the "jSTorth American Medico-Chirurgical 
Eeview." He removed to New Orleans in 1858, to occupy the chair of Anatomy 
in the Tulane University of Louisiana, which he retained until 1872. Dr. Eich- 
ardson then accepted the chair of Surgery, which he occupied for seventeen years. 
He was dean of the medical department of Tulane University from 1865 to 1885, 
and was emeritus professor of Surgery until his death. Dr. Richardson was presi- 
dent of the American Medical Association during the year 1877-78, and presided 
at the session held in Buffalo. As surgeon of General Bragg's staff, Dr. Eichardson 
followed the fortunes of war from 18G2 to 1865, returning to his home, with a 
heart crushed by the defeat of his country and his cause. A terrible domestic 
bereavement was added to the sorrows of the patriot; he lost his wife and three 
children by the explosion and wreck of a Mississippi steamboat. These sorrows, 
endured with courage and submission, probably emphasized the cold reserve and 
dignity of his manner. His devoted friend, Dr. Edmond Souchon, tells a story 
which illustrates his courage and devotion to duty. Being called to a patient 
who was bleeding profusely, he introduced the tiny silver canula into the vein at 
the elbow, and in the simplest way told Dr. Souchon, his assistant, to introduce 
the other end into his (Dr. Eichardson's) vein, thus giving his own blood to 
restore the patient, but in vain. Dr. Eichardson died on May 26, 1892, but a 
noble memorial has been erected to him by his wife, Mrs. Ida A. Eichardson, in 
the superbly fitted medical college, for the building of which she donated one 
hundred thousand dollars. 

Dr. Samuel M. Bemiss was of Eevolutionary stock. His father was thrown 
earlv on his own resources, and acquired a medical education in the face of count- 
less difficulties. He settled in Kentucky, where Dr. Samuel Bemiss was born. He 
enjoyed the distinction of being the first matriculate of the University of New York, 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 221 

where he graduated in 1845. He. too, like the other doctors we have mentioned, 
bore a gallant part in the troubled years from "61 to '65, serving as surgeon in the 
Confederate army. At the termination of the war, he returned to Louisville, but 
shortly after, in 1866, he accepted the chair of Theory and Practice of Medicine 
in the University of Louisiana, which he filled up to the day of his death. Dr. 
Bemiss was noted for conservative opinion, and careful and painstaking practice. 
In 1878 he was chairman of a commission appointed to investigate the origin and 
spread of yellow fever in the interior of Louisiana. He visited a number of 
infected towns and made an elaborate report of his investigations. Dr Bemiss 
was for some years senior editor of the New Orleans Medical and Surgical Journal, 
and his facile pen contributed to numerous scientific magazines. He was a 
member of the American Medical Association, the College of Physicians and Sur- 
geons of Louisville, of the Kentucky State Medical Society, of the Boston Gynseco- 
logical Society, and of the State Medical Association of Louisiana. Dr. Bemiss 
died the 17th of November, 1884. 

Dr. Samuel Choppin, born in Baton Eouge, in 1828, graduated at the Univer- 
sity of Louisiana, in 1849. He spent two years in Paris to complete his medical 
education, and while there witnessed the coup d'etat of Louis Napoleon in 1851, 
and but narrowly escaped with his life, on one occasion, being one of a defenseless 
crowd, which was suddenly and unexpectedly fired upon by soldiers. On his return 
to New Orleans he was appointed demonstrator of Anatomy in the Medical 
College, a position which he held for five years, and during the same period he 
was house surgeon of the Charity Hospital. He devoted much time to the literature 
of medicine, and was associate editor of the New Orleans Medical and Hospital 
Gazette, which printed his "Notes on Syphilis." In conjunction with Drs. E. D. 
Fenner, D. W. Brickell and C. Beard, Dr. Choppin took an active part in organiz- 
ing the New Orleans School of Medicine in 1856. He served as medical inspector, 
and surgeon-in-chief to General Beauregard and was present at the siege of Charles- 
ton and Petersburg. On his return to New Orleans, after the war, he formed a 
partnership with Dr. C. Beard. His deepest sympathies were enlisted in the 
struggle of his native State with the radical despotism, and he was one of the 
leaders and organizers of the revolution of September 14, 1874. Dr. Choppin 
was president of the Board of Health in 1876. He made a gallant struggle to 
protect the community from the invasion of yellow fever, but failed in 1878. The 
treachery of seeming friends, the misrepresentations of the press, embittered his 
last years. He died of pneumonia, on May 2, 1880. 



22 2 STAXDAED HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

■ Dr. John Dickson Bruns was a man of rare culture, who united to pro- 
fessional ability the charm of fine scholarship and poetic talents. Born in 
Charleston, S. C, February 24, 1836, he graduated at the Medical College of 
South Carolina in 1857, on which occasion his thesis entitled "Life, its Eelations, 
Animal and Mental," won a prize of one hundred dollars. After traveling in 
the North, and attending lectures there, Dr. Bruns returned to Charleston, and 
edited the Charleston Medical Journal in 1858. He was the friend of Sims, 
the novelist, and of the gentle poet Timrod, delighting both by his youthful 
enthusiasm and eloquence. He married in 1858. After the fall of the Con- 
federacy, which had been the object of his devoted allegiance, Dr. Bruns spent 
several months in Europe, and in the autumn of the same year (1866) accepted the 
chair of Physiology and Pathology in the Medical School of New Orleans. He 
was afterwards elected professor of Practice of Medicine in the Charity Hospital 
Medical School. He was associated for several years with Drs. Choppin, Beard and 
Brickell, in practice. His pen was ever active and his poems are full of chaste and 
delicate fancy. " 'Morituri Salutamus' is a poem," said the Times-Democrat, 
"which we fully believe deserves a permanent place in the gallery of English chef 
d'ceuvres." His most brilliant scientific papers appeared in the Southern Journal 
of Medical Science (1867) and in the New Orleans Medical and Surgical Journal 
(1880). 

A noted name in the list of New Orleans surgeons is that of Dr. A. W. Smyth. 
He held for many years the position of house surgeon in the Charity Hospital, to 
which he was elected in 1862. Dr. Smyth's unusual mechanical gifts led to the 
introduction of many improvements in the domestic arrangements of the hospital. 
But liis fame rests securely upon the fact that he was the first surgeon who suc- 
cessfully performed the operation of tying the innorainata, the vertebral, and other 
arteries for the cure of subclavian aneurism. Dr. Smyth was a graduate of the 
Medical College of Louisiana. An Irishman by birth, he has returned to his native 
land to spend his declining years. 

The pathos of an early death, a brilliant career brought to an untimely close, 
is associated with the name of Dr. Albert B. Miles, one of the most esteemed phy- 
sicians of late years. Dr. Miles was a native of Alabama, and was born in 1852. An 
education begun in the Gordon Institute of Arkansas was completed at the 
L'niversity of Virginia in 1870, when he graduated at the age of eighteen. Coming 
to New Orleans in 1872, he began the study of medicine, and became a resident 
student in Charity Hospital, April 7, 1873. He graduated in 1875, and was at once 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 223 

elected demonstrator of Anatomy in the medical department of the University. 
After filling the position of visiting physician to the Hospital and of assistant 
house surgeon, he was appointed physician in charge of the Hotel Dieu, and in 1882, 
house surgeon of Charity Hospital, which he remained until his death, of typhoid 
fever, August 5, 1894. He made a gallant struggle for life, and when gently in- 
formed that the end was near, exclaimed, "So soon!" A sentiment soon echoed by 
the whole community, which had expected so much from this brilliant and useful 
life ! Dr. Miles was a member of the New Orleans Medical and Surgical Associa- 
tion, of the Orleans Parish Medical Association, and of the Louisiana State Medical 
Society. 

Dr. Charles Jasper Bickham resided in New Orleans for thirty-eight years, 
and enjoyed the respect and affection of his fellow citizens, while his urbanity to 
the younger members of the profession led to an extensive consulting practice. He 
was born in Covington, Louisiana; after receiving the degree of M. A. from the 
Southwestern University of Texas, he studied medicine in New Orleans, and grad- 
uated in 1856. He assisted Dr. Stone in surgery, both in the doctors own hospital 
and in the Charity Hospital. Dr. Bickham practiced medicine in Shreveport for 
a time, served as surgeon in the Confederate army during the war, and afterwards 
settled permanently in New Orleans. He held the position of demonstrator of 
Anatomy in the University from 1867 to 18T2; he was also at different times an 
administrator of the Charity Hospital, a member of the Louisiana State Board of 
Health, and of the Orleans Parish Medical Society. Dr. Bickham died February 
14, 1898. 

Dr. Joseph Jones occupies a notable position as an authority on yellow fever, 
the malady which has engaged the attention of so many learned minds. Dr. Jones 
devoted years to the most careful and minute researches, and his work entitled 
"Medical and Surgical Memoirs" contains a wealth of information, statistics and 
scientific data. Dr. Jones was president of the State Board of Health, assuming 
the office in April, 1880. He was also connected with the University for many years 
as professor of Chemistry. His range of culture was very wide ; he was the leading 
archaeologist of the South, and made a collection of rare and antique arms, pottery, 
etc., which is jiistly an object of pride to the whole city. 

The limited scope of this chapter will not permit more than a mere mention 
of many well-known and honored names. Dr. John Leonard Riddell, the inventor 
of the binocular microscope. Dr. Isadore Labatut, Dr. Thos. Hunt, Dr. James 
Jones, Dr. Brickell, the friend and partner of Dr. Bruns, Dr. Austen, Dr. Holliday, 



/ 



224 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

J)r. Sani'l Logan, devoted their lives to scientific research, or to practical labors 
among the suffering members of the community. At present the city can boast of 
many able physicians ; Dr. Ernest Lewis stands pre-eminent in Gynaecology, as does 
Dr. Eudolph Matas in Surgery. Dr. John B. Elliott in the theory and practice 
of medicine. Dr. Castellanos, a writer and scholar, as well as a talented doctor ; Dr. 
Loeber, full of years and honors — all these and many more will leave an enduring 
mark upon the history of the medical profession in New Orleans. Dr. Stanford E. 
Chaille fills with dignity and ability the office of dean of the medical department 
of the Tulane University. Dr. Chaille is of fine French lineage. His ancestors 
settled in Maryland, but his father removed to Mississippi, and Dr. Chaille has made 
New Orleans his home for many years. 

The School of Hahnemann has been represented in New Orleans since 1841, 
when Dr. Taxile, of Toulon, France, settled here as the pioneer of homeopathy. He 
had been an illustrious allopath, and chief physician of the civil hospital in Toulon. 
He practiced until his death in 1857, and left three disciples to continue his labors, 
Dr. D'Hemecourt, Dr. Dupaquier, Dr. Cabosche and Dr. S. W. Angell. The ranks of 
homeopathy were recruited by Drs. Adolf and Jules Cartier, and then by Dr. Julius 
Matthieu, the first American member of the new school of medicine in New Orleans. 
Dr. Mattliieu was born in this city, and graduated at the Louisiana State University, 
having since pursued a professional career of marked success for many years. Dr. 
J. G. Belden, a graduate of the Boston College of Physicians, moved to New Or- 
leans in 1846, and attended to a large clientele with success, until his death in 
1897. His son, Dr. Webster Belden, has inherited his father's practice. Dr. Charles 
J. Lopez, a native of Cuba, located in New Orleans in 1869, graduated at Tulane 
University in 1873, and is still in active practice. Dr. Gayle Aiken, born in Charles- 
ton, S. C, and a graduate of both Tulane University and of Hahnemann 
Homeopathic College in Chicago, has been a resident of New Orleans since 18S2. 
Dr. S. R. Angell, Dr. Charles R. Mayer, a graduate of Hahnemann Homeopathic 
College, Chicago, Dr. D. Arthur Lines, a graduate of Pulte College, Cincinnati, 
David M. Lines, and Dr. Robert D. Voorhies, who took his diploma at Herring Col- 
lege, are among the best known homeopathic physicians of the city. 

Dr. William H. Holcombe deserves an extended notice for the services rendered 
by him to the cause of homeopathy, not only in this city, but throughout the South. 
He was not only the wise physician, with the genius of diagnosis, but the cultured 
man of letters, whose versatile pen was constantly employed in the composition of 
medical essays and pamphlets, poems, novels, and works of a religious character. 
Dr. Holcombe was born in Lynchburg, Va., May 29, 1825. He was of good old 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 225 

• 

Virginia famih', his grandfather having served in the Continental army. His 
father was a distinguished physician of the old school, and young Holcombe, who 
early manifested his taste for his chosen profession, was sent to the University of 
Pennsylvania, in Philadelphia, where he graduated in IS-IT. He removed to Cin- 
cinnati, and it was there, during an epidemic of Asiatic cholera, that lie became 
interested in the study of homeopathy. The marked success lie met with in liis 
experimental use of it induced him to devote himself to the new school of medicine, 
and he became one of its most talented disciples. Dr. Holcombe removed to Natchez 
in 1852, where he and Dr. Davis, his partner, were appointed physicians and sur- 
geons to the Mississippi State Hospital. In 18G4 he located in New Orleans, where 
he made his home until his death, November 28, 1893. He was chairman of a 
yellow fever commission in 1878, and published an excellent report of the work done 
during the epidemic of that year. Dr. Holcombe was for many years co-editor of 

the North American Journal of Homeopathy, and was president of the American 
Institute of Homeopathy in 1876. In 1852 he published "The Scientific Basis of 

Homeopathy/' and in 185G, "Yellow Fever and Its Homeopathic Treatment " He 

was the author of a number of medical treatises, of two volumes of poetry, and of 

eight religious works, embodying the doctrines of Swedenborg. His last literary 

composition, "The Truth About Homeopathy," was completed only a few days 

before his death. Dr. Holcombe was a man of lofty and noble nature, and of ten- 

derest charity, a true philanthropist, winning the respect and devotion of all who 

knew him. In the midst of his labors he succumbed, quite suddenly, to heart disease. 

A monthly paper, L'Homoion, was published by the "Societe Hah- 
nemanieniie de la Nouvelle Orleans," a society organized in 1859, but soon dissolved. 
During the yellow fever of 1878, the New Orleans Homeopathic Relief Association 
was organized, for the purpose of furnishing doctors, nurses and medicines to the 
sick, and also food and clothing, when necessary. Its headquarters were at No. 132 
Canal street, and it published and distributed, free of cost, a pamphlet entitled, 
"Guide for Diagnosing, Nursing and Medicating Yellow Fever." 

The Hahnemann I\ledical Association of I;Ouisiana was oi'gnnized in New Or- 
leans in 1880, but it was not incorporated, and after meeting in different cities for 
six years, it disbanded. The Homeopathic Medical Association of Louisiana was 
organized in New Orleans in November, 1890, with Charles Madnell, president; D. 
R. Graham, vice-president; Frank Millington, secretary; and Col. George Soule, 
treasurer. This association has also been allowed to lapse. There is a Homeopathic 
State Board of Medical Examiners, appointed by the Governor, and a similar board 
of the other school. 



CHAPTER IX. 



HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN NEW ORLEANS. 
By JoitN R. FiCKLEN, Professor of History in Tulane University. 

NEW ORLEANS was founded in the year ] 718 by Jean Baptiste Le Moyne Sieur 
de Bienville, but it did not become the permanent capital of the colony until 
1722. At this period the province was under the control of the famous 
Company of the West, which, though it ended in disaster under the title of the 
"Mississippi Bubble," was certainly instrumental in making large additions to the 
population of Louisiana. As the colonists began to pour in, the question of educa- 
tion became a pressing one, and it was only natural that the religious orders, to 
whom primary instruction during the eighteenth century was chiefly intrusted, 
should be the first in the field to satisfy the new demand. 

The Capuchin monks, to whom had fallen the ecclesiastical control of the lower 
part of the province, are said to have given to Louisiana her first teacher. This 
was a certain Father Cecil, who in 1724 opened a school for boys in the neighbor- 
hcod of the present St. Louis Cathedral; but what was the fate of this first school 
in the new city by the Mississippi, is not recorded. 

As schools for the two sexes were generally separate at this time. Governor 
Bienville soon became interested in providing instruction for the female yoiith, and 
in 1726 the Company, at his suggestion, signed a contract with some Ursuline nuns 
to como over from France, and to assume the care of a charity hospital, and at the 
same time to undertake the education of young girls. This contract has come down 
to us, and in it we find the Company agreeing to support six nuns, with a salary 
of six hundred livres (francs) a year to each, until they could draw a suflicient 
income from a plantation to be donated by the Company. The Mother Superior 
was to appoint one of the nuns as housekeeper, two others to be continuous nurses 
in the hospital, one other to be a teacher in a girls' school, and the sixth to take 
the place of any sister that might fall ill. The actual number of Religieuses that 
came over in 1727 was eleven, one being a novice, two candidates, and eight pro- 
fessed members. 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 227 

Never was heartier welcome accorded to any colonists than to these holy sisters 
■when, after a tempestuous voyage of several months across the Atlantic, they finally 
.arrived in New Orleans. Bienville had been supplanted as governor by Perier, and 
*his late residence near the levee was given to the nuns as a temporary home. It was 
the finest house in the little city, but it was still surrounded by the primeval forest. 
Here the Sisters remained until 1734, when their convent, the Archbishop's palace 

-of to-day, was, after many delays, completed, and it became their permanent home, 
until ninety years later they removed to their present spacious buildings in the 
lower part of the city. Their early experiences in the new city on the banks of the 
great river are recorded in the charming letters of the novice, Sister Marie Made- 
line Hachard, who was one of the original band, and who for thirty-five years aided 
with rare devotion her associates in caring for the sick and in educating the female 
youth of that day. She has recorded the humble beginnings of the long history 

■of the Ursulines, and has left us a vivid picture of the pensionnaires or boarders 
and of the day scholars that soon began to crowd their schoolroom. Their devotion 

"to their work knew no bounds, for Sister Hachard tells us that during two hours 

■of the afternoon they also gave instruction, spiritual and mental, to negresses and 
'Indian girls, who were eager to learn from these gentle sisters. The negresses, she 
adds, were easy to teach, but not so the Indian girls, who, "on account of their sinful 
passions are baptized with fear and trembling on our part." It seems that the 

•inhabitants expected to have to pay for the instruction of the day scholars, and 
when they discovered that this class of pupils was to be taught gratuitously, they 
showed their gratitude by overwhelming the nuns with presents of everything that 
was necessary for their comfort. In 1728 there were, besides the day scholars, sev- 

•eral slave girls to be prepared for baptism and the first communion, and twenty 

.pensionnaires. It does not appear that these last were required to pay more than 
was necessary to meet the expenses of their food and lodging. Thus the educational 

'plan of the Company was broad enough to include gratuitous instruction for the 
female youth of the three races found in the colony. Nay, a few years later we find 
that the Ursulines have taken charge of the female orphans whose parents perished 
in the Natchez massacre, and that they receive from the Company a regular stipend 

'for their support. Finally, to cap the climax of what was expected of the nuns, Bien- 
ville, in 1735, wrote to his government : "Two women in the colony raise silk worms 
for amusement and succeed very well. Eggs should be sent by the government to 
the Ursulines, so that they could teach this industry to the orphans intrusted to 

xtheir charge." 



228 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

However, those of the nuns who devoted themselves to teaching were so zealous 
in their labors that the colonists felt that they had an additional reason for remain- 
ing in the province, and the Company perceived that it had taken not only a 
charitable, but a wise step. The admiration of the scholars for their teachers 
reached such a point that they all wanted to take the vows and become nuns, but 
Father Beaubois frowned on this, and declared that he wanted them to become 
Christian mothers, and spread the cause of Christianity in the colony. The girls 
at this period generally married at the age of thirteen or fourteen and were very 
ignorant; "but henceforth," says Sister Hachard, "no girl was allowed to marry 
until she had been instructed by the Ursulines." How this \:ise social regulation 
was enforced we are not told. It may have been left to the discretion of Father 
Beaubois, who was the constant friend of the Sisters, and who was doubtless able 
to control the marriages of the colony in the interests of mental and spiritual edu- 
cation. Such, then, was the beginning of educational training for girls in New 
Orleans, as recorded in the fascinating pages of Madeleine Hachard. 

If Father Cecil's school was still in existence in 1742, it must have been found 
inadequate to the training of boys, for in this year we find Bienville, once more 
governor, and his intendant, Salmon, addressing the following communication to 
their government: "For a long time the inhabitants of Louisiana have been em- 
phasizing the necessity of establishing here a college for the education of their 
children. Impressed with the importance of such an establishment, they proposed 
to the Jesuits to undertake it, but the Fathers refused on the ground that they had 
neither the lodgings nor the materials to support a college. Yet it is essential that 
there should be such an institution for instruction in the humanities, in geometry^ 
in geography, in pilotage, etc. Besides, the children would learn lessons in religion, 
which is the basis of morals. It is only too apparent how useless young men become 
when they are reared in self-indulgence and idleness; and how much those of the 
colonists who are able to send their children to France to be educated have to spend 
for this purpose. It is also to be feared that the greater part of this class of young 
men, disgusted with their country, will return to it only to gather up the property 
which their parents have left them.""* 

Louisiana had now passed once more under the control of the king, and its 
importance was not considered sufficient to justify the estabhshment of such an 
institution; but this last and noblest effort of Bienville for the welfare of the col- 
ony on the eve of his final departure from the city he had founded, is worthy of 



•Translated from a copy of the letter in the archives of the La. Hist. See. 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 229 

record. More than sixty years were to elapse before such a college as Bienville had 
planned was to be established in New Orleans. 

SPANISH DOJIINATION. 

Thus far the schools for the training of the young had been confined to Xew 
Orleans, and even in the city we have no evidence of further progress until the 
period of the Spanish domination (1768-1803.) In 1785 the population of the 
city had grown to 4,980, including blacks and Indians. Three years later Governor 
Miro writes to his government as follows: "In 1772, under Governor Unzaga, 
there came from Spain Don Andreas Lopez de Armesto, as director of the school 
which was ordered to be established at New Orleans. ■ With him came Don Pedro 
Aragon as teacher of grammar, Don Manuel Diaz de Lara, as professor of Latin, 
and Don Francisco de la Galena as teacher of reading and writing. In spite of the 
weight that such names must have carried with them, the governor expressed himself 
as greatly embarrassed, as he knew that the parents would not send their children 
to a Spanish school unless iinder fear of some penalty. Not wishing to resort to 
violence, he confined himself to making the public acquainted with the benefits they 
would derive from the education which the magnanimous heart of his majesty 
thus put within their reach. Nevertheless, no pupil ever presented himself for the 
Latin class; a few came to be taught reading and writing; these never exceeded 
thirty, and frequently dwindled down to six." Miro adds that the late conflagra- 
tion having destroyed the schoolhouse, Don Andres Almonester, who subsequently 
built the cathedral, "had offered free of charge a small edifice containing a room 
thirteen feet by twelve, which would suffice for the present, as many families had 
retired to the country, and the number of pupils had been thus reduced from 
twenty-three to twelve. * * * Those who have no fortune to leave their sons, 
aspire to give them no other career than a mercantile one, for which they think 
reading and writing to be sufficient. They prefer that their children be taught in 
French, and thus there were, before the fire, eight schools of that description, which 
were frequented by four hundred children of both sexes."* 

In commenting on these words of Miro, Mother Austin Carroll (see her "Es- 
says on Early Education in Ijouisiana") remarks that the existence of the French 
schools and of the Ursuline school explains the decline of the Spanish institution, 
and she adds that, comparatively speaking, the children of New Orleans one hun- 
dred years ago were as well educated as they are now — perhaps better. Although 



•Gayarre's Spanish Domination, p. 204-5. 



230 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

the phrase ''comparatively speaking" qualifies the statement, the opinion of the 
good Mother seems too laudatory of the past. It is true that the wealthy youths 
wore carefully educated, most of them, like Etienne de Bore, the first successful 
sugar planter in Louisiana, being sent to Canada and to France for both secondary 
and higher training. But for the mass of the children there were no such advantages 
for thorough instruction and discipline as are offered by the institutions of the 
present day. Our public schools, supported by the self-taxation of the people, find 
no real counterpart in the governmental and denominational schools of the eight- 
eenth century. We have at the present time as many denominational schools in 
proportion to our population, and we have in addition, the well patronized public 
and private schools, capped by the higher education offered in the various depart- 
ments of Tulane University. 

At the beginning of the nineteenth century, some of the Ursulines, fearing 
persecution under the French republic, to which Spain had ceded Louisiana, retired 
to Havana, but the rest of the Sisters, finding themselves treated with kindness by 
both the French and American authorities, continued their educational work, as 
they do to-day, after a lapse of one hundred years. A visitor to New Orleans in 
1801, says: "There is here a convent of Ursulines, who receive young boarding 
pupils. With a grant of $600 a year made to them by the Spanish treasury, they 
maintain and teach twelve orphans."'* Martin says that in 1802 the nuns received 
tuition fees from the wealthy, and educated some poor girls gratuitously. During 
this period of transition, however, a new educational impulse was introduced by 
the emigrants from San Domingo. After the revolution in that unhappy isle, sev- 
eral thousand French exiles settled in Louisiana, and in New Orleans many of them 
utilized their talents in the education of the young. "About six months ago," says 
the author quoted above, "a college was formed for the education of young (Creole) 
men. A boarding and day school for girls has also been established. The instruction 
they receive there seems more carefully conducted than that which the nuns for- 
merly gave, and is, therefore, preferable. These two institutions, which are of 
prime importance, are due to the French refugees."* 

UNDER THE AMERICAN FLAG. 

As we pass over into the jjcriod of American domination, wc find no diminution 
of interest on the part of the new government in the subject of education. The im- 
pulse given by the Domingoans was not allowed to languish, although many years 
were to elapse before New Orleans was to obtain a sound and efficient system of 



•Quoted by Prof. Fay in his "Education in Louisiana.' 



STANDAUD JJISTURY OF NEW ORLEANS. 231 

public education. The citj', as well as the rest of Louisiana, followed what Dr. 
William T. Harris has called the general trend of educational development in the 
United States. "First, from private, endowed and parochial schools," he says, 
"there is a change to the assumption of education by the State. When the State 
takes control, it first establishes colleges and universities, then elementary free 
schools. Then it adds supplementary institutions for the afflicted ; then institutions 
for teachers, together with libraries and other educational aids. In the meantime 
increasing attention is paid to supervision and methods. Schools are better graded 
* * * and so the educational idea advances towards a divine charity." This, 
amid many vicissitudes and difficulties, we shall attempt to show, has been the line 
of educational progress in New Orleans. 

Under the American rule it will conduce to clearness if we describe separately 
the public and the private institutions of learning that sprang into being in New 
Orleans. The history of the public institutions, moreover, falls naturally into three 
periods. The first, or tentative period, extends from the purchase of Louisiana 
down to the year 1841 ; the second, or period of permanent establishment, down to 
the civil war ; and the third, or period of changing conditions and general progress, 
from the civil war to the end of the nineteenth century. 

FIRST PERIOD. 

When Louisiana passed under the American flag, it was but natural that the 
new government should not be satisfied with the old denominational school of the 
LTrsulines or the newly established French institutions of the San Domingoans. 
Americans were already seeking their fortunes in New Orleans, and more were 
expected to come. Hence we are not surprised to find that, when the new American 
governor, W. C. C. Claiborne, was placed in office, his enlightened policy spoke out 
in no uncertain accents on the subject of public education. His address to the 
Legislative Council of 1801 contains these words: "In adverting to your primary 
duties, I have yet to suggest one than which none can be more important and in- 
teresting. I mean some general provision for the education of youth. * * * * 
Permit me to hope that, under your patronage, seminaries of learning will prosper, 
and means of acquiring information be placed within the reach of each growing 
family. Let exertions be made to rear up our children in the paths of science and 
virtue, and impress upon their tender hearts a love of civil and religious liberty. 
My advice, therefore, is that your system of education be extensive and liberally 
supported." 



232 STAXDAED HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

This wise suggestion of the governor resulted in a legislative act, establishing 
the University of Orleans. The regents thereof were to create as parts of the 
university, the College of New Orleans (afterwards known as the College of Or- 
leans), one or more academies in each parish, and a number of separate academies 
for the instruction of the female youth. The girls' academy never existed except 
on paper, and in fact the only portion of this university scheme that took on ma- 
terial form was the College of Orleans. While enjoying the title of college, this 
institution, as we shall see, soon degenerated to the grade of a secondary school, 
except, perhaps, in the teaching of the classics. It is not clear exactly when it 
opened its doors to the public, but in 1812 the honored historian of Louisiana, 
Charles Gayarre, was matriculated as a boarder at the age of seven. The most 
interesting account of the "college" is to be found in Gayarre's semi-historical 
novel, entitled, "Fernando de Lemos." 

It was situated at the corner of Hospital and St. Claude streets, where the 
church of St. Augustin now stands. The first president of this institution, men- 
tioned by Gayarre, was Jules Davasac, who was one of the numerous refugees from 
St. Domingo. These refugees were often persons of considerable culture, and the 
faculty of the college were nearly always, if not wholly, drawn from their ranks. 
The instruction was in French, but English, Greek, Latin, Spanish, mathematics, 
history and other branches were also taught. The pupils in after years became 
conspicuous for their attainments, and looked back with affection to the alma mater 
that had given them their early training. One of the amusing recollections of Mr. 
Gayarre was the constant conflict between a later president, Mr. Eochefort, who 
despised mathematics, while he adored poetry, and Mr. Teinturier, who adored 
mathematics and scorned poetry. The mutual contempt of these two antagonists 
was a constant source of enjoyment to the pupils. 

There was no settled policy as to the support of this institution. The first plan 
was to establish two lotteries, a method of raising funds that in our early history 
was sometimes used, not only for the maintenance of schools, but even for the 
building of churches. No appropriations were to be made by the Legislature, but a 
proportion of the lottery prizes was to be devoted to that great University of 
Orleans, in which the College of Orleans was embraced.* Luckily for the subse- 
quent history of education in the State, tliis pernicious policy was not a success, 
and we find the Legislature, in a fitful way, coming to the aid of the college from 



•The papers of that day contain, also, advertisements of a lottery for St. Mary's 
College, Baltimore, and another for a Medical College in the same city. 



STANDARD HISTORY OF XFW ORLEANS. 233 

time to time with small appropriations. These sums being found inadequate to 
uphold the declining fortunes of the first college in the State, resort was had to the 
proceeds from the licenses granted to the gambling houses of New Orleans. In 
spite of these desperate remedies, the college would not prosper, and in 1826 it ceased 
to exist, "a central and two primary schools" being established in New Orleans as 
a substitute. To these schools the gamblers' fund was continued, and they were 
further aided by $3,000 annually from the licenses of the theaters of New Orleans. 
The population of the city, wMch in 1810 was 24,552, of whom 16,550 were white, 
had grown in 1825 to 45,300, of whom, perhaps, one-half were white. In spite of 
this rapid increase of population, the attendance at the college in 1823 was only 
forty-four boarding pupils and thirty-five day pupils, the smallness of the total 
amounting to a confession of failure. The most plausible explanation of the fail- 
ure of the institution to meet the expectations of its founders is to be sought in the 
unwise policy of that day in regard to the terms of admission. Pupils whose pa- 
rents were in good circumstances were required to pay tuition fees, while gratuitous 
instruction was given only to those whose parents were sho^vn to the satisfaction of 
the regents to be in destitution. "The sons of the latter," says Mr. Gayarre, "were 
always dubbed 'charity students,' and thus marked with the badge of poverty, they 
were treated as the plebs of the institution." It is not surprising, therefore, that 
the pride of the poorer classes was aroused, and that rather than subject their chil- 
dren to such indignity, they preferred to allow them to grow up in ignorance. 

In 1808 an act of the Territorial Legislature had been passed to establish public 
schools throughout the Territory, but this seems to have been rendered nugatory 
the following year by a provision that the school tax should be collected only from 
those that were willing to pay it. When the State of Louisiana entered the Union 
in 1812, the first constitution made no provision for public education, it being 
probably intended that the whole matter should be left to legislative action. 

According to the annual message of Governor Eoman of 1831, it was in 1818, 
just one hundred years after the founding of New Orleans, that the first effective 
law concerning a system of public schools was passed by the General Assembly. 
Comparatively liberal appropriations were nuide in the following years, the amount 
increasing from $13,000 in 1820 to $27,000 in 1824. Unfortunately it was not 
primary instruction that occupied the attention of the Legislature, but the establish- 
ment of a college or academy in every parish of the State, to which, as in the case 
of the College of Orleans, both paying and non-paying pupils were to be admitted. 
In the two primary schools of New Orleans, gratuitous instruction was given only 



234 STANDABD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

to pupils between the ages of seven and fourteen, with a preference shown to at 
least fifty pupils of the indigent classes. 

Such distinctions would naturally result in injurj' to any system of public in- 
struction, and we are hardly surprised to learn that one parish of the State refused 
to accept the money appropriated for schools. "In twelve years," says Governor 
Eonian, "the total expenditure in the State amounted to $354,000, and it was 
doubtful whether 354 indigent students had derived from the schools the advan- 
tages which the Legislature wished to extend to that class." 

The governors of the State, wiser than the Legislatures, often recommended 
the establishment of wholly free schools, supported by taxation, but the idea was 
novel in Louisiana, and grew very slowly in public esteem. Moreover, there was 
a considerable number of the people who maintained that the education of tlie youth 
was a family matter, and that it did not concern the State to interfere. 

Out of the large appropriations mentioned above, a considerable number of 
academies, or colleges, had been created in the country parishes to absorb the public 
funds and offer but scanty opportunities of instruction to the youth of the State. 
In New Orleans, the central and the two primary schools, poorly patronized, con- 
tinued to lead a precarious existence until the year 1841, when they were absorbed 
in the new system. It is refreshing to turn to the legislative act of this year, and to 
see how the General Assembly had awakened to a sense of the errors of the past, 
and had determined to offer in New Orleans an enlightened example of what public 
education should be — an example that was soon to be followed throughout the 
State. Before taking up this second epoch in the educational history of New 
Orleans, it will be necessary for completeness to turn back and say a few words 
about the private institutions that in the early period supplemented the public 
instruction. 

These institutions, though never of a high grade, seem to have been compara- 
tively numerous, and were doubtless well patronized. Almost the only sources of 
information concerning them are tradition and the files of old newspapers in the 
archives of the City Hall. Among the latter. Professor Alcee Fortier, with a 
praiseworthy spirit of research, has delved, and from them has drawn forth some 
interesting notices of private schools which were established in New Orleans in the 
first quarter of this century. (See his "Louisiana Studies.") Some of the advertise- 
ments contain curious specimens of English solecisms that mark a period when the 
prevailing culture was French. Following in his footsteps, the present writer has 
brought to light some additional notices of private schools which may prove of 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 235 

interest to the modern reader. The first, taken from the Louisiana Gazette of 1805, 
shows that a teacher of that day expected to bear as heavy a burden as at the present 
time. It runs as follows : "An English school is opened in Bienville street for the 
teaching of English pronunciation, reading, writing, arithmetic, grammar, geo- 
graphy, etc. The hours are from 8 to 12 forenoon and 2 to 5 afternoon. The price 
of tuition is three dollars a month. Also, an evening school, at which those young 
gentlemen who wish to devote a few hours in the evening to the attainment of use- 
ful knowledge may find rational entertainment. Private lessons upon reasonable 
terms. Francis Hacket, Teacher." 

A more interesting one is to be found in the Louisiana Courier of January 
13, 1813. It is in the form of an address to the inhabitants of New Orleans and 
of the State, and is signed "G. Dorfeuille." This gentleman declares that he had 
witnessed without alarm the establishment of the College of Orleans, and had 
flattered himself that the foundation of such an institution by inspiring all the 
citizens with the desire of procuring the precious advantages of education, would 
not only not destroy the secondary schools, but would encourage them. In this he 
had been bitterly disappointed, for the college had derogated from its plan and 
bad become a primary school. "How," he continues, "such elementary exercises 
can be reconciled with the functions of a college, I shall not try to decide. Such 
measures, however, tend to deprive teachers of their living, and leave them no re- 
source except that of going back, if they can, to the place where they enjoyed the 
esteem of the community. Fully convinced, however, that each individual owes the 
exercise of his talents to all those who stand in need, I intend to establish a school 
for the education of colored children. Such an institution is entirely lacking in 
this portion of the country, and the enlightened persons who heretofore were de- 
sirous of having their children educated — I refer to the prudent colored people — 
were obliged to send them to the North. On them I depend for support. Eighteen 
or twenty pupils having been already promised, the school will be opened on Mon- 
day." 

No further notice of this interesting experiment has been discovered. The 
address has been quoted in full, first, because it mentions the low grade that the 
recently established College of Orleans had adopted; and secondly, because M. 
Dorfeuille's school and that of the Ursulines were the only ones, as far as the 
present writer is informed, that ever made an attempt to educate the colored people 
before the time of the civil war. While there was probably no interference at this 
time with M. Dorfeuille's school, which was doubtless intended for free people of 



236 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

color, it would have been suppressed seventeen years later, when the abolition agi- 
tation in the North led the South to believe that it was dangerous to allow the 
negro to learn the "mystery of the alphabet." In fact, the feeling on the subject 
grew so intense in Louisiana that in the jear 1830 not only was it forbidden by 
law to teach the slave to read, but free persons of color were required to withdraw 
from the State. 

Karl Pijstl, who visited New Orleans in 1826 (see his "Tour in America"*) tells 
us that the institutions of tlie city at that time were inferior to those of other cities 
of less wealth and equal extent. After mentioning the College of Orleans and an 
"inferior institution conducted by the Catholic clergy," he states that the best 
school is kept by "Mr. Shute, rector of the Episcopal church, an enlightened and 
clever man." Universal history and the primary branches were taught by this gen- 
tleman in his rectory. With respect to the female sex, the Creoles were educated 
by the Ursulines ; the Protestant young ladies by some boarding school mistresses, 
partly French, partly American, who came from the North. "The better class of 
Anglo-Americans," he adds, "prefer sending their daughters to Northern institu- 
tions, where they remain two years." Poydras Asylum was educating sixty girls, 
while a second asylum for boys had forty; 

SECOND PERIOD. 

Let us now turn to the public schools of the second period. It has been noted 
that this was the period of permanent establishment (1841-1860.) The educational 
necessities of the city had grown with the increase of population, which had been 
phenomenal. There were now (1840) 102,000 souls — more than double the num- 
ber of a decade before. Of these, about 60,000 were white. For this portion of the 
population the Legislature of 1841 decreed that "the councils of the difierent mu- 
nicipalities of New Orleans (there were three) are authorized and required to 
establish within their respective limits one or more public schools for the free in- 
struction of the children residing therein, to make such regulations as they judge 
proper for the organization, administration and discipline of the said schools, and 
to levy a tax for the maintenance of the same. Every white child residing in a 
municipality shall be admitted to and receive instruction in the schools established 
therein." The State treasurer was ordered to pay over annually a certain sum for 
the support of these schools, while we find the municipalities making provision in 
one way or another for the same purpose. For instance, the second municipality 



♦This work was kindly lent me by Mr. Wm. Beer, Librarian of the Howard Library. 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 237 

passed an ordinance to the effect that all excess of fees received by the harbor mas- 
ter over and above the salary allowed by law should be devoted to the support of 
public schools, adding that the only requisites for admission to the schools should 
be good behavior, regular attendance and cleanliness. Three years later one of the 
municipalities raised by taxation and other methods the sum of $11,000 for its 
schools. 

At first the schools met with some opposition, but before two years had passed 
the pupils came crowding in to enjoy the advantages offered them. High schools 
were established to supplement the primary instruction. The number of pupils 
increased from 950 in 1842 to 6,385 in 1850, while the white population increased 
only about 31,000. Thus, after only a short period of probation, the public schools of 
New Orleans were established on the sound basis of perfect equality to all whites 
and of at least a partial dependence on local taxation. The advance in this latter 
direction was of special importance; for it is safe to say that no community ever 
failed to patronize schools supported even partly by self-imposed taxes. 

The new constitution of 1845, taking its cue from the free public schools of 
New Orleans, established similar ones throughout the State, though dissimilar 
conditions in the country prevented them from meeting with similar success. 
Moreover, it provided for a new system of management. Up to this time the Sec- 
retary of State, in addition to other manifold duties, had been required to take 
charge of the educational affairs of the State ; but from this time on we are to see 
a State Superintendent of Education devoting his time and energies to the estab- 
lishment of an extensive system of schools and making regular reports to the 
General Assembly. The first man appointed to this high office was a ripe scholar, 
an experienced teacher, and a brilliant orator. The schools of New Orleans, as 
well as throughout Louisiana, soon began to feel the vivifying influence of Alexan- 
der Dimitry's strong personality, and the whole State has reason to revere the 
memory of this first superintendent.* 

In his first report (1848), Mr. Dimitry gives an instructive account of the 
progress of education in New Orleans, as well as in the State at large. In the city, 
he states, the third municipality (between Esplanade and Lake Borgne) had not 
carried its public schools beyond the grade of sound primary instruction, but the 



*Mr. Dimitry had been superintendent of the third municipality in the city. Among 
others prominent In the organization of the city schools, Prof. Fortler mentions S. J. 
Peters, Joshua Baldwin, Dr. Pieton, J. A. Maybin, Robt. McNair, Thos. Sloo and J. A. 
Shaw. The second municipality schools, under Shaw, were the most successful. 



238 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

first municipality (Vieux Quartier) had maintained a course of instruction in the 
French and English languages, demanding respective teachers and duplicate text- 
books for its schools. Moreover, high and intermediate schools for both sexes had 
been established, increasing the expense for teachers of higher qualifications and 
requiring text-books of greater cost. In the second municipality (American quar- 
ter) Mr. Dimitry calls attention to the ampleness of the school appliances, the 
organization of its high schools for boys and girls, the outlay for text-books and 
scientific apparatus procured at the public expense, and adds that these schools 
would not suffer by comparison with schools of a similar character in any part of 
the land. The three municipalities were then expending about $103,000 annually 
on their prosperous institutions. "Yet," says Mr. Dimitry, "when the schools were 
about to be established, the announcement was received by some with doubt, by 
others with ridicule, if not hostility. When the schools of the second municipality 
were opened in 1842, in spite of the fervor of directors, in spite of personal appeals 
and exhortations to parents, not more than thirteen pupils appeared on the benches, 
out of a minor population more than three thousand strong." In 1848 public sen- 
timent had totally changed. "The thousands that now bless the existence of these 
schools will tell us what vigorous efforts and extended perseverance will do in behalf 
of a cause noble enough in itself to command friends that will not be balked." 

Under Dimitry and his successors, the schools of New Orleans continued to 
prosper. As early as 1853. Superintendent Nicholas had recommended the estab- 
lishment of a normal school, declaring that there was none in the United States 
and only one in Canada. Finally, in 1858, largely through the exertions of Hon. 
William 0. Rogers, then superintendent of the First district schools, now secretary 
of Tulane University, a normal school, the first in Louisiana, was opened in New 
Orleans. It continued to be an important element in our educational development 
until the civil war put an end to its usefulness. It may be well to mention here 
that in 1852 the three municipalities of the city were consolidated, but the three 
school districts, with separate boards and superintendents, were kept distinct, and 
in 1852 a fourtli, that of Lafayette, was added. This arrangement continued until 
the second year of the civil war. 

PRIVATE INSTITUTIONS. 

While the public schools of the city were making rapid progress in niimbers 
and in efficiency, there seems to have been no dearth of private schools. When once 
the enthusiasm of the people for education is aroused, the private and the public 
institutions will enter into a generous rivalry, and will be of mutual benefit. 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 239 

In 18-14 Mr. Lewis Elkin, proprietor of the Orleans High School, situated on 
Esplanade avenue, transferred this institution to Messieurs Mervoyer, Wyndham, 
and Everett, who had been professors in the defunct Jefferson College of St. James 
parish. These three gentlemen offered to the public all the branches of a liberal 
education. Besides the directors, who taught the classics, English and history, 
there were named in the prospectus Macmanus, professor of Mathematics ; Fuentes, 
professor of Spanish and bookkeeping; S. Rouen, professor of French; Varney, 
professor of music ; Jaume, professor of drawing ; and Devoti, professor of dancing. 

In October, 1853, one of the New Orleans journals announced that the College 
of Louisiana, wliich had been established on Dauphine street at great expense by 
M. Louis Dufau, had been removed to St. James parish, and had taken possession 
of the buildings of the ex- Jefferson College. The buildings vacated on Dauphine 
street, it was added, would be occupied by the Young Ladies' Academy of Mme. 
Deron. The same journal announced that an institution under the title of Audu- 
bon College, was about to be established by Professor Simon Rouen. 

Professor Rouen was the most distinguished professor of French in New 
Orleans at this period. We have seen that he was professor of this language in the 
Orleans High School. He had also been principal of the Boys' High School in the 
Second district. In 1853 he opened his college, named in honor of the great Lou- 
isiana naturalist, at the corner of Dumaine and Burgundy streets. Here he taught 
for six years, when, on account of ill health, he transferred the institution to Pro- 
fessor Lavender. Audubon College was opened to pupils all the year around, there 
being only a brief vacation at the end of August. The institution was so popular 
that at one time it enrolled aa many as three hundred pupils, drawn from the best 
Creole families. The course of instruction was thorough in every respect, the prin- 
cipal being assisted by Professors Auchmuty in history, English and mathematics; 
Battier in mathematics, Durel in English and arithmetic, Darot in French, De 
Tornos in Spanish, Gittermann in German and Greek, Glynn in English, Gaunt 
in penmanship. The professor of drawing was the distinguished architect, J. N. 
De Pouilly. 

During and after the civil war. Professor Eouen continued to teach French in 
other institutions of the city. 

At this time one of the best institutions for young ladies was kept by Miss 
Hull. To this excellent school many of the elderly ladies of New Orleans still look 
back with tender recollections. During the same period the Library and Lyceum 
Association, established largely by the efforts of Mr. N. R. Jennings, was an 
important factor in educational development. 



240 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

THIRD PERIOD. 

In 1862 New Orleans fell into the hands of the Federals, and when General 
Butler took command of the city, he consolidated the four school districts then 
existing and brought all the schools under one management. Under the new condi- 
tions this was doubtless a wise provision, for different text-books were used in the 
various districts; the French language was used as the medium of instruction in 
some of the schools below Canal street, and there was much confusion when parents 
moved from one district to another. From this time on we find a general uniformity 
in methods and management. 

Moreover, the slaves within Federal lines were all freed January 1, 1863, and 
it was necessary to make provision for their education. The first public schools for 
negroes were established in 1863 under General Banks, then in command of the 
Department of the Gulf. In 1864 he issued General Order No. 38, which consti- 
tuted a board of education "for the rudimental education of the freedmen in his 
department, so as to place ^vithin their reach the elements of knowledge." In 1865 
the Freedman's Bureau was created. Besides other e.xtraordinarj' powers, this board 
was to cooperate with the military authorities, and free transportation was furnished 
to teachers, books, and school furniture. Under this Bureau large sums, it is not 
known how large, were expended for schools in New Orleans. 

The first superintendent of the public schools of New Orleans under the con- 
solidated system was J. B. Carter, a Union man, who served until 1865. In this year 
Mr. William 0. Rogers succeeded to the office, and held it for five years. The first 
report of Mr. Rogers (186?) shows that he had many difficulties to contend with, 
but that he labored diligently to increase the number of school buildings and to 
bring order and system out of the existing chaotic conditions. White and colored 
pupils were duly provided for, and the number of the latter alone rose in 1868 to 
4,403, with fifty-two teachers. During the latter part of Mr. Rogers' administra- 
tion, however, the "carpet-bag" adventurers came into power, and extreme recon- 
struction measures were put into force. One of these measures was Rule No. 39, 
passed by the Board of Education April 8, 1870, admitting colored pupils to the 
white schools, in accordance with a law of the "carpet-bag" Legislature. This rule 
aroused the bitterest feelings of opposition in New Orleans, and in spite of the 
exertions of State Superintendent Conway, who rendered himself obnoxious by his 
ill-advised efforts, it was found impossible to enforce it. The agitation did not cease 
until some years later, when separate schools were provided for the two races. Mr. 
Rogers, however, witlulrcw, and became the founder of a new system of parochial 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 241 

schools for whites, in connectiou with the Sylvester-Lamed Institute for giris. 
This venture, which was supported by the Presbyterian churches of the city, proved 
a success. 

His successor as superintendent of the Xew Orleans schools was Mr. J. B. 
Carter, who in this second incumbency, served from 1870 until 1873, when he was 
superseded by Captain C. W. Boothby, who is now (1900) the superintendent of 
the United States branch mint in New Orleans. 

This was a period of storm and stress. Superintendent Boothby was person- 
ally opposed to mixed schools, and tried in every way to tide over the troubles that 
arose under the law permitting this unfortunate condition of affairs. Under Cap- 
tain Boothby's administration the number of colored pupils rose to 7,000, and the 
school accommodations were taxed to such an extent that he urged the use of the 
McDonogh fund for the erection of new buildings. The school board at this time 
was composed of the Hon. Michael Hahn, Albert Shaw and others. Acting on the 
suggestion of Captain Boothby, the board erected six McDonogh buildings, having 
together a seating capacity of 3,600 pupils. This enabled the city to dispense with 
a number of inferior school houses, for which a high rent had been paid. The su- 
perintendent, while exerting himself for this extension of facilities, received effi- 
cient aid from Professor J. V. Calhoun, the present State Superintendent of 
Education, whom he appointed assistant superintendent; and from Professor War- 
ren Easton, whom he appointed principal of one of the important schools under his 
care. At the close of his term in 1877, Superintendent Boothby left 26,000 pupils 
in the schools, under 450 teachers. 

In 1877 "the Carpet Bag" government ceased to exist in Louisiana. It is 
needless to repeat here the record of high taxes, enormous debts, and general 
pillage that marked its career in Louisiana. Under the new Democratic administra- 
tion we may point with pride to one of the first acts of the General Assembly. 
It was as follows : 

"The education of all classes of the people being essential to the preservation 
of free institutions, we do declare our solemn purpose to maintain a system of 
public schools by an equal and uniform taxation upon property, as provided in 
the Constitution of the State; which shall secure the education of the white and 
the colored citizens with equal advantages. 

"Louis Bush, Speaker. 

"L. A. WiLTz, Lieutenant Governor. 

"Francis T. Nicholls, Governor." 



242 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

In New Orleans William 0. Rogers was once more called to the office of City 
Superintendent. He continued to render valuable services to the schools until 
1884, when he resigned to accept a position in Tulane University. The records 
of that day show that Mr. Rogers received from the School Board the highest 
praise for his long and faithful services in behalf of the schools of New Orleans. 
He was succeeded by Professor Ulric Bettison, now professor of mathematics in 
the Sophie Newcomb College, who labored zealously for the advancement of the 
public schools. In 1887 the present incumbent, Hon. Warren Easton became 
superintendent. The record of the city schools during the past thirteen years is 
a witness to the wisdom of his management. 

The Constitution of 1879 made but scanty provision for the support of 
public education; but the present Constitution made a most satisfactory change 
for the better by allowing local taxation to supplement the general tax. This 
change, which was demanded by the people of the State, insures the future pros- 
perity of the public school system. 

The present condition of the schools of Now Orleans is better than at any 
previous time in the history of the city. Much praise is due to the efforts of 
the School Board under the presidency of the Hon. E. B. Kruittscnitt, who has 
during many years shown himself the devoted friend of public education. 

McDonogh High School* No. 1, for boys, under the charge of Principal F. 
W. Gregory, offers an excellent course of preparation for Tulane and other 
colleges ; while the two High Schools for girls, under Mrs. Lusher and Miss Suydam, 
respectively, are doing valuable work. The Normal School, under Miss Marion 
Brown, has a band of nearly one hundred young women, who are being trained 
as teachers. 

The total enrollment of the public schools in October, 1899, was 23,886, 
of whom 20,257 were white. Since the beginning of the scholastic year the 
attendance has largely increased. 



•The schools of New Orleans owe a debt of gratitude to John McDonogh, an eccentric 
old bachelor, who died in 1850, leaving a large amount of property to the cities of Balti- 
more and New Orleans for free schools. Most of the handsome school buildings that 
adorn our city have been built from the proceeds of this fund. The history of the 
donor and of the fund which he bequeathed forms one of the most interesting episodes 
in the history of Louisiana. 

Among the benefactions to education in New Orleans mention should also be made 
of the Howard and Fisk Libraries, which render invaluable aid to the pupils of public 
and private schools. 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 243 

PRIVATE SCHOOLS AND COLLEGES. 

Under Period II of the Public School System, some mention was made of 
the various private schools and academies that flourished before the Civil War. 
The existing institutions of New Orleans are now to be described, and as some of 
them trace their origin back to ante-bellum days, they will serve further to 
illustrate the educational advantages of that period. 

The College of the Immaculate Conception. — This institution was established 
in 1847 by the Jesuit Fathers, soon after they returned to New Orleans at the 
invitation of Archbishop Blanc. The College opened in 1849 with ten pro- 
fessors and one hundred pupils. Up to the Civil War the number of pupils 
averaged about two hundred and fifty. Some years ago the fine building at the 
corner of Baronne and Common streets was erected, and at the present time (1900) 
a handsome building is rising on the north side of Jesuit Church from funds 
donated to the Fathers by a prominent Catholic family. 

The course of study includes the primary, the high school, the college, and 
the post-graduate department. There is also a preparatory department, to which 
are admitted pupils that can spell and read, and are familiar with the elements 
of arithmetic. The Catholic religion alone is taught, but non-Catholics are 
received, and "their religious feelings carefully respected." The officers of the 
institution in 1900 were as follows : Rev. John Brislan, S. J., President ; Rev. 
S. F. Bertels, S. J., Vice-President; Rev. Claude Roch, S. J., Secretary; Rev. N. 
Davis, S. J., Treasurer; Rev. A. Curioz, S. J., Chaplain. There are also sixteen 
professors of the different branches taught. The College numbers among its 
graduates a large number of the distinguished Catholic citizens of New Orleans. 

The Soule Commercial and Literary Institute. — This institution was estab- 
lished by its present President in 1856, and the course of instruction was at first 
designed to give only a commercial training. Up to the Civil War the school 
prospered, but at that period the principal entered the Confederate army, and 
served till the close of the conflict. In 1865 Colonel Soule reopened his school. 
In 1870 a department of English studies was added. Since then the institution 
has expanded until at present it includes: (1) A preparatory or intermediate 
school for pupils of 8 to 13. (2) A higher English school for older pupils. (3). 
An academic school preparing pupils for Tulane. (4) A full high grade com- 
mercial school. (5) A school of shorthand and typewriting. In 1884 the school 
became co-educational. The average attendance is four hundred and seventy-five 



244 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

annually. There are eleven professors, two of whom are the sons of the president, 
Albert Lee and Edward E. Soule, both graduates of Cornell. The institution has 
grown with the needs of the community, and offers a practical education to the 
young. 

Spencer's Business College and Institute of Shorthand. — This school, whicli 
occupies a portion of the Y. M. C. A. building, was established in 1897 by Prof. 
L. C. Spencer. At first there were but eleven pupils, but the attendance grew so 
rapidly that at present there are about one hundred and fifty. Though this 
school is essentially a business college, covering the various branches necessary 
to a commercial education, there is a preparatory department for the training of 
those not qualified to enter upon more advanced work. In the commercial 
course the pupils learn to deal with business papers precisely as in the actual 
business world. Instruction is also given in shorthand and typewriting. In the 
Summer of 1899 Professor Spencer adopted a plan of giving free instruction 
during a portion of the Summer months to as many pupils as he can accommodate. 

The New Orleans College of Dentistry. — This college, at the corner of Caron- 
delet and Lafayette streets, was opened November the sixth, 1899, and is the 
first institution of its kind in the Gulf States. It is incorporated, and is author- 
ized to confer degrees. The Dean is Jules J. Sarrazin, D. D. S., who is assisted by 
an able faculty. 

The Home Institute. — This institution, which is situated at 1446 Camp street, 
was established in 1883 by Miss Sophie B. Wright. From a very humble begin- 
ning the school has grown until it now has an attendance of one hundred and 
fifty to one hundred and seventy-five young ladies. It has a day and a boarding 
department. The institute is designed to give to young women the benefits of 
higher education. Much stress is laid upon the development of character, while 
the physical and the social sides of education are carefully looked after. Among 
the various studies Music and French are taught with special thoroughness. 

Miss Wright began a noble work in New Orleans when, in 1887, she opened 
a night school for boys and men. In this department free instruction is given to 
those who are self-supporting, but who are unable to attend any day school. 
This charitable undertaking, supported wholly by Miss Wright and some of her 
friends, has proved a great success. It is the largest free night school in New 
Orleans, and twelve hundred men and boys are now enrolled. Only seven hundred 
and fifty can be accommodated at a time, but by alternating, all are taught a cer- 
tain number of evenings in each week. One of the most interesting scenes in 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 245 

New Orleans is presented by this band of earnest students, when they assemble 
in the evening to enjoy the advantages of instruction under the skilful management 
of Miss Wright and her corps of assistants. 

The University School, No. 1923 Coliseum street, is conducted by Professor 
T. W. Dyer. It was established in 1883-. Employing excellent methods of 
instruction, Professor Dyer has been very successful, and his school is the largest 
private school for boys in the city. The course of instruction includes a thorough 
preparation for Tulane University and other similar institutions. To the regular 
school curriculum is added a military drill. 

Ferrell's School for Boys, at 2717 Coliseum street, was established by Pro- 
fessor L. C. Terrell in 1890. The curriculum includes Mathematics, English, 
physical sciences, French, Latin and Greek. The boys "are forced to study Latin, 
and persuaded to study Greek." About ninety per cent of the graduates of this 
school attend Tiilane University and other higher institutions of learning. The 
school is popular and successful. 

Rugby Academy, situated at 5419 St. Charles avenue, was established in 
1894 by Professors J. H. Eapp and W. Edward Walls, two graduates of Tulane 
University. It was first known as Rugby School, but in 1897 it assumed its present 
title. In the same year a military department was introduced. In 1898 Professor 
Eapp withdrew, and the administration of the Academy was reconstructed with 
Professors Jones and Walls as associate principals, and Professor Guy S. Ray- 
mond as Registrar, all three being equal partners. There are three departments, 
primary, grammar and academic, each requiring three years' study. Mrs. J. Oscar 
Nixon is principal of the primary department, and Captain J. C. Daspit is instruc- 
tor in French and military tactics. The graduates of this academy stand well at 
Tulane and other institutions of like grade. 

Among other schools may be mentioned Professor H. S. Chenet's school for 
boys, established in 1892; the Chapman-Blake institute for young women; the 
school for girls and young women, conducted by the Misses Prentiss; Mrs. Seaman's 
school; the Holy Cross College for Boys, of which the Reverend D. J. Spillard is 
President; the Academy of the Sacred Heart, conducted by Catholic Sisters; and 
the Ursuline School, which is completing the one hundred and seventy-third year 
of its existence. 

The Free Kindergartens. — New Orleans is much interested in the free Kin- 
dergarten movement that is sweeping over the country. For a number of years 
there have been Kindergarten features in the lower grades of some of the public 



246 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

schools, in the Jewish Orphans" Home, and other institutions. Moreover, excellent 
private Kindergartens have been conducted by Mrs. Kate Seaman and Miss 
Waldo. But within the last few years several of these institutions have been 
established by private subscription in the poorest districts of the city, where they 
can draw pupils from homes that need the uplifting influences of such schools. 
They stand between the private and the public schools, in that they are supported 
by private funds and yet are open to all. 

Children are admitted even at the tender age of three, before they could enter 
the public schools ; for it has been found that at this impressionable age much can 
be done in training the head, the heart and the hand. Wonderful results have 
been accomplished in other cities, and New Orleans has been aroused to the im- 
portance of saving from the effects of evil surroundings the little children of this 
great city, and trying to lead them to a higher life. The parents of the children 
are drawn into the movement by their visits to the schools where their children 
are taught, homes are made happier, and the benign influence of noble teachers 
is spread through districts which neither the public nor private schools could 
ever reach. 

The schools already established are the Jurgens Free Kindergarten, the Michel 
Heymann Free Kindergarten, the Sophie C. Hart Free Kindergarten, the Diocesan 
Free Kindergarten (under the auspices of Christ's Church), the Palmer Free 
Kindergarten (under the auspices of the First Presbyterian Church) and the 
Mission Colored Kindergarten. 

Among those who were most prominent in beginning this work should be 
mentioned J. Watts Kearny, Clarence F. Low, George MeC. Derby, Michel Hey- 
mann, Mrs. J. L. Harris, Mrs. Bessie L. Kidder, Mrs. Ashton Phelps, and Mrs. 
H. D. Forsyth. 

There is also a Free Kindergarten Association, of which Professor J. H. 
Dillard is president. This association has a training school for Kindergarteners, 
under Miss Katharine Hardy, which offers a two years' course of training to those 
wishing to undertake this important branch of work. Many of its graduates are 
already "abroad." While accomplisliing splendid results in the slums of the city, 
tlie Free Kindergartens will tend to improve the methods employed in similar 
grades of the public schools. 

Institution for the Colored. — There are in New Orleans four universities, or 
more properly, colleges, for the education of the colored youth. 

Leland University. — This institution is situated at the corner of St. Charles 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 247 

avenue and Audubon street. It possesses ten acres of land, on which two large 
brick buildings have been erected. It was founded in 1870 by Holbrook Cham- 
berlain, of Brooklyn, New York, a retired shoe merchant. Mr. Chamberlain came 
to New Orleans in 1870, purchased the property, erected the buildings, and gave 
his attention to the financial affairs of the institution for twelve years. In this 
work he received considerable aid from the Freedman's Bureau and the American 
Baptist Home Mission Society. At liis death, in 1883, it was found that he had 
bequeathed his property, amounting to $95,000, as a fund for the continuation of 
the good work. Other contributions to its support have been made, and in May, 

1899, Mr. Charles M. Pratt, of New York, gave to the endowment fund the sum 
of $25,000. 

The course of instruction is cliiefly collegiate and normal, with an English 
preparatory department. All instruction is free, except for instrumental music; 
but a small fee is charged to the day students for fuel and the care of the rooms. 
About ten years ago the number of pupils from the country increased so rapidly, 
that the accommodations were found insufficient, and it was decided to raise 
the standard of admission, and to establish "a system of auxiliary schools in the 
country for preparatory work." The schools already admitted to this relationship 
have an attendance of about 600, and others are forming. 

The control of the University is in the hands of a Board of Trustees, residing 
in New Orleans and New York, and to an executive committee, consisting of the 
president and several prominent citizens of New Orleans. Eeverend E. C. Mitchell, 
who had been president of the institution for thirteen years, died February 2Gth, 

1900, and Principal G. H. Felton is now the acting president. 

Straight University. — This institution was established in 1869 under 
the auspices of the American Missionary Association. Among its early benefactors 
was Seymour Straight, a produce merchant of New Orleans, in whose honor the 
University was named. The first college building was erected, in 1870, on Espla- 
nade avenue, corner of Burgundy, and when this building was destroyed by fire, 
the University was moved to its present location, corner of Canal and Tonti. 
Tliis school, established only a few years after the general emancipation of the 
slaves, at first attracted pupils by the thousand. They all came hoping to receive 
some benefit — they knew not what. Many of them remained only a few days, but 
gradually regular attendance was established. 

In 1881, Mrs. V. S. Stone, of Massachusetts, gave the institution $25,000. 
Other donations followed, and handsome buildings arose to fill the needs of the 



248 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

University. la 1886 an industrial department, aided largely by the Slater fund, 
was established, and from 1876 to 1886 a law school was successfully conducted. 
From the latter were graduated in all seventy-four young men, some of whom were 
white. It was finally decided to close this department, and there is now no law 
school for colored youth nearer than Washington, D. C. 

In 1890 a theological department was established under the direction of 
Reverend Geo. W. Henderson. The other dejiartmeuts arc the college, the college 
preparatory, the normal, the grammar, the industrial, and the Daniel Hand pre- 
paratory. Since 1890 the president has been Professor Oscar Atwood, who has 
labored diligently for the advancement of the University. The whole number 
of graduates has been 119, and the total attendance for 1898-9 was 509. 

New Orleans University. This institution, which was chartered by Act of 
the General Assembly in 1873, is really an outgrowth of the Union Normal School, 
established in 1869 by the Freedman's Bureau. A board of trustees was ap- 
pointed, and it was provided that not less than two-thirds of the board should be 
members of the Methodist Episcopal Church. The University was at first situated 
on the corner of Camp and Eace streets, but in 1884 the present location on St. 
Charles avenue was chosen, and a five story brick building was erected. The 
present president of the Board of Trustees is the Rev. S. Duncan, and the presi- 
dent of the Faculty since 1887 is the Reverend L. G. Adkinson. 

In 1889 a Medical Department was added, and in the following year a Medical 
Building was erected at the corner of Canal and Robertson streets, which is open 
to both races and both sexes. The other departments are the preparatory, the 
primary, the grammar, the normal, the collegiate, and the theological (Methodist). 
The total number of students in 1899 was 365. 

Southern University (State Institution). In the Constitution of 1879 

provision was made for the establishment in New Orleans of a University for the 

higher education of the colored youth. The first Board of Trustees was appointed 

in 1881. The first two presidents of the University were colored men, and during 

their terms of office, only primary instruction was given, and the institution was 

far from successful. In 1883, Reverend J. H. Harrison, white, a graduate of 

Vandcrl>ilt, was elected President, and tlie scliool made progress. Still greater 

progress has been made under Professor H. A. Hill, who has been president since 

1887. 

Until 1890, the University was supported entirely by appropriations from 

the State treasury, but in that year an Agricultural and Mechanical Department 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 249 

was added, and in this way some assistance was obtained from the United States 
Government. Moreover, a farm of one hundred acres, fronting on the Mississippi 
River, is now cultivated under the management of the University. The other de- 
partments are the grammar school, the high school, the normal school, the music 
department, and the college. It is expected that a law and medical department 
will be added as soon as the funds of the University permit. The total attendance 
in 1899 was 414. The buildings of the institution are situated on handsome grounds 
at the corner of Magazine and Soniat streets. 

TULANE UNIVERSITY OF LOUISIANA. 

It seems fitting that this chapter on the history of education in New Orleans 
should end with a sketch of the Tulane University of Louisiana; for this institu- 
tion of learning not only connects the Past with the Present, but is generally 
regarded as representing the highest expression that the educational development 
of tlie city and the State has thus far reached. 

The oldest department of what is now Tulane University is the Medical 
College. Its organization dates back to the year 1834; it was chartered in the 
following year, and has the honor of being the iirst Medical College in Louisiana 
or in the Southwest to confer degrees. As we trace its long and illustrious career 
in Louisiana, we find that it has numbered in its Faculty many of the most 
distinguished doctors of the State. Its first faculty included the names of Thomas 
Hunt, Charles A. Luzenburg, J. Monro Mackie, A. H. Cenas, E. H. Darton, 
Thos. R. Ingalls, John H. Harrison, and Warren Stone. Among their successors 
were Drs. T. 6. Eichardson, Sam Logan, Albert B. Miles, James Jones, J. L. 
Riddell and Joseph Jones. The present faculty consists of the following professors, 
aided by fifteen lecturers, demonstrators, etc. : Stanford E. Chaille, M. D., Dean, 
Professor of Physiology, Hygiene and Pathological Anatomy; Ernest S. Lewis, 
M. D., Professor of General and Clinical Obstetrics and Diseases of Women and 
Children; John B. Elliott, M. D., Professor of the Theory and Practice of Medicine 
and Clinical Medicine; Edmond Souchon, M. D., Professor of Anatomy and 
Clinical Surgery; Louis F. Eeynaud, M. D., Professor of Materia Medica, 
Therapeutics and Clinical Medicine; Rudolph Matas, M. D., Professor of General 
and Clinical Surgery; A. L. Metz, M. Ph., M. D., Professor of Chemistry and 
Medical Jurisprudence. The total number of its enrolled students down to the 
year 1899 was 12,753. This department of the University ofFers unusual advan- 
tages to its students through its connection with the great Charity Hospital and 



2 so STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

the Milliken Memorial for children. Here the students have unrivaled facilities 
for studying the practical side of the healing art. 

In 1893, through the generosity of Mrs. T. G. Eichardson, the Medical De- 
partment came into possession of a splendidly equipped modern building on Canal 
street, and in this its lectures are now given. The faculty, though nominally 
forming a part of the University faculty, is practically autonomous. 

The Law Department. The Law Department begins its history somewhat 
later than the Medical. Though it was not organized until 1847, it has had an 
honorable career, and has numbered in its faculty many of the most eminent law- 
yers of the Louisiana bar. As the course of instruction must lay special stress 
on the civil law, which is peculiar to Louisiana, this department has not been able 
to draw students from other States, and the attendance has never been very 
large. Nevertheless its graduates up to the present time have been more than nine 
hundred in number. 

Among the professors of this department in the past we find the following 
names: Professor of Constitutional Law, Commercial Law, and the Law of Evi- 
dence, Randell Hunt, LL. D., emeritus rector (1847); Professors of Civil Law, 
Henry Adams Bullard (1847), Christian Eoselius, LL. D. (1850), Thomas Jeffer- 
son Semmes (1873), Carleton Hunt, LL. D. (1879), James B. Eustis (1883), 
Henry Denis (1884) ; Professors of Common Law and Equity Jurisprudence, 
Richard Henry Wilde (1847), Thomas Benton Monroe (1847), Sydney L. John- 
son (1852), Alfred Hennen (1855), Thomas Allen Clarke, LL. D. (1870), William 
Francis Mellen, LL. D., dean (1878) ; Lecturer on Common Law and Equity 
Jurisprudence, Daniel Mayes (1851) ; Professors of Admiralty and International 
Law, Theodore Howard McCaleb, LL. D. (1847), Alfred Philips, LL. B. (1865), 
Carleton Hunt, LL. B. (1869), Charles E. Schmidt (1879), Henry Carleton 
Miller (1882). 

The present faculty is composed of Henry Denis, Professor of Civil Law and 
Lecturer on the Land Laws of the United States; Thomas C. W. Ellis, Professor 
of Admiralty and International Law; Frank Adair Monroe, Professor of Com- 
mercial Law and the Law of Corporations; Harry Hinckley Hall, Dean, and Pro- 
fessor of Criminal Law, the Law of Evidence, and of Practice under the Code of 
Practice of Louisiana; Eugene L. Saunders, Professor of Constitutional Law, Com- 
mon Law and Equity. 

Academic Department. This department was opened in 1846 in a building 
which stood at the corner of Common street and University place, and which was 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 251 

afterwards the home of the hivv department. Although some distinguished scholars 
were elected to the various chairs, the Academic Department was poorly supported, 
and had a precarious and unsuccessful career down to the time of the Civil War. 
Its many vicissitudes during this period form a sad story, which it is not possible 
to record in this chapter. The war and the trials of the Eeconstruction period 
prevented any attempt at a revival of this department. In 1877, however, wiion 
the government of the State had been restored to the Democrats, Governor Nicholls 
appointed a board of administrators for the University, with Judge John H. Ken- 
nard as president. This board reopened the Academic Department in 1878, with 
R. H. Jesse as Dean, and a faculty composed of J. L. Cross, M. P. Julian, and 
R. B. Montgomery. To this faculty, later on, were added some of the present pro- 
fessors of Tulane University. 

The Constitution of 1879 recognized the University of Louisiana in its three 
departments of law, medical, and academic; and declared that the General Assem- 
bly should make appropriations for the maintenance and support of the same, 
but that the amount appropriated should not exceed $10,000 a year. 

A high school was established as a feeder to the College, and of this depart- 
ment the first principal was Alcee Forticr; the second was L. C. Reed, with whom 
J. R. Ficklen served later as associate principal. Under the energetic management 
of the Board of Administrators and Dean R. H. Jesse, the academic department 
enjoyed a considerable measures of success. As, however, it received only a 
moderate sum from the State, and had to depend upon tuition fees for further 
support, it often found itself much cramped for means. 

In 1883 a wider field was opened to the old university through the benefieence 
of Paul Tulane, of Princeton, N. J. Mr. Tulane had spent more than fifty years 
of his life in New Orleans, and had acquired there a large fortune. In 1881 he 
sent for Senator R. L. Gibson, of Louisiana, and offered him a considerable amount 
of property to be used for the education of the white youth of Louisiana. Senator 
Gibson accepted the trust, and later on became the president pf the first Board of 
Administrators. 

By act of the Legislature of the year 1884, the University of Louisiana was 
transferred to and merged in the Tulane University of Louisiana. Of this institu- 
tion, an accomplished scholar and knightly gentleman. Colonel William Preston 
Johnston, became president, organizing it on a very different basis from that of 
the old university, and presiding over it with wisdom and ability until his death 
in 1899. Retaining the professors of the former institution, President Johnston 



2 52 STANDARD HISTORY OP NEW ORLEANS. 

called others to his aid, and soon began to broaden the scope of the Academic 
Department. He organized a University Department of Philosophy and Science, 
a Collegiate Department, and a High School, "as a temporary adjunct." The last 
department was now placed under the control of Headmaster A. D. Hurt, who 
conducted it with marked success until its abolition in 1894. In the same year 
Tulane College was divided into a College of Arts and Sciences and a College 
of Technology, each presided over by a dean. To these subdivisions were added at 
a later period an art department and a department for the higher education of 
teachers. On the 27th of January, 1894, the corner-stone of the present home of 
the Academic Department was laid on the extensive grounds purchased for the 
purpose just opposite to Audubon Park. 

When the University of Louisiana was merged into Tulane, the State cut 
off the appropriation of $10,000, which for five years it had given to that institu- 
tion. The present university, therefore, receives no direct aid from the State, 
but it is aided indirectly by a constitutional exemption from taxation on all its 
property. In return for this important privilege, the Academic Department offers 
to the white youth of the State 226 tree scholarships, the equivalent in tuition fees 
of $24,150, far more than the amount of the exemption. Moreover, to graduates, 
both male and female, and to teachers in the Teachers' Department the courses 
of the university are offered free of charge. 

The line of demarcation is sharply drawn between College and University 
work. In the former only the baccalaureate degrees are given; in the latter the 
higher degrees of A. M., C. E., and Ph. D. are conferred. 

The government of the Academic Department has one feature worthy of 
special remark. Each of the four classes in the college elects a president, a vice- 
president, and a secretary. These twelve students form what is called the Academic 
Board. To this Board, of which the president of the Senior class is ex-officio presi- 
dent, is largely intrusted the discipline of the College. To it are referred all ques- 
tions touching the honor of the College or the violation of rules and regulations 
(except absences and neglect of work, which are cared for by the deans). Its 
decisions are sent to the president of the University, who approves them or sends 
them to the faculty for review. The student affected may also appeal from the 
decision to the faculty. Very seldom does the faculty find it necessary to do more 
than advise a reconsideration by the board. This method of self-government, 
instituted by President Johnston, has met with remarkable success. As an effect 
of this system and other causes the students of Tulane bear an enviable reputation 
for good order and gentlemanly conduct. 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 253 

One of the greatest needs of the university has been a large library. The 
present one contains about 15,000 volumes — a number far below the necessities of 
the students and the professors. Among the benefactors of this department men- 
tion should be made of Mrs. Charles Conrad, who has presented the law library 
of her husband, the late Charles Conrad; and Mrs. Caroline Tilton, who has re- 
cently (1900) given the Administrators the sum of $50,000 to erect a library 
building in memory of her husband. 

The administrators of the University* and the faculty of the Academic 
Department are as follows : Board of Administrators — Charles Erasmus Fenner, 
President; James McConnell, First Vice President; Robert Miller Walmsley, Sec- 
ond Vice President; Edgar Howard Parrar, Benjamin M. Palmer, D. D. LL. D., 
Walter Robinson StaufEer, Cartwright Eustis, Henry Ginder, Joseph C. Morris, 
George Quintard Whitney, John B. Levert, Walter C. Flower, Ashton Phelps, 
Charles Janvier, Walker Brainerd Spencer, Beverley Warner, D. D., and Walter D. 
Denegre. Ex-OfScio — W. W. Hurd, Governor of Louisiana; Paul Capdevielle, 
Mayor of New Orleans, and Joseph V. Calhoun, State Superintendent of Public 
Education. Officers — E. A. Alderman, LL. D., President ; Joseph A. Hincks, Secre- 
tary and Treasurer of Board ; William 0. Rogers, LL. D., Secretary of the Uni- 
versity ; Richard K. Bruff, Assistant Secretary, and Miss Minnie Bell, Librarian. 

Faculty of the Academic Department — E. A. Alderman, LL. D., President of 
the University; William 0. Rogers, LL. D., Secretary of the University; J. 
Hanno Deiler, Professor of German; Alcee Fortier, D. Lt., Professor of Romance 
Languages; Brown Ayres, B. Sc, Ph. D., Professor of Physics; Robert Sharp, 
M. A., Ph. D., Professor of English; William Woodward, Professor of Drawing 
and Architecture; John R. Ficklen, B. Let., Professor of History and Political 
Science; John W. Caldwell, A. M., M. D., Professor of Chemistry and Geology; 
Brandt V. B. Dixon, A. M., LL. D., Professor of Psychology and Philosophy; G. 
E. Beyer, Acting Professor of Biology; J. H. Dillard, M. A., D. Lt., Professor of 
Latin; William Benjamin Smith, A. M., Ph. D., Professor of Mathematics; W. 
H. P. Creighton, U. S. N., Professor of Mechanical Engineering; Levi W. Wilkin- 
son, M. Sc, Professor of Sugar Chemistry ; Thomas Carter, A. B., B. D., Professor 
of Greek; Douglas S. Anderson, A- M., Associate Professor of Physics; John E. 



* Much of the history of Tulane University has been taken from an article by the 
late President Wm. Preston Johnston, published in Fay's "History of Education in 
Louisiana." For the description of the present institutions of New Orleans, the writer 
is largely indebted to data furnished by the publishers of this work. 



2 54 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

Lombard, M. E., Assistant Professor of Mathematics; George E. Beyer, Assistant 
Professor of Natural History; William P. Brown, A. M., Assistant Professor of 
English and Latin; B. P. Caldwell, A. B. Ch. E., Assistant Professor of Chemistry ; 
W. B. Gregory, M. E., Assistant Professor of Engineering and Mechanism; and 
H. F. Rugan, Assistant Professor of Mechanical Arts. 

THE H. SOPHIE NEWCOMB MEMORIAL COLLEGE. 

t 
I 

In 1886, there was added to Tulane University a new department. This is 
the H. Sophie Newcomb Memorial College for Young Women, established by Mrs. 
Josephine Louise Newcomb, in memory of her daughter. It occupies a square of 
ground on Washington avenue. Here spacious and artistic buildings have been 
erected for its use. The course of instruction includes the preparatory, the college, 
and the normal art. Physical education, also, forms a part of the college course. 
Its graduates are admitted to Tulane University on the same terms as its own 
graduates. Under the direction of the Board of Administrators and the admirable 
management of its president, Brandt V. B. Dixon, this college has won for itself an 
honored name in Louisiana. 

Its faculty for 1898-9 is as follows : The President of the University ; Brandt 
V. B. Dixon, A. M., LL. D., President of College, and Professor of Philosophy; 
John M. Ordway, A. M., Professor of Biology ; Ulric Bettison, Professor of Mathe- 
matics; Jennie C. Nixon, Professor of English and Rhetoric; Evelyn W. Ordway, 
B. S., Professor of Chemistry and Physics ; Marie J. Augustin, Professor of French ; 
Mary L. Harkness, A. M., Professor of Latin; Ellsworth Woodward, Professor of 
Drawing and Painting, and Director of Art Instruction; Gertrude R. Smith, As- 
sistant Professor of Drawing and Painting ; Frederick Wespy, Ph. D., Professor of 
Greek and German; Clara G. Baer, Professor of Physical Education; Mary C. 
Spencer, M. S., Professor of Physics ; Mary G. Sheerer, Assistant Professor in Art 
Department; Francis Devereux Jones, Instructor of Drawing; Katherine Kopman, 
Instructor of Drawing; L. J. Catlett, Principal of High School; Julia C. Logan, 
Instructor of English; Mattie M. Austin, Instructor of English; Kate A. Atkin- 
son, Instructor of Latin; Clarisse Cenas, Instructor of French; Alice Burt 
Sandidge, Instructor of Greek; Frank H. Simms, Director of Music; Leonora M. 
Cage, Secretary; Emma P. Randolph, Librarian; and Alice Bowman, Lady in 
Charge of Josephine Louise House. 

Students in all departments, 1899-1900 : University Department for Graduate 
work, 24; College of Arts and Sciences, 91; College of Technology, 87; Art De- 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 255 

partment, including Evening class, 80; Department for Teachers, 152; Newcomb, 
including High School and Art Department, 259 ; Law Department, 76 ; Medical 
Department, including 31 Pharmacy Students, 422. Total, 1,129. 

It is generally conceded that from the higher institutions of learning tlie 
secondary schools catch their inspiration, and that their progress depends upon 
the standard set by such institutions for success in their own courses of study. 
Tulane University feels this responsibility, and in all its departments, it is striving 
as rapidly as possible to raise the ideal of preparation throughout the city and 
country schools. 

Moreover, as its graduates pass out into the world, it appeals through them 
to the people of the State to recognize the benefits conferred upon the young 
citizens by the pursuit of the higher learning. It may be safely maintained that 
not only has the ability of the professional men of New Orleans been greatly 
developed by the labors of the university, but the city has found the presence of 
the university in its midst to be an important factor in improving the general tone 
of society. 

Authorities — Marie-Madeleine Hachard's Letters; Mother Mary Austin Car- 
roll's Essays; B. F. French's Collections No. 3; Gayarre's History of Louisiana; 
Martin's History of Louisiana ; R. M. Lusher's Sketch of Public Schools in Louis- 
iana Journal of Education; "Origin and Development of the Public School Sys- 
tem in Louisiana," by J. R. Ficklen (in U. S. Report of Education, 1894-5) ; 
Alcee Fortier's "Louisiana Studies;" Archives of the City Hall, Reports of the 
State Superintendents, and other educational documents in the Howard and Fisk 
libraries. 



CHAPTER X. 



OLD BURIAL PLACES. 



BY A. G. DURNO. 



AS HAS been repeatedly indicated elsewhere. New Orleans is situated in a 
marsh. Its greatest natural elevation above the sea level is 10 feet 8 
inches, which is artificially increased to 15 feet by the levee on the river 
bank. Half a mile back from the river the elevation is but little above the sea-level, 
so that, especially during high stages of the river, a large part of the city is 
below the natural water line. Strangers are always struck by the singular 
phenomenon of water running in the gutters away from the river, instead of towards 
it, as would seem natural. And not only is it necessary to fence out the water 
that flows past our doors, but the ground upon which we tread is not yet fully re- 
deemed from the dominion of that element, it being impossible to dig three feet 
without striking water. Under these circumstances it is readily seen that burial, 
as understood in more elevated localities, is out of the question in New Orleans. 
The method of interment adopted, therefore, is that of tombs built upon the surface, 
consisting usually of two vaults, with a lower vault for the reception of bones when 
it is desired to use the upper chambers a second time. These tombs are built of 
brick, covered with stucco, of stone, iron or marble. The tombs belonging to 
societies and benevolent orders are mausoleums of imposing proportions, and often 
beautified with statues and other ornamental sculptures. The older cemeteries, 
within the limits of the thickly built portions of the city are enclosed by thick walls, 
which are honeycombed with vaults called "ovens," each provided with a small 
arched opening closed with cement and a memorial tablet. These vaults, as well 
as those built upon the ground, are private property, and are handed down from 
generation to generation in the same family. The first cemetery in New Orleans, 
utilized during the days of Bienville, was situated beyond the fortifications to 
the north of the city, near what is now the corner of Bourbon and Esplanade. 
Bodies were there buried in the ground. 

The oldest of the walled cemeteries is known as the St. Louis Cemetery No. 1, 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 257 

and is the property of the Saint Louis Cathedral, having been acquired by that 
corporation by a French concession made in 174-t. This cemetery is 
thickly crowded with tombs which are huddled together without any attempt 
at orderly arrangement. The meager lots are separated only by narrow alleys, 
and no space has been spared to the ornamental plots of grass, shrubbery 
and flowers with which it is usual to surround the habitations of the dead. Many 
of the tombs are empty and falling to pieces, the tablets gone, or so worn by 
winter's storms and summer's heats that the inscriptions are no longer legible. 
Some of them, and these the oldest, appear never to have been furnished with 
tablets, their place being supplied by a small cross of wrought iron, upon which are 
rudely cut the name, age, and date of death. Even these are unexpectedly modern, 
the earliest date decipherable being 1800. This date occurs on two crosses, on one 

of which can be indistinctly traced the words : "Nanette de P. Bailly, 

Decedee le 24 — 1800." A slab laid upon the top of this tomb at a later date 
repeats the inscription, and fills up the hiatuses, at the same time commemorating 
the two children of "Nanette," who died in 1812. The lady was, according to the 
revised inscription : "Annette Cadin, femme de Pierre Bailly," and died, "Octobre 
24, 1800, agee de 45 ans." Two other crosses whose inscriptions are still legible 
bear the dates respectively of 1805, and 1811. On the others, two or three in 
number, the lettering is no longer visible. 

A small brick tomb, still in a fairly good state of preservation, bears the 
name of Jean Etienne Bore, noted in the industrial history of Louisiana as the 
first planter who succeeded in making sugar from cane grown in the colony. The 
tablet is at the base of the tomb, the upper chamber of which is occupied by the 
remains of his daughter and son-in-law, the mother and father of Charles Gayerr6, 
and the lower part of it is so sunken in the earth as to completely hide the record 
of his death. The upper part bears the inscription : 

Ici Repose 

Jean Etienne Bore 

Ne le 27 Decembre, 1741. 

Marie le 20 9bre, 1771. 

In this cemetery also is the Tomb of Daniel Clark, an Irishman who, coming to 
Louisiana early in the century, became a naturalized citizen of the United States, 
and, besides acquiring a large fortune, represented the State in Congress, and 
held other influential positions. But Clark's name is principally remembered as 
that of the reputed father of the famous Myra Clark Gaines, whose suit, as 



258 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

claimant of Clark's estate, is one of the "causes celebres" of the century. A long 
Latin inscription on the handsome slab that covers the tomb, which was erected 
by Richard Relf, friend and executor of the deceased, celebrates the virtues of 
Clark, and a tablet at the foot reiterates the claim of the redoubtable Myra, main- 
tained by her before hundreds of judges, throughout forty-eight years of litiga- 
tion, that she was the daughter of Daniel Clark and Zuleme Carriere, his lawful 
wife. Not far from the tomb of Clark and the woman who spent the best part of her 
life in trying to prove herself his daughter, sleeps Stephen Zacharie, founder of 
the first bank in the Mississippi Valley. The handsomest tomb in the cemetery 
is that of the Italian Society, a really magnificent structure built of white marble, 
in the form of a Maltese cross. A sculptured figure leaning upon a cross, symbolic 
of Religion, surmounts the mausoleum, and other life-size statues representing 
Italia and her famous children, occupy niches about the walls. This tomb cost 
$50,000, and is really a work of art, but its situation among the crowding vaults 
and narrow alleys prevents its beauty from being properly appreciated. 

The Layton family own the most spacious and well-kept plot of ground 
belonging to any one family within the walls, and divided from it by a rough 
board fence is what the sexton calls "the American part." Evidently the "Ameri- 
can" families who once buried their dead here have either become extinct, or have 
ceased to cherish the memory of their remote ancestors whose names are carved on 
the ruinous tombs. One of the most interesting tombs of this section is a square 
stone structure, mounted on a pediment and bearing on one face in low relief a 
sculptured scene, representing a mother and child reclining on a canopied couch, 
evidently in the article of death. At the foot of the couch kneels the grieving 
husband and father, and over the group hovers an angel with a palm branch, 
while below is graven the legend: "For the virtuous there is a better and a 
happier world." The face of the lady is entirely featureless, time having destroyed 
all the finer lines of the chisel. On the side to the right of this is a crumbling 
inscription of which nothing can be distinguished except the lower lines : "wife of 

W m C. C. Claiborne, Governor General of Louisiana, who died at New 

Orleans on the 27th of September, 1804, in the 21st year of her age." On the 
left face is graven: "Also of Cornelia Tenessee (sic) Claiborne, the only child 
of Eliza W. Claiborne, who died on the same day, aged three years," and on that 
opposite the sculpture: "Here also rests the body of Micajah Green Lewis, brother 
of Eliza W. Claiborne, and private secretary to Governor Claiborne, who fell in a 
duel, Feb'ry 14th, 1805, in the 25th year of his age." Young Lewis, it may be 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 259 

remarked here, died in his brother-in-law's quarrel, a political one. It is evident 
that nobody any longer cares for the tenants of this tomb, which shows every sign 
of neglect — its ornamental corners broken, its seams gaping, its inscriptions 
partially obliterated. Quite near stands another and more pretentious tomb, of 
monumental proportions, and well kept up, which, after once more assuring the 
visitor that "for the virtuous there is a better and a happier world," asserts itself 
as being "In memory of Clarice Duralde Claiborne, the youngest daughter of 
Martin Duralde of Mackupas, and wife of William C. C. Claiborne, Governor of the 
Territory of Orleans, who died in New Orleans on the 29th of November, 1809, 
in the 21st year of her age." The Governor seems to have been unfortunate with 
his youthful wives. It is to be hoped that in his next matrimonial venture he 
was prudent enough to select a lady who had passed the 21st anniversary of her 
birth. 

In one corner of this same "American" section among heaps of indistin- 
guishable wreckage, overgrown with wild blackberry vines and other vagrant 
herbage, are two empty and ruined vaults, whose fallen slabs revive memories of 
Great Britain's futile attempt upon New Orleans. One of these was the last 
resting place of William P. Canby, a native of Norfolk, Va., and a midshipman 
in the U. S. Navy, who "fell in the unequal contest between the U. S. Gunboat 
Squadron, and the British Flotilla, on Lake Borgne, Dec. 14th, 1814," at the 
age of eighteen. The other was erected to the memory of Oliver Parmlee, a New 
England youth who "was killed in the defense of New Orleans in the battle with the 
British Army, Dec. 23d, 1814. ^t. 29." It seems a little ungracious on the 
part of the city that the very names of these two young strangers who left their 
homes to come and lay down their lives in her defense should be allowed to perish 
in the obscurity of a deserted cemetery. 

Another of the defenders who is among this silent congregation has been 
more fortunate, his name at least having been preserved in the annals of the city, 
though probably more on account of its picturesque effect than of any sentiment 
of gratitude for his services. This is Dominique You, one of the captains of Lafitte 
appointed by Jackson to the command of a battery on the day of the decisive battle. 
You was commended in general orders for gallantry and for the faithful per- 
formance of his pledge, and became thereafter a peaceful and law-abiding citizen. 
When Jackson visited New Orleans seven years after the victory. You entertained 
him at a breakfast, which the old hero pronounced the most enjoyable incident of 
his visit. He lived to an advanced age, and at his death was buried with much 



26o STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

pomp and circumstance, the procession which escorted him to the tomb being 
cited as the standard for such demonstrations for many years afterward. Upon 
his memorial tablet is carved, by way of epitaph the following quatrain from 
Voltaire's "La Henriade" : 

Intrepide guerrier, sur la terre et sur I'onde 
U sut, dans cent combats, signaler sa valeur, 
Et ce nouveau Bayard sans reproche et sans peur 
Aiirait pu, sans trembler, voir s'ecrouler le monde. 

Young Lewis was not the only man laid here who gave up his life as a 
sacrifice to the demands of the "code." At the very gate, on the left as one enters, in 
the lowest tier of "ovens"' so that it is necessary to stoop low in order to read, is 
this : "Ci git J. Pent Berten. Ne a Bordeaux. Mort Victime de I'honneur. Age 
de 26 ans ;" and the legend, "Victime de I'honneur," or "Mort sur le champ d'hon- 
neur," is repeated on many tablets. Another which tells a still sadder story is 
"Poor Charlie, X. S." " 

St. Louis Cemetery No. 1 comprises a single square, bounded by Si. Louis, 
Conti, Basin and Liberty streets. At the time of its opening this was just beyond 
the fortifications, and was doubtless thought very much out of the way. In 1823 
it had already become so crowded as to render necessary the opening of new 
ground. The City Council therefore donated to the Church Wardens three squares 
bounded by Customhouse, St. Louis, Eobertson and Claiborne streets, which are 
known as St. Louis Cemetery No. 2. They are separated by the intervening 
streets — Bienville and Conti — running parallel with Customhouse and St. Louis, 
and each square has its own encircling wall, but the three form but one cemetery, 
though they are often spoken of as Nos. 2, 3 and 4. Here some attempt has been 
made toward symmetry of arrangement, and a broad central avenue traverses the en- 
tire length of the triple enclosure, the tombs being ranged on either side with narrow 
alleys between, but with a more generous allotment of ground. The tombs are 
often surrounded by neat iron railings, and some of them have pretty little "door- 
yards," with a bit of lawn bordered with box or some low growing shrub, and 
set off with a rose-bush, or a cape jessamine. As All-Saints day approaches, these 
quiet precincts take on an aspect of unwonted activity. The marble tombs are 
washed white and clean, those of stucco whitewashed, inscriptions are re-gilded 
or touched up with black paint, brick walks are "reddened," grass-plots re-sodded, 
and everything made ready for the yearly festival of the dead. For weeks before 
the event the windows of certain shops have been filled with wreaths of immortelles, 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 261 

of beads, minute shells and various otlier materials, the florists have been hurrying 
forward their chrysanthemums and other autumn blooming plants, and on the 
morning of the iirst day of November every cemetery seems to have been sud- 
denly transformed into a garden. The whole population of the city appears to be 
afoot, and the streets and cars are thronged with flower-laden women and children, 
hastening to lay the crowning offering upon the tomb of some dear departed one. 
All day long the throngs pour through the avenues and alleys of the cemeteries, 
laughing, talking, exchanging notes and comments on the decorations of the tombs 
they have visited, while at every gate, under the charge of a "Sister," sits a group of 
pink clad, pink bonneted orphans, making clamorous appeal for charity by beating 
incessantly with a silver coin upon a metal contribution plate. 

In connection with these old cemeteries some interest attaches to the history 
of the San Antoine Mortuary Chapel. This chapel, now St. Anthony's Italian 
Church, is situated only a short square distant from the oldest of the cemeteries, at 
the corner of Eampart and Conti streets. About the same time that the council 
donated the ground for the new cemetery on Claiborne street, complaints began tc^ 
be made of the frequency of the performance of funeral ceremonies at the Cathedral, 
which were no doubt a great interruption to business, the Cathedral being at that 
time still in the center of the city. In deference to these well-grounded complaints 
the city granted to the wardens of the Cathedral a piece of ground at the location 
named above, upon condition of their erecting there a chapel to which the dead 
might be brought for the last rites of the Church. In compliance with this pro- 
vision, on the 10th of October, 1826, a cross was set up to mark the site of the 
altar, and the following morning work was begun on the chapel, which was com- 
pleted within the year at a cost of $16,000. It was dedicated to the most holy Saint 
Anthony of Padua, and here for many years were performed the funeral rites 
of all persons dying in the faith of the Koman Catholic Church. The chapel was 
included in the list of the property belonging to the Cathedral made at the time the 
church and all its possessions were transferred to the Archdiocese of New Orleans. 

The Cathedral is also the proprietor of a cemotory on Esplanade avenue, the 
ground for which was acquired by purchase in lS-19, and which is known as St. 
Louis Cemetery No. 3. This cemetery is less crowded than the older ones, and is 
beautified with trees and flowers. Its acquisition for burial purposes gave rise to a 
lawsuit, the proprietor of a neighboring piece of land objecting to the opening of a 
graveyard so near his residence. An injunction was sued out to forbid the continu- 
ance of interments, and the case being appealed to the Supreme Court, the judges 



262 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

decided that, «o far from being "neccssarih' f?hocking or offensive to the senses," a 
cemetery, under proper police superintendence, "may be rendered one of the most 
attractive ornaments of a city," and that, in the court's opinion, "such is the case 
with those of New Orleans."' The injunction was therefore dissolved, and judgment 
rendered for defendants, with costs in both courts. 

A curious little burial ground, with the odd personality of a former sexton 
clinging to it, is the Louisa Street Cemetery. Pepe Lula, a Spanish swordsman and 
an expert pistol shot, was sexton here for a great many years, and the fact having be- 
come known that he had killed a number of men, the people came to believe that 
he had estahlished the cemetery for the purpose of burying his victims, and there- 
after called the place Pepe Lula's Cemetery, which title still clings to it in the 
popular mind. 

The oldest of the "up town" cemeteries is known as Lafayette No. 1, and is 
situated on Washington avenue, between Coliseum and Prytania streets. This is 
now in the very heart of the choicest residence portion of the city, called the "gar- 
den district," from the universal practice of surrounding the dwellings with shade 
trees, lawns and parterres of flowers; but in 1834, when the square was appropriated 
as 'a burial place, it was a thinly populated suburb, a mile or more distant from 
the upper limit of the corporation, which was then Delord street. For many years 
up to 1852, in fact, this suburb was known as Lafayette, and was governed by its 
own mayor and council. 

This cemetery resembles those of the lower district already noticed in all essen- 
tial features, though an improvement upon them in the matter of arrangement, being 
laid out in regular avenues, and planted with trees. The central avenue is especially 
noticeable from the double line of magnolia trees from which it takes its appellation 
— Magnolia avenue. 

Lafayette Cemetery No. 2 is also on Washington avenue, much farther out in 
the direction of the lake, between Saratoga and South Franklin streets. Its area 
is about equally divided between white and colored people, the tombs of many of the 
burial societies and benevolent associations of this latter class being located there. 
Among its most conspicuous monuments are those of the French Society of Jeffer- 
son, and of the Butchers' Association. 

The Girod Cemetery has the appearance of age, but whether from lapse of 
time or from neglect cannot be ascertained. It is located in the first district, between 
South Liberty, Perrillat, Cypress and Magnolia streets. It contains some interest- 
ing tombs, notwithstanding its dilapidated appearance, among them that of Colonel 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 263 

W. W. S. Bliss, General Taylor's son-in-law, and chief of staff during the Mexican 
war. Colonel Bliss survived all his battles, and sleeps peacefully beneath a monu- 
ment erected to his memory by his friends at West Point. This cemetery also 
contains the monument of the Marine Association and the splendid temple of the 
New Lusitanos, as well as several well constructed tombs belonging to various col- 
ored societies. 

Perhaps the most picturesque cemetery of New Orleans is the Campo Santo of 
the Church of the Holy Trinity, situated in the Third district, and bounded by 
Washington avenue, Solidelle, Prosper and Music streets. The cemetery is small, 
and is only partially filled with graves and tombs, but it possesses several features 
of peculiar interest. The tomb of the Sisters of the Perpetual Adoration occupies 
one corner of the enclosure, and in the rear is a frescoed mortuary chapel, the work 
of the Carmelite monks. It is also the only cemetery in which the devout pilgrim 
can make "the way of the cross" in the open air, with only the blue vault of the sky 
for roof. The fourteen stations are carved in low relief on wood instead of being 
painted, as in the churches, and here at almost any hour of the day may be seen 
penitent suppliants following the "Via Dolorosa," the road to Calvary, trodden by 
the Great Martyr nearly two thousand years ago. 

The supreme attraction of this little place of graves, however, is the chapel 
dedicated to Saint Roch, the patron of the sick, and more especially of those strickeu 
by the plague. Saint Roch, according to the Roman breviary, was a native of Mont- 
pellier, France, said to have been born with the mark of the red cross upon his 
person, a sign interpreted as signifying future eminence. At the age of twelve he 
began to practice strict asceticism, and on the death of his parents when he was 
twenty, he gave all his substance to the poor and joined the Franciscan Tertiaries. 
Happening to be in Italy during the prevalence of the plague, he devoted him- 
self to ministering to the sick in the public hospitals, and, falling ill himself at 
Piacenza, would have died in the forest had not the dog of a certain nobleman daily 
brought him a piece of bread. He died in prison at his native place, having been 
arrested as a spy on his return from Italy. Before his death he obtained from God 
the promise that persons stricken with the plague who invoked him should be 
healed. He is represented as a pilgrim in the garb of a cavalier of the period, staff 
in hand, and a dog by his side. 

The chapel is a wooden structure, Gothic in style, and so overgrown with ivy 
as to completely cover its walls. The side walls are formed by tiers of vaults be- 
longing to the societies of Saint Anne and Saint Joseph. Above each of these is a 



264 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

stained glass window inscribed to the patron saint. Its shrine is a favorite place of 
pilgrimage for the performance of novenas, the nine days' prayer vowed to some 
particular saint for the attainment of some desired good. The orthodox method of 
performing a no vena is to walk (barefooted, according to the strictest rule) from 
one's home to the shrine of the saint, bearing a lighted taper, and without having 
broken fast. This must be done nine days in succession, the same prayer or invoca- 
tion being many times repeated each day. It is said that this is sometimes done 
even now, and at Saint Eoch's, but the more usual practice is to light the taper at 
the gate, and walking with it up the central avenue, place it at the foot of the 
shrine, at the same time naming the desired favor. The following invocation to 
Saint Roch is then recited: 

great Saint Roch, deliver us, we beseech thee, from the scourges of God. Through 
thy intercessions preserve our bodies from contagious diseases, and our souls from the 
contagion of sin. Obtain for us salubrious air; but, above all, purity of heart. Assist 
us to make good use of health, to bear suffering with patience, and, after thy example, 
to live in the practice of penance and charity, that we may one day enjoy the happiness 
which thou hast merited by thy virtues. 

Saint Roch, pray for us (repeat three times). 

Alms are then deposited in the box placed for their reception, and the suppliant 
"makes the way of the cross," repeating the prayers prescribed for the various sta- 
tions, and adding that for the special object of the novena. 

It is said that the young girls of the vicinity, and in fact throughout the city, 
who are anxious to exchange the single state for that of wedlock, are accustomed 
to pray every evening at St. Eoch's shrine for a husband, but such prayers should 
be, and probably are, addressed to Saint Joseph, the patron of marriages, who has 
also a shrine in the chapel, and whose images are for sale at the gate by the sexton 
or janitor. 

The Metairie Cemetery is the very newest of the thirty-one burial places of 
New Orleans, but as it is also the most beautiful, it cannot be passed over without a 
word of notice. Metairie Ridge is a ridge of land midway between river and lake, 
formed many years before the settlement of Louisiana by the meting of the waters 
at that point in the great inundations. It was formerly used as a race-course, and 
was the scene of many famous races, notably that of the contests between Lexington 
and Lecompte in 1855. In 1873 it was determined to convert the old course into 
a cemetery, and an association was formed for the purpose of raising funds and 
considering plans for the carrying out of the design. One hundred and eight acres 
of ground were purchased at a cost of $175,000, and $171,000 more were expended 
in the laying out of walks, carriage roads, the digging of artitieial lakes, building of 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 265 

bridges and planting of trots, siirubbery, fiowcrs-bcds, etc. The plan adopted was 
furnished by Mr. Harrod, and retains the old race-course as the main drive. In this 
cemeterj' are many beautiful and interesting monuments, conspicuous among them 
being the tomb of the Army of Northern Virginia, surmounted by a column bearing 
a statue of Stonewall Jackson ; the tomb of the Washington Artillery, crowned by 
the statue of their old commander. Colonel J. B. Walton ; and the Gothic vault of the 
Army of Tennessee, upon whose grassy summit is posed a bronze equestrian statue 
of Albert Sidney Johnston. 

The other cemeteries located on or near the Metairie Ridge are : 

Hebrew Cemetery.- — "Dispersed of Judah ;"' Canal street, between Anthony 
street and Metairie Ridge; size 250 feet square. 

Polish Hebrew Cemetery. — Canal street, opposite above. Sometimes called 
"Jewish Rest." 

Odd Fellows Cemetery. — Canal street and Metairie road ; size 360 feet square. 

Charity Hospital Cemeteries, Nos. 1 and 2. — Canal street, between Anthony and 
Metairie road; and Metairie road, between Bienville and Canal. E.Kclusively for 
burials from Charity Hospital. 

Masonic Cemetery. — Bienville street, between Metairie Ridge and Anthony 
street ; size three squares. 

St. Patrick Cemetery No. 1. — Canal street, between Anthony street and Me- 
tairie Ridge ; size -100 by 1,500 feet. 

St. Patrick Cemetery No. 2. — Canal, between Anthony and Metairie road, op- 
posite above; size one square. 

St. Patrick Cemetery No. 3. — Metairie road, between Canal and Bienville; 
size two squares. 

Firemen's Cemeteries. — Known as Cypress Grove Xos. 1 and 2, and Green- 
wood. Metairie Ridge and Canal street. 

In addition to these there are : 

Valence Street Cemetery. — Si.xth district, size one square, bounded by Valence, 
Bordeau.x, Rampart and Dryades streets. 

Carrollton Cemetery. — Seventh district, size four squares, bounded by Adams 
and Lower Line, Seventh and Eighth streets. 

St. Joseph Cemetery. — Fourth district, size two squares, bounded by Washing- 
ton avenue, St. David, South Liberty and Sixth streets. 

St. Vincent Cemetery. — Si.xth district, size three squares, bounded by St. 
David, Green and St. Patrick streets. 



266 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

Locust Grove Cemeteries, Nos. 1 and 2. — Fourth district, size one square each, 
bounded by Locust, Freret, Sixth and Seventh streets. Sometimes called "Potter's 
Field." 

St. Vincent de Paul Cemetery. — Third district, size one square, bounded by 
Louisa, Piety, Villere and Urquhart streets. 

Holt's Cemetery. — First district, size five to six acres. 

Hebrew Cemetery. — Elysian Fields, near Gentilly road, size one square. 

Hebrew Cemetery. — Sixth district, on Joseph street, known as "Hebrew Place 
of Prayer ;" size one square. 

German Hungarian Lutheran Cemetery. — Canal street, between Anthony and 
Bernadotte. 

Chalmette Cemetery. — One mile below Barracks, on river. For Union soldiers. 

Verret Cemetery. — Sixth district, corner Yerret and Market streets. 

St. Bartholomew Cemetery. — Fifth district, bounded by De Armas, Lassey- 
rusee, Franklin and Hancock streets. 

William Tell Cemetery. — Gretna, Tenth street, between Lavoisier and Nerota 
streets. 



CHAPTER XL 



THE PEESS. 
By J. M. Leveque. 

IT IS an ancient saying that the press is the great mirror of the times. This is 
possibly true. It is certainly true here, with us, in America. In a country like 

Russia, where the press is subject to a censorship, it is likely that neither the 
joys nor the sorrows of the people, neither the things which they love nor those 
which they hate, find a candid voice in the press. The press reflects there power — 
the power of the absolute monarchy which censors it. But here the monarch, being 
the people, in theory, and, to a pretty large extent, in fact, the press reflects that 
monarch with a fine degree of nicety and accuracy. Show any man of discrimina- 
tion and of experience the press of a given city and let him study it, and he can 
accurately judge if it be a cultured or a rude city ; what its chiefest business is ; 
what is the temper of its mind. This inevitably must be. The press depends, in this 
country, for its success, not upon government subsidies, not upon the favoritism 
of this, that or the other rich patron, but upon its popularity with the people, and 
the people usually patronize that which they like. 

This is said by way of preface to the chronicling of the history of the press of 
New Orleans, from the infancy of this class of letters here to the present. It is con- 
siderably over a hundred years old, and what a marvelous revolution has taken place 
in that time ! Yet, through all the lapse of years, it seems as if the saying concern- 
ing the press had been verified — as if that great organ had been indeed the reflex 
of popular life in this famous old city. 

In the archives of the city are to be found to-day copies of the early papers 
printed here. As one looks over them, it seems strange that these publications then 
took the place of the present product of the Mergenthaler and the perfecting press, 
of weU-ordered counting-rooms, and of the perfect discipline of editorial and repor- 
torial staifs, of ability and ceaseless work. Yet doubtless if he compared the city of 
those days with the New Orleans of to-day, the parallel between the progress of the 
press and that of the city would be seen to be perfect. 



268 STANDARD HISTORY OP NEW ORLEANS. 

The first impression — and, indeed, it is more than an impression ; it is a direct 
lesson — the first lesson that these yellow, time-stained reminders of a by-gone time 
convey to one, is that, in those days, there was a fine degree of leisure in every walk 
of life here, and a fine desire to spend it leisurely, like a gentleman, sir, like a gen- 
tleman. To read the thoughts of others was a direct restraint upon the originality 
of our own thoughts, to say nothing of an encroachment upon our leisure. Con- 
sequently, the very earliest products of the printing press took the shape of the 
gazettes. As one looks over a copy of an early gazette, he is impressed that the hard- 
est task ever connected with it must have devolved upon the salutatorian in the first 
number. To explain why it was born into the world must, indeed, have been a task. 
It was not a purveyor of news. It was not a disseminator of opinions. It con- 
tained such business in the shape of advertisements as was securable, and contented 
itself usually with slapping into type matter which it is as puzzling as the hiero- 
glyphics of the Nile to discern why it ever found print. "A letter from abroad" 
was apparently a prize. It was usually obtained by the editor in the course of his 
rounds among the business men. A ship captain, discharging cargo in some foreign 
port, was usually an important correspondent. His letter was given leading place, 
even if it were two months old, and even though it told of nothing in the world but 
of cargoes and of shipping. There was a swaggering inclination, too, to pay flatter- 
ing personal compliments to the advertisers whom the editor had successfully 
"interviewed." In those good old days there seemed little care on the editorial 
mind. The choice of subjects, the influencing of intelligent opinion on the most 
important topics of the day — such considerations as these never bothered the mag- 
nate at the helm of a gazette. "Local news" was manifestly scorned. Why give 
space to that wliich anyone could find out by a little inquiry; or rather, why take 
the time and the trouble to put it in type? 

New Orleans was indebted to a San Domingan refugee for its very first paper. 
It was called Le Moniteur ile la Louisiane. It was issued in 1794. At that time 
the city was practically a French city and the French tongue was predominant. Le 
Moniteur was printed in French. The fate of Le Moniteur is lost in the obscurity 
of a past century. The historical accuracy of the fact that it did exist is attested 
by the copies of it now to be found in the archives of the city. It was a weekly. 

With the dawn of the next century. New Orleans is found in the enjoyment of 
a semi-weekly, printed in English, showing the change that was even then taking 
place in the language of the city. This publication was known as The Louisiana 
Gazette, and its first issue appeared on July 27, 1804. It was a little, badly printed 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 269 

folio of 10x16 inches. One John Mowry was its editor. As far as known, Editor 
Mowry had the honor of printing the first of many gazettes whose history is lost in 
the haze of the far past. His gazette, however, is a most interesting study. Sam- 
ples of it are also preserved in the archives of the city, where the diligent historian 
may peruse them and learn many interesting things, possibly, for to the man who 
loves to rebuild, in his imagination, the conditions of the past, it is unquestionably 
interesting. The Gazette exhibits the characteristic disregard of "news." The 
colossus of war across the water, at that time disturbing all Europe, appears to 
have stirred up the native burgher as far away as New Orleans, however, for the 
Gazette is found bitterly inveighing against Napoleon. The subject is vastly more 
important than even matters concerning public men and measures at home, who 
receive only a casual share of attention. In this appears also the lingering French 
character of the city. The Louisiana Gazette appears to have had considerable 
staying qualities, for it continued to live for a number of years. It was domiciled 
at (old) No. 36 Bienville, the house of C. Norwood. That was in the neighborhood 
of the commercial center of the city in those days, and the city was by no means as 
large as it is to-day. The Gazette's motto was "American Commerce and Freedom," 
and it is not on record wliether the commerce and the freedom in mind was that so 
much affected by the renowned Lafitte. In subsequent years it repeatedly changed 
its domicile and it added a sub-heading, "Merchantile Advertiser." At different 
times it published at 21 Conti, 26 Conti, and, in the history-making year of 1812, 
its office was removed to 51 Chartres, at that time the leading commercial thorough- 
fare, as Eoyal was the leading residential street. In 1823 it removed again to 31 
Customhouse, and still again the next year to 22 Bienville. It must not be too 
quickly surmised that heartless landlords were responsible for these changes, for 
there are evidences of a fairly prosperous business in The Gazette. Its prosperity 
was evidently on the increase, too, for on April 15, 1817, a concession was made to 
the French readers by the appearance of the paper in both French and English, 
and it was repeatedly enlarged, both that year and the next. Editor Mowry had 
made repeated attempts to establish the paper as a daily, but evidently the times 
were not ripe for it. His first endeavor was on April 3, 1810. There seems to have 
been, about this time, some awakening consciousness to the fact that news should be 
given by a newspaper, as Editor Mowry is found promising that he will endeavor 
to give "the latest intelligence" in his paper. The outcome of this endeavor as a 
daily was apparently not successful, for in 1814 the paper was issued tri-weekly. 
David McKeehan was then its proprietor, having bought it from Mr. Mowry. At 



2 70 STANDARD HISTORY OP NEW ORLEANS. 

that time The Gazette began to change hands with great frequency, viewed from the 
modern standpoint. G. B. Gotten bought it, and, in 1816, he sold it to William Bur- 
ner. Next year, Mr. Burner took as a partner Charles W. Duhy. Editor Duhy 
became sole proprietor in July, 1820, and there are evidences that he prospered, 
for he made it a daily, enlarging the size of it. Mr. Duhy, by the way, is possibly 
the most conspicuous newspaper man of his times. Four years later he sold it to 
R. D. Richardson, who in the same year, 18.^4, turned the paper over to James Mc- 
Karaher. In May of the following year, Mr. Richardson regained possession of the 
property, being joined in the venture by a Boston printer named A. P. Penniman. 
This firm purchased this paper and also the material of The Orleans Gazette, which 
had gone out of existence. When it is stated that these gentlemen advertised lour 
handprcsses as evidences of a very large job printing outfit, some idea may be 
gained of the proportions to which "the art preservative" had attained in that 
day. 

In the meantime new candidates were in the field for journalistic honors. In 
1820 The Louisiana Advertiser was being published, and in 1825 that sheet is found 
in the possession of one James Beerdslee, who was publishing it at No. 37 Bienville 
street. He sold it out five years later, in 1830, to John Penrice, from whom the 
paper in time passed into the hands of Stroud & Jones. James Beerdslee in 1824 
had started a paper called The Weekly Advertiser. This was the organ which the 
distinguished John Gibson used to telling advantage to New Orleans journalism 
in the "thirties." He became the proprietor of The Weekly Advertiser in 1833, and 
two years later he changed its name to The True American, which lived into the 
forties. Gibson had manifestly some ideas of his own about the province of a news- 
paper, which, while trite now, were new in New Orleans then. He paid great atten- 
tion to local news. He followed the history of local politics closely and faithfully 
and he succeeded in so revolutionizing the old gazette style of journalism that all 
the old papers died out one by one. He was the biggest figure in journalism of New 
Orleans up to his day, realizing that in nothing is a newspaper so strong as in being 
the faithful chronicler of passing events. On the success he upbuilded was created 
the condition in which it was possible for newspapers to thrive. 

Gibson received the flattering sobriquet of "the faithful and bold." He was 
a man of conviction and courage. Unswervable, clear, daring and undauntable, his 
life was a forceful factor in shaping the destinies of the city in his time. 

The True .American probably came to its end in 1842, when The Daily Tropic 
came into existence. Its proprietor was Alden S. Merrifield. This was, like The 



STANDARD HISTORY OF XEW ORLEANS. 271 

True American, one of the best edited specimens of journalism in Xew Orleans to 
that date. It was a whig paper and a champion of Henrj' Clay. Among the no- 
tables of the time connected with it were P. Besangon and B. F. Flanders. 

Another paper, the history of whose career is lost in the oblivion of the past, 
but which must have had its origin away back in the first years of the eighteen 
hundreds, being accounted a half centurj' old at the time of its demise. May 29, 
1859, was The Courier, which had attained considerable prominence in the forties, 
being the exponent of the conservative democracy of the State. It seems to have 
been distanced by its more energetic rivals in the race, although it had been higlily 
esteemed by a very respectable element of the city. 

Its greatest editor was J. C. DeRomes, who conducted its destinies for a period 
of thirty years, finally disposing of the property to Jerome Bayon, April 12, 18-13. 
Editor DeRomes was not in any sense brilliant, but he managed its finances so suc- 
cessfully as to retire in his old age comfortabl)', and he bequeathed to his successor 
the good will of a fine clientelle. 

The oldest paper in the city to-day is The New Orleans Bee, and histor)' makes 
it evident that The Bee is as modest as a maiden on the shady side of thirty about 
its age. There are evidences that The Bee was published as far back as 1809. There 
is in existence to-day a copy of a paper called I' Ami des Lois et Journal du Soir, 
bearing date of September 2, 1816. This copy is marked Volume 7 and its number 
is 1281. It is reasonable to suppose that the first number of this tri-weekly could 
not have been published later than 1809. It was published in French and English. 
In 1822, on September 20, the name of the paper was changed to The Louisianian 
and Friend of the Laws. It was, during the period in question, under the manage- 
ment of Michel de Armas and J. B. Maurian, but on April 15, 1824, the paper 
made its final appearance under the caption it had hitherto borne. At that time, 
too, it was being published by Manuel Crozat. After four days of suspension, for 
it had become a daily, it reappeared under the name of The Argus. It is reasonable 
to suppose that as the paper was in type, make-up, even in advertising and style the 
same, it was the identical publication which had suspended. The Argus became 
The Whig on August 7, 1834. It was issued from No. 70 Chartres street. On 
March 1, 1835, the name was changed to L'Abeille, or The Bee, and it has continued 
under that name ever since. It is thus seen that The Bee can justly claim to date 
back to about 1809, the oldest paper in Louisiana and one of the oldest in the 
United States. It continues to-day to be published on Chartres street, the visitor 
of every French household in the city and State, and, indeed, of many an English- 



272 STANDARD HISTORY OF NE^Y ORLEANS. 

speaking household, who speak the language as fluently as the English. The courtly 
and popular Armand Capdevielle is its editor in chief. Possibly the most distin- 
guished man who has ever been in the service of The Bee was the poet Canonge, 
whose reputation lives to-day in many a cherished scrap-book, as well as in the mem- 
ory of the old-timer. He was a poet of conspicuous force and beauty of fancy, a 
man of great culture and a magnificent musician. Some of the finest criticism 
of music ever penned in this city, and, indeed, in this country, were written by him. 
He bore the reputation of being utterly honest in his utterance concerning the 
work of the musician ; a man whose friendships never clouded his judgment or his 
perception of the functions of criticisms. He combined with his lofty ideal of the 
province of criticism an enthusiasm and wholesome spirit of encouragement which 
invariably acted as a spur, instead of as a discouragement, to the artist. To be 
praised by Canonge was regarded by the musician as the highest honor within the 
reach of any artist. The Bee to-day is a modern paper, in French. It handles the 
news, local and foreign, just as the English papers of the city, though in a more 
condensed form. The Associated Press service is used, translated in condensed form 
60 as to present all the news. 

Next in age to The Bee is The New Orleans Daily Picayune, which was founded 
in January of 1837 by Francis Asbury Lumsden and John Wilkins Kendall. Both 
these gentlemen were printers of ripened experience. Mr. Lumsden had been the 
foreman of a paper called The Standard, one of the many ephemeral dailies of the 
times. Mr. Kendall had been connected with The True American. That paper 
ran a job office, and of this he had been the foreman. The paper was born at (old) 
No. 38 Gravier street. The building in which it had its birth has been demolished 
long ago, and in its stead a more pretentious and commodious building has been 
reared. There, in one little room, the paper was born and first received the impetus 
of its early career. In subsequent years, as periods in its history gave reason for a 
rehearsal thereof. The Picayune was so fortunate as to obtain from one of the 
original men, who worked on it, an authentic account of its first equipment. The 
historian in question was H. L. Kelsey. The office was located on the ground floor. 
The room was some twelve or fourteen feet square. There was no opening on the 
sides or rear, so that at this time it was manifestly necessary for the editor to back 
any utterance he had to make, the fighting editor being placed in a most disadvan- 
tageous position. There were two door-windows, the upper part of these entrances 
being of glass and the bottom of wood. The paper's material consisted of part of a 
font of minion type, about 400 or 500 pounds. There were about five composing 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 273 

sticks, three stands, five pair of cases, including italic, two or three fonts of display 
type with their cases, an imposing stone and a pair of chases, with their furniture. 
Eight or ten galleys, a pair of bellows, a wash-basin and a broom completed the 
outfit, with the exception of an editorial table whose size was in keeping with this 
modest beginning of the infant paper. There was no room for loafers or the 
editor's friendly advisor, as there were but two chairs in the place. The "special 
contributor," too. had no encouragement, for the only other table in the place was 
used for the books of the establishment. There was no press. The press work was 
done outside. These are matters of the personal recollection of one of the printers 
who set type on the very first number of the paper and who has been connected with 
it ever since. 

Besides the proprietors, the men responsible for the appearance of the paper 
daily were, H. L. Kelsey, William H. Flood and William N. Birckhead. There was, 
of course, no pressman. The editors were not above the duty of putting their 
thoughts in type. By turns Mr. Lumsden and Mr. Kendall took a place at the 
cases. This gave the paper four printers. It will be observed that the paper had 
but three stands and it therefore becomes necessary to state that the fourth stand 
was an ingenious contrivance of necessity, constructed with a dry goods box. 

It is thus seen that the entire paper was domiciled in one little room, which 
was counting-room, composing and editorial department in one. The press work 
of the first two numbers was done in a building at the corner of Camp and Com- 
mon, where the Story building was subsequently erected. George Short conducted 
a job printing office at that place, and he was the printer of the first two numbers of 
The Picayune. The True American for several numbers after this printed The 
Picayune in its office on Natchez alley. Richard P. Giles and Theodore Dietz, who 
were pressmen for I'he True American, had the distinction of being the men directly 
concerned with the printing of The Picayune for a long while in its early history. 

It is not a matter of record how long after its birth it was that The Picayune 
became the possessor of its own press. It met with such a success that it is assumed 
it was but a short time, and it is the impression of Mr. Kelsey that this first invest- 
ment was a Washington hand-press. The paper also found opportunity in its 
prosperity to release its editors from service at the cases and the next printer who 
became attached to the mechanical department was M. C. Hull. The first pressman 
was Frank McKeon, of New York City. He printed the first papers turned out in 
The Picayune's own office, and Henry Roberts was the first roller boy. 

Among its early contributors of wit was Henry J. Finn, an actor of the St. 



274 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

Charles theater, who appears to have made considerable reputation for himself and 
for The Picayune by his jokes. 

It is not to be supposed that the paper in those days was in any sense a news- 
paper such as that word to-day signifies. It was years after this that the world 
began to realize that its chief function was the dissemination of news reliably and 
fully, and before newspaper proprietors began to realize that such an output 
is a standard commodity among men. The first pronounced step the paper took in 
the direction of this policy was at the time of the Mexican war, when it led the 
world in news of the events transpiring under General Taylor. The electric tele- 
graph had not been developed to the enormous proportions of to-day, and the only 
line extended from Washington to Baltimore. The condition of the country in those 
times may be better appreciated when it is stated that the railroad had been con- 
structed to a considerai)le extent in the Nortii, luit .south of Washington the mails 
were carried for the most part in stage coaches. The time of transmission of a letter 
from Washington to New Orleans was from fourteen to twenty days. When the 
Mexican war began to assume considerable importance, the northern papers, appre- 
ciating that it was necessary to get speedier returns from the seat of war than had 
heretofore been in vogue, established a system of "pony express." The Picayune 
originated the first venture. The Baltimore Sun taking an interest. The expenses 
of the service were also, in part, defrayed by the merchants, who did so for the 
reason that it afforded them speedier market reports and financial news. Through 
the "pony express" The Picayune executed what was considered marvelous pieces of 
enterprise in those days in getting returns from Taylor's operations in Mexico. Mr. 
Kendall went to Mexico for the paper, and when hostilities actually began he for- 
warded the first news of it to reach the United States. The Picayune, in short, 
scooped the world on the news. This news was immediately forwarded on north 
to the other papers of the "pony express" service, and frequently, during this war, 
the official reports were far behind the newspaper ones in reaching the world, as 
continues to be the case even unto to-day. It appears, too, that this characteristic 
of the press aroused as much official resentment in those days as now. When the 
treaty of peace was concluded with IMexico, the report and text of tjie treaty was 
placed on board the steamship New Orleans by the representative of The Picayune. 
The government report was placed on hoard of the Iris, the government boat. To 
prevent the newspapers anticipating the official news, the United States officer in 
Vera Cruz detained the New Orleans two days after the sailing of the government 
boat. The New Orleans put on all possible steam and overhauled the Iris, reaching 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 275 

New Orleans before the Iris arrived at Mobile. The report was printed in The 
Picayune and forwarded by the pony express to the papers of the North, appearing 
in the papers of Baltimore before the official report reached Washington. Another 
unique enterprise of The Picayune was connected with the presentation of the presi- 
dent's messages. The paper sent corps of printers to Mobile by boat to meet the 
messages when they arrived there, and on the way home they put the document in 
type, so that it was ready to be printed on their arrival. 

In 1837 The Picayune office was established at (old) No. 72 Camp street, where 
it remained until November 23, 1847, when it removed to its present office. On Oc- 
tober 28, 1845, the paper had been enlarged to a seven-column paper. The building 
in which it is now domiciled and which it built, was erected in October, 1850. This 
enterprise was the result of a million dollar fire, which consumed almost the entire 
block on Camp street and the opposite side of the street. The publication of the 
paper was not interrupted, its editions being printed in other offices. The Picayune 
was the first New Orleans publication to erect its own building. 

Fire and the exigencies of war had failed to interrupt the steady publication 
of the paper. It remained for the fake of a New York newspaper man to bring 
about the only interruption, the first and only in its long career. In 1864, at the 
time that General Banks was in military occupancy of the city, the paper was seized 
for an act very innocent on the part of The Picayune. Joe Howard, Sr., published 
in The New York World and Journal of Commerce a proclamation purporting to 
be a Thanksgiving proclamation, recommending fasting and prayer, and calling into 
service 400,000 men. The proclamation was copied in The (Cairo, 111.) News, and 
from this journal the editors of The Picayune copied it in The Picayune. As a re- 
sult. General Banks ordered them arrested and the paper was seized and narrowly 
escaped confiscation. The Picayune's publication of the bogus proclamation was on 
May 23, 1864, and its publication was suspended until January, 1865, when it was 
permitted to resume. The editors of The World and The Journal of Commerce 
were also severelv punished. The manner in which this fake was originated and what 
nature of joke the perpetrator purposed are not manifest. 

In January, 1872, the paper was sold to a company of merchants, which in- 
cluded some of the most prominent bankers and business men of New Orleans. One 
hundred thousand dollars was paid for the property. The combination was evidently 
not competent to conduct a newspaper, for they bankrupted it in twenty-six months, 
the property again passing into the hands of Mr. Holbrook. After Mr. Holbrook 
died, his widow married Mr. Nicholson, who had had charge of the business of the 



2/6 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

paper for some time under the former chief. The two conducted it until their 
death, some three years ago. Mrs. Nicholson died a few days after her hus- 
band. Mr. Thomas G. Kapler, who had been the chief man of the paper for several 
years previous to the demise of the owners of the paper, continues to manage the 
property for the minor heirs of the Nicholsons. 

The Times-Democrat acquired its hyphenated name on December 4, 1881. It 
resulted from a consolidation of the old Daily Times and of The Daily Democrat. 
The Times was born in 18C3. The Democrat was not so old, its first issue seeking 
public favor in 1875. 

Thomas P. May & Co. were the first publishers of The Times, and they put out 
the first number of the paper on September 30, 1863. At that time it was a small 
four-page paper. Its first number announces its purpose as being "the furnishing 
of the news." It was the official paper. W. PI. C. King acquired the property in 
1865. Mr. King made a notable record, and under his management The Times 
became the most influential paper in the city. He used the wires as a method of get- 
ting the news more extensively than they had ever been used previous to that time. 
It was during his management that a gradual change in the character of the New 
Orleans paper came about. Previously "newspaper" here had been more or less of 
a misnomer. It devoted a great deal more of its attention to editorials and literature 
than to news. He revolutionized this, giving the news primary importance. As a 
consequence of his policy the paper so waxed in popularity that it was greatly 
enlarged, being increased to eight and sixteen pages, with a twenty-four page Sunday 
edition. The price of the paper was then ten cents, and it enjoyed a heavy adver- 
tising patronage. The Times was a leading force in the political differences of the 
times, in the restoration of order and the revival of progress. The Times remained 
under the management of Mr. King until 1872. In that year it was the staunch 
champion of John McEnery for governor, opposing William Pitt Kellogg. It bit- 
terly denounced the Kepublican Returning Board, and more especially Judge Du- 
rell's "midnight order," by virtue of which the statehouse and the State government 
was seized. As a consequence the enmity of the judge was drawn upon the paper 
and soon afterwards, in a civil suit, the paper was seized by the United States mar- 
shal. The paper passed out of the hands of Mr. King and afterwards through those 
of various persons, until its consolidation with The Democrat in 1881. 

The New Orleans Democrat was born of the anti-republican sentiment of the 
times, on December 18, 1875. It represented the crystalization of the opposition to 
"republican rule at the point of the bayonet," and the tidal wave which subsequently 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 277 

swept away all opposition and established again free government by the people. 
Robert Tyler, son of the ex-president, was its first editor. Its ownership and man- 
agement underwent a succession of changes, until it finally passed into the hands 
of H. J. Hearsey & Co., the head of the firm being now the editorial chief of The 
States. It was established originally as a morning paper, but subsequently became 
an evening sheet, in May of 1876. The democratic party came into power in the 
State in 1877, and The Democrat was recognized as its leader and champion. It 
became the official journal of the State. In 1878 The Democrat was owned by a 
joint stock company, largely controlled by its employes, and on April 27, 1879, it 
came into the hands of Major E. A. Burke, who became its manager. Two years 
after, on December 4, 1881, The Times was purchased and consolidated with The 
Democrat. It thus became a partner in the Associated Press service, which it had 
not used before. The new paper was an actual consolidation. It retained the best 
workers of both staffs and the best features of each paper were continued. The con- 
solidated paper has been continually abreast of the times. It has devoted itself 
consistently to many praiseworthy aims. It was a pioneer in the endeavor to work 
up reciprocal trade between this city and Central America, a work which has grad- 
ually progressed, keeping abreast with the progress of the civilization in our neighbor 
republics. It devoted itself with the greatest amount of enterprise to the cause 
of the levees, and has been conspicuous in relief work during overflows, accumu- 
lating a fund of $15,000 for the relief of the flood sufferers in 1882 and sending food 
and physicians to the unfortunate. It took a very prominent part in bringing about 
the great Cotton Centennial E.xposition in this city in 1884, subscribing $5,000 to 
the original fund. 

Major Burke was succeeded by the present manager, Mr. Page M. Baker, one 
of the ablest journalists in the history of the New Orleans press. The policy of the 
paper was not changed in any of its important features by Mr. Baker, who has dis- 
played the same high regard for the news that has characterized the paper for many 
years. The Mergenthaler type-setting machine was first purchased in this city by 
The Times-Democrat in 1891, and that has made the usual great improvement in 
the paper characteristic of vastly improved facilities. 

New Orleanser Deutsche Zeitung, or in English, The New Orleans German 
Gazette, was founded by the late notary, Joseph Cohn, on August 1, 1848. 
Dr. Wiener, who recently celebrated his ninetieth birthday in Baltimore, Md., 
was its first editor. At the time of its founding, Mr. Cohn was conducting a 
German job printing office on Poydras and Tchoupitoulas street. 



278 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

At the time of The Gazette's birth, and, indeed, to 185-1, New Orleans was the 
haven of a vast number of German citizens, who came here as immigrants on ac- 
count of the German revohition of 1848. New Orleans received a great number of 
these valuable citizens, who added to its thrift and its cosmopolitanism, and a large 
number more, seeking the West, came through this port in winter time to avoid the 
rigors of the overland trip to the West. 

Mr. Cohn, on March 1, 1853, sold his paper to a co-operative company, com- 
posed of several of his printers. Mr. Jacob Hassinger, who has been the sole 
proprietor of The German Gazette for many years, was among these printers. Mr. 
Hassinger became the sole proprietor in 1866. On May 1, 1899, a stock company 
purchased the paper, and Mr. Hassinger was made president of it. 

In 1853, when the stock company had charge of the paper, Eduard von Gabain, 
a former German officer, became the editor-in-chief of the paper. The company 
was known as Peter PfeifEer & Co. He remained editor of the paper until 1858, in 
which year he died. He was regarded as one of the ablest men in the history of the 
paper. 

The following year another editor of distinguished abilities succeeded him, 
George Foerster. A writer of force, his pro-Union sentiments, expressed with all 
the vigor of his unusual abilities, soon brought the Gazette against a fierce gale of 
counter-sentiment. He left the city in 1860 and went North, finally entering the 
Union army and rising to a captaincy. He worked on pro-Union papers in St. Louis 
and Chicago. In 1866 he returned to New Orleans and reassumed the chief editor- 
ship of The Gazette, which position he filled until his death in 1896. Mr. Foerster 
is regarded as another of the biggest influences in the history of The Gazette. He 
was a man of vast information, of most positive views and great popularity among 
his friends and following. For over twenty years he was assisted by Mr. M. Sibilski, 
as local editor, and Mr. Weichhardt, known as "Quicksilver" in print. The former 
died in 1888, and the latter in 1895. 

Mr. Ferdinand Seineeke, formerly of The St. Louis Anzeiger des Westens, suc- 
ceeded Mr. Sibilski, when the latter became too ill to work, and when Mr. Foerster 
died, the St. Louis man became his successor as editor-in-chief, which position he 
holds to date. In September, 1896, Mr. Hugo Moeller, who was at that time editor 
of The Texas Post, became a member of The Gazette staff, and Messrs. Bartels, of 
St. Louis, Kessel, of Milwaukee, and Wichers, of Chicago, are recent additions to 
the staff. 

When the Moresque building fire happened on April 15, 1897, The Gazette 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 279 

and The Evening Telegram were both consumed in the flames, which reached acrosE 
Camp street in spite of all the fire department could do. Among the irreparable 
losses of The Gazette was its files from 1865 to the date of the fire. The Gazette 
immediately resumed publication in another building on Camp street, near the 
corner of Poydras, occupying it jointly with The Telegram. The paper was burned 
out again by the St. Charles theater fire in its rear in the early morning of February 
20, 1899. Mr. Jacob Hassinger, feeling the encroachments of age, desired to retire 
from the active conduct of the paper, and a company was formed on May 1, 1899^ 
with the following officers : Jacob Hassinger, president ; Professor J. Hanno Deiler, 
of Tulane Universitj', vice-president; Mr. Georg Hassinger, secretary and treas- 
urer. The board of directors is additionally composed by Hon. Charles F. Buck, 
Abe Heim and Val Merz. 

The Gazette is the only German paper south of the Ohio. It is conducted on a 
high plane and is a paper of influence and power. It finds its way into the homes 
of a vast army of the best German citizenship of the South daily, and is a paper 
of recognized standing in the South. 

The evening paper field is occupied by The Daily States, The Daily Item and 
The Daily Telegram. Of these, the oldest is The Daily Item-. 

The States was established in 1880 by its present editor. Major H. J. Hearsey, 
a scholarly, erudite and trenchant writer of the old States' rights school, and widely 
known in reconstruction days as the editor of The Shreveport Times, the champion 
of the White League movement in Louisiana, and subsequently of The Netv Orleant 
Democrat, since merged into The Times-Democrat. It owes its existence to Major 
Hearsey's determined effort to destroy a political ring which had achieved a cor- 
rupting influence in the party and which grew in. intolerance as it grew in power. 
It started with little pretension to a newspaper, and when it made its bow to the 
public of New Orleans on January 3, 1880, its chief claim upon the attention of the 
public was the virility of its editorial page and the courage and resolution with 
which it approached its chosen task of reform. The first number was a small, six- 
column, four-page sheet, printed on an old-fashioned fiat-bed press, the motive 
power of which was furnished by an old and blind, but willing and muscular darkey. 
Editorial, reportorial, composing, press and business forces were crowded in small 
and dingy rooms. Salaries were small, and the labors which the scanty sta.fs were 
called upon to perform were prodigious : but the public soon began to realize that not 
only were the editorials of the paper vigorous, aggressive and fearless in tone, but 
that the principles it enunciated were the principles which had inspired the great 



28o STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

fathers of democracy; that its policy was for rigid economy, joined to capable and 
efficient administration in government, and that it was developing news pages that 
were bright and abreast of the times ; and it was not long before the influence of the 
paper penetrated every circle of business and social life in the community. Its cir- 
culation grew rapidly, it became a leader in political and commercial movements, 
improvements in its mechanical appliances kept pace with its growth of power in 
the community, and it became finally not only the recognized newspaper head of the 
democracy in Louisiana, but one of the most substantial newspaper properties in 
the South. 

The tone of the paper has never been subservient. It has never trimmed its 
sails to catch the popular breeze. Though the well-being of the sugar industry, so 
vital a factor in the prosperity of the State, has not unnaturally given birth here to a 
strong, but unreasoning, sentiment in favor of protection, and even of bounty, The 
States has strenuously and unfalteringly combated that policy, and has consistently 
urged the principle of a tariff for revenue only as affording the only true protection 
for the industry. It has, indeed, been a straight tariff reform paper from its birth, 
and though its policy has arrayed against it those of the sugar planting interests, 
who embrace the principle of protection as the foundation of their faith, these in- 
terests read it uninterruptedly and admire its rugged independence. It has been 
equally independent in its attitude toward the money question. It was one of the 
few great papers of the South which preached with ceaseless vigor the doctrine of 
"sound money." It supported Mr. Bryan during the subsequent campaign only 
because it believed, as between free silver on the one hand and the republican prin- 
ciples of protection and centralization on the other, the former presented the lesser 
evil. 

Major Hearsey has at times shared the ownership of the paper with other gen- 
tlemen. In the early days of its existence he associated with him as partner Jlr. 
Minor Elmore and later, Mr. Erwin Craighead, both capable newspaper men. On 
their retirement, he admitted Captain J. Pinckney Smith into partnership, and 
Captain Smith remained connected with llie States to the day of his death, in 1899. 
In 1885 Mr. George W. Dupre became a part owner and one of the editors of the pa- 
per, and on his retirement in 1893, the paper was merged into a stock company. 
Many prominent newspaper men of this and other days in Louisiana have been 
associated with The States. Among its city editors have been Major W. M. Eobin- 
son, for many years city editor of 21ie Picayune, and one of the best newspaper men 
in the South ; ^Ir. Henry Guy Carleton, the noted playwright ; the late Captain John 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 281 

Augustin, long connected with The Times-Democrat and clerk of the Supreme 
Court; the late Colonel Frank A. Bartletto, a distinguished Confederate soldier and 
clever writer; Mr. T. D. Wharton, until recently the able city editor of The Times- 
Democrat; Mr. W. M. Grant, now one of the accomplished editorial writers of The 
Times-Democrat ; Mr. William E. Arms, night editor of the same paper, and Mr. 
John P. Coleman, widely known as a talented local newspaper man. Judge Alex- 
ander Walker, a vigorous and polished writer; the late Colonel William Seymour, 
an excellent newspaper man, and the late Edwin L. Jewell, a trained writer and the 
author of Jewell's Digest, have been among its brilliant editorial contributors. Major 
Hearsey continues in full editorial control of the paper to-day, with Colonel A. D. 
Battle and Mr. J. C. Aby, two well-informed and forceful writers, as his associ- 
ates. Its city editor is Mr. J. Walker Boss, who has been one of the strongest forces 
in the success of the paper. Its commercial department, one of the features of the 
paper, is capably presided over by Mr. James J. Lea; Captain J. W. Bryant repre- 
sents it as river editor, Mr. H. J. Romanski is its talented artist, and Mr. W. T. 
Little and Mr. Charles Lee lend their assistance in making its sporting page one 
of the best in the South. Its reportorial staff is made up of Messrs. Frank Reit- 
meyer, E. E. L. Edwards, J. H. Whyte, Wills J. Carter, William H. Murphy, J. J. 
McGinty and Fred J. Buisson. Mr. A. W. Brown and ]\Ir. H. C. Chaplain are its 
efficient advertising representatives, with an assistant in the person of Mr. Harry 
H. Patin. 

With advance of age. The States has rapidly improved in every detail that goes 
to make up a first-class modern newspaper. It appears now as an eight, ten and 
twelve-page afternoon daily, and a sixteen and twenty-page Sunday paper; it is 
printed on a magnificent straight line three-deck Goss press, recently installed; its 
local staff is excellently trained and enterprising; it has correspondents in all the 
leading towns of Louisiana and surrounding States, and no Southern paper has a 
brighter future. 

The States is under the business management of Mr. Robert Ewing, and much 
ef the recent financial success which it has met is due to his energy, his resourceful 
executive ability, his ready initiative and his quick grasp of those features which 
go to make a live afternoon paper attractive to the people among whom it circidates. 

Tlie Daily Item was established in 1877. It was organized by the printers, who 
set out in the enterprise on a co-operative basis. It afterwards became the property 
of a joint stock company. After the printers had conducted the paper for a time, it 
was acquire 1 by Mr. J. W. Fairfax, and after him by Eric Talen. Among the 



282 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

celebrities who worked at different times in the early historj' of the paper on its staff 
were J. D. Wilkinson, Lafcadio Hearn and Henry Guy Carleton. Mr. D. C. O'Mal- 
ley, its present owner and manager, came into possession of The Daily Item in July, 
1894, and Mr. O'Malley may justly lay claim to having pushed it into the greatest 
prominence it has enjoj'ed since its founding. It is now making its history. It is 
more aggressive than any other paper in the city, very often to an apparent reckless- 
ness of consequences. Since its acquisition by its present manager and owner, it 
has gained very largely in circulation. It has, for the most part, supported the 
republican party — invariably in national campaigns and in the last gubernatorial 
contest in this State between Judge Pharr and Governor Foster. 

The Evening Telegram, also, is among the later births of newspapers in New 
Orleans. It was founded by Peter J. Kernan on October 12, 1891. At that time it 
was known as 2'he Daily Truth. Its name was changed to The Telegram on January 
1, 1894. It was formerly domiciled at No. 504 Camp, but was consumed in the Mo- 
resque building fire. Subsequently, with The German Gazette, it removed to 437 
Camp, where it occupied a building with The German Gazette, which had also been 
destroyed by the same fire wliich had burned The Telegram. When the St. Charles 
hotel was consumed. The Telegram was burned out a second time, on February 20, 
1899. It then removed to 516-517 Poydras street, where it is now domiciled, with 
new equipment throughout. Mr. Kernan, its editor, has been identified with many 
papers here. He started I'he Chronicle in 1883, The Daily News in 1888, selling 
out these ventures, which have subsequently ceased publication. His wife, Mrs. Ber- 
tha Miller Kernan, of Cincinnati, is associated with him in the active conduct of 
the paper. 

A history of the press of New Orleans would be incomplete did it omit a cur- 
sory review^ of the forceful individualities which impress their stamp on the press' 
character. The chief of The Times-Democrat, Mr. Page M. Baker, is a man of the 
executive type of mind. He is quick in forming decisions and singularly clear of 
vision. He is emphatic in his convictions, and when he undertakes to champion a 
cause or fight an evil, he does it with uncompromising force. He is eminently pro- 
gressive in disposition, witli a natural tendency to keep abreast of the times. He is 
a great admirer of good work, quick to appreciate a good man and make that man 
conscious of the fact, and equally frank and executive in dispensing with the bad 
workman. He is loved and admired cordially by his friends, and, as is always the 
case in journalism, hated with equal warmth by his enemies. In political fights and 
similar matters, he displays none of the trimmer's quality, fighting Vj porously for 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 283 

tlie siJc that appeals to him, witliout regard to the chances of victory. For many 
years his chief of the local desk, Mr. T. I). Wharton, has answered tlie taxing de- 
mands of that position with great skill, and a hirge view of what constitutes the 
daily history of the city. Mr. Wharton is unquestionably one of the ablest city 
editors of the South and of the country. After years of service he recently re- 
signed that post to go into business on his own account, the successor chosen 
being Mr. William Leppert, formerly of the local staff of The Times-Democrat. 
Mr. Leppert has been chiefly conspicuous in New Orleans journalism for his 
happiness of style in handling big stories. His most notable performance was 
during a celebrated bank-wreck trial here, the report of which he handled with 
such rare interest that his report was the talk of the entire city, and wherever 
the paper was read. The opportunity offered a chance for fine humor, which Mr. 
Leppert used with consummate skill. The scries of reports indeed are a striking 
chapter in the history of New Orleans Journalism. Two of the most unique and 
fascinating minds ever connected with The Times-Democrat are Mr. Henry 
Eightor and Mr. 0. H. Stein, the former now in the insurance business, being 
chief of a department of a big insurance concern, and the latter being still actively 
in the service. Both are essentially litterateurs, combining with this quality great 
utility as news men. Both are enormously prolific and eternally interesting. They 
are so interesting that in spite of their value as news-gatherers and reporters, 
they have always been of much greater service in the handling of such features as 
the "By the By" column and similar special work. The humor of both is e.x- 
haustless. Mr. Eightor is one of the finest writers of the grotesque, possibly, in 
the history of the New Orleans press. A singularly forceful character on the 
same paper is Mr. Carlton Pool, for many years Mr. Baker's immediate repre- 
sentative. It is impossible to fancy a mind more clear, executive and quick than 
that of the man who has so long held the night desk of that paper. Mr. Norman 
Walker, chief of the editorial staff, is also a splendid mind. He is a writer of great 
conviction, uncompromising in his opinions and an untamable fighter for them. 
His chief collaborators, Mr. William M. Grant and Mr. Ashton Phelps are both 
men of rare ability, students and forceful writers. In the reportorial ranks, 
Mr. Dudley Watson is conspicuous for his clear perception of what is news, his 
cleverness in getting it and his interest in relating it. 

Mr. Thomas G. Eapier, chief of the Picai/unc. is a conservative man, im- 
parting a tinge of charitableness and kindliness to the institution which only 
permits it to go on the war-path in times of great heat of controversy. It is only 



284 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

rarely that The Picai/t/nc is aggressive. The central figure in the working ranks 
of the New Orleans Pirai/iine is Herman J. Seiferth. It is rare indeed that a 
city editor is better equipped with perceptiveness of news, resourcefulness in 
meeting difficult situations, thorough knowledge of men, a finer sort of prescience 
of what is about to happen. To his qualities of mind is added a fine physique 
and tremendous endurance and jiUiek. He has a genial kindliness of disposition 
and cntlnisiasni for news])aper work which (liU'uses itself over his workers, estab- 
lishing more of a co-operative working reportorial room than one in which he is 
chief. William M. Steele is a splendid reporter, matter of fact in his narrative, 
accurate, faithful and a shrewd observer. He is a man of capacity and large abilities. 
Another force in the make-up of the sheet is Rushton Foster, whose abilities 
have been shifted from the editorial room to the counting room. 

Major H. J. Hearsey, chief of the Daily States, is the most conspicuous 
editor of the State. He has made himself so by his singular genius of bitterness, 
sarcasm and ridicule in controversy. No one approaches him in invective and 
some of his editorials during heated political campaigns are remarkable pieces 
of work. Not in the history of the country possibly has there been a man with 
greater power of tierce sarcasm and ridicule. Single editorials have frequently been 
the talk — the sensation of the city. John Walker Ross, his city editor, is a recog- 
nized success and uses a local forcv to splendid advantage. He has a typical 
newspaper mind, clear, logical and executive. As a political reporter he has dis- 
played always rare ability. Henry Romanski, of The States, is the finest news- 
paper artist of the city, his portrait work being conspicuously excellent. 

The chief editor of The Daily Item, Lionel Adams, displays in his editorial 
work the same matchless force of logic that made him invincible at the bar for so 
long. Jhich of his work are as fine specimens of logic as one could desire to see. 
Mr. T. 0. Harris, The Item's city editor, is a newspaper man of fine ability. 

Cienuinc dramatic criticism is rarely seen in the newspapers of New Orleans. 
The workers in this line of activity seem to suffer under a traditional restraint. 
Criticism is more of a report, tinged with partiality to the "show" than a candid 
expression on the virtues and vices of the performance and the work of the players. 

Among literary writers for the local press, Mrs. Marion Baker, who writes 
for The Times-Democrat, ranks beyond any dispute among the very foremost of 
the country. Her literary editorial in Sunday's paper is frequently a superb 
exposition of critical analysis, forceful thought and graceful English. Mrs. Eliza- 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 285 

beth M. Gilmer, of The Picayune, whose nom de plume is "Dorothy Dix," is also 
a newspaper woman of rare originality, fine fancy and grace of English. 

It is of interest to mention some of the most noticeable characteristics of 
the Xew Orleans press. Conspicuous is its charity. It draws the veil of silence 
over many a matter which in other cities of the size of this are made merchantable 
news ware. Divorce cases never appear in Kew Orleans newspapers. So much is 
this the case that a prominent man of fiction, after sojourning here for a few 
weeks asked, "What ! Have you no divorce courts here and no divorce cases ? I 
have not seen one mention of such in the press." A traditional veil is drawn 
over this class of human misfortune. Where the pnbUc welfare is not involved, 
it is easy to get a "good news item" sacrificed for the reputation of families. A 
humanity prevails in this respect which is unknown in many another city. There 
is little commercialism indulged, too, in sensationalism. The people do not expect 
it. The newspapers properly attach much more importance to a story of some 
industrial movement than to the raciest sensation, which is always handled soberly. 

The average newspaper visitor is astonished at the internal workings of the 
newspaper shop here. He is struck by the great versatility required of the re- 
porter. Every man is expected more or less to be a well-rounded newspaper man 
as capable of reporting a prize fight as a sermon; of taking charge of the city 
desk as of turning in a story on a little banquet. The most amazing feature 
is unquestionably the city desk. The man occupying that most arduous position 
not only makes out the schedule of assignments, but is the sole copy-reader of 
all the mass of reports his staff turn in. He reads three or four pages of matter 
every night, edits it and writes headings for it. He does his own newspaper 
reading, too, there being no assistant with carefully collated clippings of local 
news from the rival papers. On the afternoon papers the city editor also "makes 
up !" Altogether the city desk in New Orleans taxes capacity and endurance 
to an extent little appreciated. Its duties have grown out of all proportions to 
the traditional manner in which it is expected to be filled.* 



"HARLEQUIN." 

* The Harlequin was established June 28, 1899, by Joseph M. L^veque, who is the 
owner and editor and represents a new and original school of journalism in the South. 

It is a weekly given to the discussion of matters pertaining to theatricals, art and 
literature and extending its columns to consideration of the widest and most diverse 
topics of the day. In addition to the brilliant and trenchant writings of its editor, the 
columns of the Harlequin have been illuminated by the pens not alone of the most 
famous writers of the South, but as well of men with national reputations, statesmen, 
jurists, philosophers, physicians and scientists. Though scarcely out of its swaddling 
clothes. Harlequin has already made for itself a reputation for bold and uncompromising 



CHAPTER XII. 



TKANSPORTATION. 

By Ella Rigiitor. 

Navigation. 

Tntl arrival of the first steamboat in this city was a great event. It happened 
in 1812, when the New Orleans made the distance from Pittsburg to its 
namesake in 259 hours. The boat, built on one of Fulton's models, was 116 
feet long, twenty feet wide, and cost $38,000. It carried as passengers Mr. Roosevelt, 
one of its owners, and liis wife. Its arrival was witnessed by many enthusiastic 
spectators, and New Orleans, always interested in navigation, determined to adopt 
the wonderful invention. Of course the advent of the steamboat was a great im- 
petus to commerce along the river, and our city reaped many of its benefits. 

On January 17, the boat made an excursion to English Turn and back, a 
distance of 15 leagues, leaving at 11 A. M. and returning at 4 P. M., the 
fare being $3.00, and on January 23, it went up the river, a feat which many pro- 
nounced impossible, until it had steamed up to Natchez (75 miles) in 21 hours. 
Fulton's first boat on the Hudson had made 145 miles in 3G hours. 

On April 19, 1811, the Orleans Territorial Legislature passed what after- 
wards proved a very inconvenient act, granting to Robert Livingston and Robert 
Fulton, their heirs, administrators, etc., for 18 years the exclusive right of naviga- 
tion on the waters of the territory, of vessels propelled by steam, this going into 
effect January 1, 1812, and giving as a condition the construction of a boat of 70 
tons burthen, within three years to be propelled at the rate of four miles per 
lour in still water, and for every additional boat they were to have an extension 

adherence to truth and principle and is proving a force of visible effect upon Southern 
letters in respect of its honesty and clearness of vision. Hardy, informed, erudite 
and efficient, Harlequin promises, unless all signs fail, to prove not only a factor 
of enduring vitality in the development of the tremendous potentialities of the country 
whose fondest interests it has undertaken to champion, but the organ of a school of 
writers whose names shall not fail to be conspicuous when the literary history of the 
JOth century comes to be written. — Ed. 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 287 

for four j'ears of the aforenamed period. Any one navigating or employing a 
boat in the specified waters, was to forfeit and pay to Livingston and Fulton $5,000. 

Steamboats became so popular and steamboat navigation so universal, and so 
many of the new vessels were built, that this law could not continue in effect. 
In 1860 Captain Bruce, of the steamboat Dispatch, from Texas, lost $1,500 on 
account of this prohibition, as he was not allowed, at New Orleans, to take on a 
return cargo of sugar. Steamboats continued to visit this city, one from Wheeling, 
having been presented by the ladies of that city, with a beautiful flag, on which 
were the figure of Fame, and the mottoes : "Our friends shall not withhold what 
we have wrested from our enemies," and "Don't give up the ship," in reference to 
Mr. Livingston's claim. Finally the supreme court of the L'nited States de- 
clared the original right to be unconstitutional. 

On June 3, 181G, at Louisville, Ky., was launched the Governor Shelby of 122 
tons, for the purpose of plying between Louisville and New Orleans. In July, 181(5, 
the steamboat Vesuvius was burned opposite this city, with a loss of $200,000. 
On the 25th of July, the New Orleans began to ply between New Orleans and 
Natchez, bringing back on her first trip, 30 passengers and 800 bales of cotton. 
(Some years after she was sunk in the river near Baton Eouge.) About this time 
the Aetna arrived at New Orleans, and the Vesuvius, having been rebuilt, was ready 
for work May 1, 1817. May 4 saw the arrival of the Washington, which had 
made the distance from Louisville in seven days. On the 14th of May the 
Constitution arrived; on the Gth of January, 1818, the new Ohio of 450 tons, 
the largest boat on the river; June 15, the Kentucky; and May 16, the Robert 
Fulton from New York, Charleston and Havana, leaving Sunday, May 28, for 
Havana, Charleston and New York; her agents here were Amory Nott & Co. 
On May 11, 1820, the Car of Commerce made the distance from New Orleans 
to Shippingport, Ky., in 16 days, 12 hours, a very quick trip, which proved 
that New Orleans was not behind New York in steamboat progress. The Kobert 
Fulton was built by Henry Eckford and David Dunham, of New York, and before 
long was found to be unscaworthy, lier engines not being very strong, so she was 
taken off the route. But little was done up to 1849, in the way of building ocean 
steamships, but in that year, the steamship Crescent City was built by Newton 
Howard & Co., and proved the swiftest steamship afloat. The distance, to New 
York was made by her in less than seven days. About this time, the steamship 
Falcon was placed on the line, and the question discussed of cutting a canal 
through Florida, in order to reduce the sea trip 1,000 miles. 



288 STANDARD HISTORY OF NE]Y ORLEANS. 

In July, 1820, the Mississippi and its tributaries, below the Falls of Ohio, 
were navigated by 73 steamboats; the amount paid for freight, at 2 cents a 
pound, between New Orleans and Louisville, was $1,898,000; for passengers, $338,- 
000; a total of $2,236,000; the annual income from vessels exclusively engaged in 
carrying sugar was $500,000; so the aggregate annual earnings of steamboats on 
the western waters amounted to $2,791,000. 

The General Pike was the first steamboat of the western rivers built ex- 
clusively for passengers. Its route was from Cincinnati to Maysfield. The 
Alabama was built for the Bed Kiver trade, 1818, on Lake Pontchartrain ; in 
1818 also was built the Independence, the first boat to ascend the Missouri; and 
in the same year, for a New Orleans syndicate was built at Philadelphia the 
seagoing and river boat. Maid of Orleans; also in 1818, at Providence, R. I., the 
Mobile, which in 1819 ran between New Orleans and Louisville; and at New 
Orleans the Mississippi of 400 tons ; the following year the Columbus of 460 tons, 
running between this city and Louisville. Other boats were the Yulcan, 300 
tons; General Clark, 150 tons; a Columbus, built in Kentucky; the Tennessee, built 
in Cincinnati for New Orleans; the General Eobertson of 250 tons, at JefEerson- 
ville, Indiana. By 1820 the trade by means of steamboats was very extensive. 
About this time the Post Boy, first mail boat on the river, under an act of Congress 
passed in 1819, began to carry the mails from Louisville to New Orleans. 

In 1832, the tonnage of 4,000 flat boats, which made the descent of the river, 
was 160,000 pounds; in 1849, that of all the steamboats, not more than 40,000. 
From September, 1831, to September, 1833, 66 boats were lost. Before the Civil 
War the largest boat load was 6,000 bales of cotton, carried by the Magnolia, 
and up to 1881 it was 9,226 bales of cotton, and 250 tons of other freight, by 
the steamboat Henry Frank, which made 12 trips that summer, carrying in the 
aggregate 76,009 bales of cotton, 28,23 8 sacks of cotton seed, 13,675 sacks of oil 
cake, 1,225 barrels of oil, and other freight. The Autocrat, a well-known boat, 
in 1840-1850 carried 5,000 bales of cotton. The iron steamboat, Charles P. 
Clioteau, whose largest load was 8,841 bales, brought down altogether in one 
summer 76,950 bales of cotton, 30,088 sacks of cotton meal, 15,335 sacks of oil cake 
and other freight. The Valley Forge, built at Pittsburg, 1839, and the Alleghany, 
built also at Pittsburg, in 1847, were the first iron boats, the latter being the first 
iron war vessel. In September, 1847, this boat left New Orleans for a cruise in 
Mexico. The W. W. Fry, built at Liverpool, and the John T. Moore at Cin- 
cinnati, were among the first iron vessels. The Charles P. Choteau, to whose 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 289 

powers as a cotton carrier we liave referred, was built out of an old iron hull. She 
was the first steamboat to introduce the electric searchlight in river navigation. 

In a quaint volume by Norman, published in 1845, we find that there were 
four routes of steamships from Xew Orleans to New York : 

First, via Pittsburg; second, via St. Louis, Chicago and Buffalo; third, via 
Wheeling and Baltimore; fourth, mail-line. 

In addition we find mentioned lines from New Orleans to Fort Gibson; to 
Balize, and Gulf of Mexico; to Pittsburg, Mississippi, to Nashville, Tennessee, to 
Florence, Alabama. New Orleans was always foremost in its transportation by 
water, though somewhat late in acquiring railroad connection with the rest of the 
world. 

In 1858 we find the New Orleans and Mobile Steam !Mail Line organized 
by Capt. John Grant, and owning the low-pressure steamers Cuba, Florida, Oregon, 
California, Alabama and Creole, and a few high-pressure freight steamboats; 
also a line of small low-pressure steamboats plying between New Orleans, Mande- 
ville, Madisonville and Covington. These vessels were used by Confederates in 1861. 

The Ouachita River Packet Company, organized 1870, ran six boats for a 
while. The Chalmette Packet Company, of the New Orleans & Western Railroad 
Company, is also called the Belt Line & Port Chalmette Terminals. The 
steamboats Chalmette, Dewey and Valley Queen, of this line, make weekly trips 
during the summer between Port Chalmette, New Orleans and Sunny Side, Ark. 
In winter two trips per week are made. The first steamboat used was the old 
Pargoud, run because the steamboat interests would not make the same rate on 
cotton to Chalmette as to the city front. The rates of the Pargoud were made 
exceedingly low for cotton, and the system has worked well. The officers of the 
company are: W. C. Dotterer, receiver and general manager; Charles W. Towsley, 
general agent, and G. McD. Nathan, treasurer. 

Among the steamboat companies organized early in the navigation of the 
Mississippi river and its tributaries were the following : 

The New Orleans & Yazoo Packet Company, in 1843, with four steamboats. 

Kennedy, King & O'Donnel's Company, with three steamboats, plying between 
Brazos de Santiago and Brownsville. 

The Cincinnati & New Orleans Express line, with ten boats. 

The Lightning Line of steamboats, established in 1858, and plying between 
New Orleans and Louisville, a steamboat pool, with ten steamboats included, 
owned by difl:erent parties. 



290 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

The St. Louis & Xew Orleans Packet Company, established in 1858, had 
nineteen boats, which connected at Cairo, III., with tlie Illinois Central Eailroad, 
and at St. Louis with the Ohio & Mississippi Eailroad. This was also a steamboat 
trust, and was immensely injured by the Civil War. 

The Memphis & Xew Orleans Packet Company, organized in 1844, in that 
year, placed four steamboats in commission, and in 1849 they put in commission 
a new set of boats, which in 1857 were superseded by twelve other boats. 

In 1840 there were three steamboats engaged in the New Orleans, Baton 
Rouge and Bayou Sara trade, named the Brilliant, the Baton Rouge and the 
John Armstrong, the number of steamers engaged in this trade having since then 
considerably increased. 

The Atlantic & Pacific Company, with 25 boats, 19 of which were used during 
the war by Confederates, many being destroyed in 1867, in 1869 was succeeded by 
St. Louis & New Orleans Packet Company, John N. Boffinger, President. This 
became Merchants' Southern Line Packet Company, and finally the Anchor Line, 
which in 1892 had five boats running from New Orleans to St. Louis and five from 
St. Louis to Vicksburg. 

The Oteri Pioneer Line, owned by Salvador Oteri, is composed of four steamers 
and one schooner, running in the fruit trade between New Orleans and Honduras 
and Bluefields, the business having been founded by Mr. Oteri's father in 1864. 

Besides the Chalmette Packet Company, mentioned elsewhere in this chapter, 
the following are the steamboat lines plying between New^ Orleans and other 
points on the great Mississippi river system : 

The Crescent City Packet Company, of which Franke Watson is agent, with 
office at 821 Gravier street; the Grand Lake and Vicksburg Line, of which Lord & 
McPeake are agents ; the Lafourche Line, B. Rivet, agent ; the Lower Coast Packets, 
Pa\il F. Renaud, agent; the Mandeville & Covington Line, W. G. Coyle & Co., 
agents ; the Memphis, New Orleans and Cincinnati Packet Company, J. H. Wright, 
agent; the Mississippi Packet Company, James B. Woods, president, and John T. 
Hall, secretary ; the New Orleans and Port Eads Packets, Paul F. Renaud, agent ; 
the New Orleans and Washington Packet Company, G. H. Quatreveaux, agent ; the 
Red River Line, Charles P. Truslow, president ; C. W. Drown, secretary and traffic 
manager, and the St. Louis & New Orleans Boats, James B. Woods, agent. 

The Crescent City Packet Company runs two boats, the T. P. Leathers and 
the America, the latter making her first trip September 2, 1899, both boats run- 
ning as far as Cariola, Ark. The officers of this company are Norman Eustis, 
president, and Simon Weis, secretary and treasurer. 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 291 

The United Fruit Company's Steamship lines comprise the following com- 
panies : The Snyder Banana Company, the Tropical Trading and Transport Com- 
pany, the New Orleans, Belize, Eoyal Mail and Central American Steamship 
Company, limited, the Oterie Pioneer line, and the Planterst Fruit and Steamship 
line. The traffic manager of this company is M. J. Dempsey. 

The Interstate Transportation Company has the towboats Henry Marks, T. A. 
Hendricks, Alarm and Crescent, and the tugs. Governor Nicholls and Lovey. 
It also has a number of pnmpboats for irrigating purposes. The officers of this 
company at the present time are S. V. Fornaris, president; W. C. Dotterer, vice- 
president and general manager; G. McD. Nathan, secretary and treasurer; Charles 
W. Towsley, traffic manager, and Victor von Schoeler, assistant general manager. 
Eecently a consolidation has been effected between this company and the New 
Orleans & Western Railroad Company, both companies being now managed by 
the same officers. 

The Mississippi Packet Company owns the large steamers Imperial and 
Whisper, running between New Orleans and Bayou Sara, and the steamers 
Comeaux and St. James, the latter a fine new boat, built in 1898, both plying be- 
tween the upper coast and the Bayou Lafourche. The president of this company 
is James B. Woods, and the secretary, John T. Hall. 

The Lower Coast Packet Company owns the steamers Neptune, Louise and 
Grover Cleveland, which ply between New Orleans and New Canal, a point about 
ten miles below Fort St. Philip, bringing to the New Orleans market rice, sugar, 
oysters, oranges and vegetables. The agent of this company is Paul F. Renaud. 

The Red River Line is composed of the following steamboats: Valley Queen, 
800 tons ; Sunrise, 800 tons ; Electra, 600 tons ; Halette, 450 tons ; W. T. Scovell, 
350 tons; and Gem, 300 tons. This line plies between New Orleans and points on 
the Red River. The officers of the Red River Line are: Charles P. Truslow, 
president ; Charles W. Brown, traffic manager ; W. F. Dillon, general freight agent. 

The Morgan Line of Steamships, plying between New Orleans and New York, 
Cuba, Central America and Galveston, was established previous to the war by 
Charles Morgan, hence its name, with only a single boat. In those days one ship 
per week was enough for the traffic between this city and New York, but now five 
or six are required. And the number of ships plying between New Orleans and 
Havana is now two or three per week, while the Central American line has now 
two per week plying regularly between New Orleans and Central American points. 
The ships of this line are among the largest and swiftest freight carriers in this 



292 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

country, and at Algiers the facilities for handling freight are most excellent, it being 
possible for eight ships to load and unload at a time. The vessels of this line are 
now as follows : Algiers, tonnage, 2,299 ; Arkansas, 1,156.78 ; Clialmette, 2,982.96 ; 
Clinton, 1,187.11; Excelsior, 3,263.95; El Paso, 3,531; El Monte, 3,531; El Dorado, 
3,531; El Mar, 3,531; El Sol, 4,532; El Sud, 4,659; El Norte, 4,659; El Rio, 
4,664.88; El Cid, 4,664.88; Gussie, 998.07; Harlan, 1,163.02; William G. Hewes, 
1,117.61; Morgan City, 2,299; Morgan, 994.31; New York, 2,344; and Whitney, 
1,337.64. The El Cid, El Rio, El Norte and El Sud are new, having been built 
recently at the Newport News Shipbuilding and Dry Dock Company's yards at 
Newport News, Va., to take the place of ships of the same names sold to the gov- 
ernment during the war with Spain. 

The oiSeers of the line are : A. C. Hutchison, president ; J. Kruttschnitt, gen- 
eral manager; C. W. Bein, traffic manager. New Orleans; and Mark A. Morse, 
Algiers, superintendent. 

The Cromwell Steamship Company has its office at No. 313 Carondelet street, 
and its landing at the head of St. Louis street. It maintains a regular weekly line 
between New Orleans and New York, having four fine iron steamships, the Louis- 
iana, 2,840 tons; the Knickerbocker, 1,650 tons; the Hudson, 1,872 tons; and the 
New Orleans, 1,440 tons. In 1894 the agent was Alfred Moulton, but at the pres- 
ent time Alexander Harris is the agent. 

One of the largest steamship agencies in New Orleans is that of A. K. 
Miller & Co., formerly A. K. Miller, Meletta & Co., having their office at No. 303 
Carondelet street. Each year this company dispatches from 200 to 250 ships 
from this port to European ports, of which number about 100 are liners, running 
regularly between New Orleans and Liverpool, London, Havre, Bremen, Hamburg, 
Antwerp, Cadiz, Barcelona, and other ports. The Hamburg-American, formerly 
managed by this company, is now managed by Meletta & Stoddart, and has eleven 
vessels, with an aggregate tonnage of 26,680 tons. Meletta & Stoddart are agents 
also of the Anchor line, of the Austro-American line, of the Pioneer line, of the 
Prine line, and of the Wilson line. 

Hammond's Steamship agencies were established in New Orleans in 1875 by 
the firm of DeWolf & Hammond, who were succeeded by William J. Hammond & 
Co., and this latter company by William J. Hammond, who has been in New 
Orleans since 1869, and now is agent for a fleet of 150 ships. These steamships 
ply between New Orleans and Liverpool, Bremen, Hamburg, Antwerp, Havre and 
London, and are known as Hammond's lines. 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 293 

The Harrison line is represented by Alfred Le Blanc, whose office is at Xo. 
829, Gravier street. This line comprises eighteen ships plying between New Or- 
leans and all parts of Europe and Asia. 

The Elder, Dempster line, which is owned mainly in Liverpool, England, 
has for its agents in New Orleans, M. & E. Warriner, who have been connected 
with the firm for many years. They operate steamers from New Orleans prin- 
cipally to Liverpool, Bremen and Havre, from two to four leaving weekly during 
the season. The office of the Messrs. Warriner is at No. 823 Gravier street and 
their fleet is composed of 110 vessels, twenty-five of which are chartered; in the 
aggregate they have a tonnage of 225,000. 

The Argo runs six vessels of more than 12,000 tons, to Bremen and Antwerp 
via Cuban and other ports in the West Indies, and is really a part of the Elder, 
Dempster line, which is mentioned above. 

The Forenede Gulf-Baltic Line to Copenhagen, has a fleet of eight vessels, 
having an aggregate tonnage of more than 15,000 tons. The business is principally 
in grain between New Orleans and Copenhagen, Charles F. Orthwein & Sons being 
the New Orleans agents, with office in the Hennen building. 

The Chargeurs Reunis (French) Line has been long established in France and 
has a large fleet engaged in carrying both freight and passengers between France 
and the United States and the various South American republics. The agents of 
this line in New Orleans are S. V. Fornaris & Co., with their office at No. 827 
Gravier street. They operate five different lines, that from New Orleans having 
direct sailing between New Orleans and the ports of Havre, Bremen and Antwerp. 
This line has lately established a line between New Orleans and Brazil, which 
materially increases the coffee trade of this port. 

The West India and Pacific Steamship Company, Limited, of Liverpool, 
England, has a fleet of fifteen large steamships carrying passengers and freight 
across the Atlantic Ocean, making altogether about seventy round trips a year 
between this city and Europe, six of the largest steamships being engaged in this 
trans-Atlantic trade, while the remainder make regular voyages to the West Indies 
and South American ports, and thence cross direct to Liverpool. A special feature 
of the business of this line is its passenger business, tickets being issued either to 
England and return direct, or to return with tourists' tickets by way of the most 
interesting points in the West Indies, Spanish main and Mexico. M. J. Sanders 
is the New Orleans agent for this line with office at No. 225 Carondelet street. 

Orthwein's Gulf Ports Line comprises forty-one vessels running to tlie various 



294 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

European ports, and handles grain in bulk mainly. The tonnage of this fleet is 
more than 75,000 tons. Charles F. Orthwein & Sons are the New Orleans agents, 
with office in the Hennen building. 

The Head Line (British), for Dublin and Belfast, Ireland, comprises five 
vessels of more than 18,000 tons. This line of vessels makes connections with 
various other ports in Ireland, and also in Scotland, such as Dundee and Glasgow. 
Charles F. Orthwein & Sons are the agents in New Orleans. This line has six 
ships running to Belfast and one to Dublin. 

The Mediterranean and New York Steamship Company has been recently 
established. It runs its steamships from New Orleans to Venice and Trieste. 
Charles F. Orthwein & Sons are the New Orleans agents. 

The Pioneer Line runs its steamships from New Orleans to Manchester, 
England, the cargoes consisting of cotton, cottonseed oil, grain and pig iron, the 
design of the managers of this line in England being to prove the superiority 
of Manchester over Liverpool. 

The Wilson Line between New Orleans and Hull, England, connects at the 
latter port with vessels running to the Baltic Sea. The Creole Line has three 
vessels plying between New Orleans and Genoa, Italy. The Freitas Line (British) 
has twelve vessels vvitli an aggregate tonnage of more than 19,000 tons, plying 
between New Orleans and various continental ports. The Compania Bilboa de 
Navigacion (Spanish) transports most of the cotton used in Spanish mills as well 
as a considerable portion of that used in the mills of France. 

The Companie Messagerie Francaise has twelve vessels of more than 33,000 
tons burden, a large part of which are running between New Orleans and Havre 
and Bordeaux, France; the Glynn Line (British) has eight vessels of an aggregate 
tonnage of 16,000 tons running to Liverpool, and the Larrinaga Line (Spanish), 
also running to Liverpool, has five vessels of an aggregate tonnage of about 10,000 
tons. The Holt Line (British) has eleven vessels of an aggregate of more than 
18,000 tons, plying between New Orleans and Havre, and the Cuban Steamship 
Line has four vessels running to London and Antwerp, via of Cuban ports, the 
aggregate tonnage of the four vessels being nearly 8,000 tons. 

The Mexican Gulf Steamship Company, of which 0. F. Spindler is agent, has 
ships running to Tampico, Mexico, connecting there with steamers for Vera Cruz 
and other Mexican ports and with the Mexican Central and Monterey & Mexican 
Gulf Railroad. 

The Central .\meriean Commercial Steamship Company plies to Honduras 
and Colombian ports, and p;irticularly Bocas del 'I'oro and Colon, the fleet consisting 



ST Ay DAE D HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 295 

of six steamers of more than 6,000 tons burden. The Costa Eica Steamship Line, 
of which Snyder Bros, are agents, has four steamers plying to Port Limon, Costa 
Eica, of somewhat more than 3,000 tons burden, two or three of which leave Xew 
Orleans every week. 

The ISTew Orleans Belize Eoyal Mail & Central American Steamship Company, 
limited, of which M. Macheca is president, and 0. V. Fernandez, secretary and 
treasurer, is imder subsidy by the British government to run regularly, trans- 
ports all the mail and most of the freight to Belize. The fleet is composed of six 
vessels of an aggregate of 4,500 tons, which run also to Puerto Cottez, Honduras, and 
Livingston and Puerto Barrios, Guatemala. 

The Pioneer Line to Santo Tomas, Ceiba, Truxillo, the north coast of Hon- 
duras and the Honduras Bay Islands, has four steamers aggregating 4,740 tons, 
which leave New Orleans three times per week. The Bluefields Steamship Com- 
pany, of which S. Steinhardt is president and E. H. Merrick, secretary, is composed 
of the Weinburg Steamship Company, the Caribbean Fruit Company, and Orr & 
Laubenheimer, uses six vessels of about 2,100 tons in the aggregate, plying to 
Bluefield and other ports on the coast of Nicarauga. They are small in order 
that they may enter the shallow waters of the Central American coast. 

The Creole Line, running steamships from New Orleans and Galveston to 
Genoa, has four steamships, the Citta Di Messina, Sicilia, Citta Di Palermo and 
one other running from New Orleans, and others from Galveston. Charles F. 
Orthwein & Sons are the New Orleans agents. 

The Hamburg-American Line runs steamships from New Orleans and Galves- 
ton to Hamburg, having four ships on the line between New Orleans and Hamburg, 
the Emma, the Tuskar, the Galicia and the Al. Charles F. Orthwein & Co. are 
agents for this line. 

The Florio Line has a line of steamships plying between New Orleans and 
Palermo and Genoa, and the Gulf Ports Steamship Line between New Orleans 
and Galveston and Eotterdam, and the Texas Transport Steamship Line has four 
vessels plying between New Orleans and Galveston and Bremen and Eotterdam. 



296 



STAXDAUD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 



Following is a statement of the vessels belonging to the port of New Orleans 
July 31, 1899 : 



Steam, 



Number of Vessels. Gross Tonnage. Net Tonnage. 



Ocean (wood) 

Ocean (iron and steel). 

River (wood) 

River (iron and steel). 



Total steam 
Sails- 
Ocean (wood) .. 
River (wood) . . 



Total sail 



Grand total 



2 
18—20 
106 
15—121 


1,557.00 
20,115.00 
12,771.00 

3,554.00 

38,197.00 

366.00 
2,247.00 

2,613.00 

40,810.00 


924.00 

12,859.00 

10,251.00 

2,767.00 


141 

3 
95 


26,801.00 

314.00 
1,554.00 


98 


1,868.00 


239 


28,669.00 



And as showing the growth or rather changes occurring in recent years it 
may be stated that on July 31, 1897, the totals were 241 vessels, with a gross tonnage 
of 41,233.54 and net tonnage of 29,391.89, and for July 31, 1898, the number 
of vessels was 231, gross tonnage, 35,009, and the net tonnage, 25,336. And also 
that vessels of less than five tons net are not taken into account, of which there 
were on July 31, 1899, about 200, with a gross tonnage of about 1,000 and a net 
tonnage of about 800. The largest number of vessels that ever entered the port 
in any October was 156 in October, 1899, of which 144 were steamships. 

As showing somewhat in detail the movement of vessels to and from the port 
of New Orleans the following tables are of interest and value : 

Number and tonnage of vessels cleared at this port by months for the year 
ending July 31, 1899 : 



Months, 


Coastwise 


American Vessels for 


Foreign Vessels for 


1898-99. 


Vessels. 


Foreign Ports. 


Foreign Ports. 






With Cargo. In Ballast. 


With Cargo. In Ballast. 




No. Tons. 


No. Tons. No. Tons. 


No. Tons. No. Tons. 



August 24 

September 21 

October 18 

November 25 

December 29 

January 37 

February 34 

March 38 

April 32 

May 31 

June 26 

July 27 

Totals 1898-99.. 342 
Totals 1897-98.. 340 
Totals 1896-97.. 285 



40,439 










63 


82,188 


13 


2,189 


40,617 


5 


2,947 


3 


1,342 


58 


85,947 


13 


6,803 


27,291 


4 


2,825 


5 


2,436 


70 


124,252 


6 


2,125 


41,176 


14 


8,462 






78 


132,283 


4 


1,060 


41,168 


9 


6,412 






85 


149,721 


2 


1.602 


48,185 


12 


6,480 






89 


163,275 


2 


1,322 


52,222 


12 


7,263 






72 


134,579 


6 


2,534 


53,368 


16 


8,793 


1 


266 


76 


131,909 


7 


3,703 


44,323 


10 


6,118 


3 


1,044 


49 


75,416 


10 


7,215 


45,936 


14 


7,574 


3 


881 


58 


80,017 


7 


3,610 


35,974 


13 


7,783 


1 


538 


66 


89,440 


3 


1,127 


41.316 


11 


5,841 


3 


933 


67 


97,153 


6 


1,812 


512,015 


120 


70,498 


19 


7,440 


828 


1,346,180 


79 


41,000 


481,990 


117 


81.899 


27 


13,966 


916 


1,530,919 


50 


22,145 


517,547 


97 


80,697 


34 


16,162 


806 


1,284,043 


46 


17,911 



STAXDAUD III^TOEY OF XE]y ORLEAXS. 297 

Number and tonnage of vessels entered at this port during the year ending 
July 31, 1899, also by months : 

Months, Coastwise American Vessels from Foreign Vessels from 

1898-99. Vessels. Foreign Ports. Foreign Ports. 

With Cargo. In Ballast. With Cargo. In Ballast. 

No. Tons. No. Tons. No. Tons. No. Tons. No. Tons. 

August 18 36,431 49 48,273 31 51,939 

September 19 39,730 6 2,074 48 52,448 29 53,291 

October 21 33,212 9 4,867 1 964 46 61,824 35 64,251 

November 27 45,438 13 7,345 4 3,157 35 45,170 41 83,938 

December 32 50.310 7 4,018 6 2,973 35 52,587 50 105,502 

January 31 47,988 12 7,846 13 10,337 35 49,777 49 86,823 

February 24 40,342 12 7,300 12 7,695 36 57,824 44 88,570 

March 25 45,436 18 12,343 8 3,984 41 53,857 32 62,822 

April 26 42,445 16 8,854 1 678 39 38,685 16 25,147 

May 26 43,156 19 11,368 3 2,113 51 55,745 18 32,904 

June 20 38,245 19 9,925 3 1,183 52 63,095 19 33,828 

July 27 43,086 13 7,758 4 2,264 47 52,263 19 32,522 

Totals 1898-99.. 296 505,819 144 83,698 55 36,348 514 631,548 383 721,537 

Totals 1897-98.. 252 524,959 139 77,446 32 33,604 464 583,324 459 901,605 

Totals 1896-97.. 272 544,303 186 114,583 9 9,804 485 532,410 360 689,544 



The Ferry franchises were leased to Captain Thomas Pickles in 1877, he 
being provided with landings in the Second, Third and Fourth districts on the 
business side of the river, and also for the Freetown ferry, and also corresponding 
lands on the Algiers side of the river. He furnished nine steam ferryboats, espe- 
cially built for the purpose, all of which he owned, as well as the improvements at 
the landings. Captain Pickles was born in England, but came to New Orleans in 
1849, and besides his several ferryboats he was also the owner of the Algiers and 
Gretna street railroad, three and a half miles long on the right bank of the river. 
Captain Thomas Pickles died December 29, 1896, and since that time the ferry 
business has been in the hands of the Union Ferry Company, which operates eight 
boats, at Jackson, Canal, Second, Third and Richard streets. The president of this 
company is A. M. Halliday; secretary and treasurer, William G. Brothers, and 
assistant secretary and treasurer, Floyd W. Morgan. 

RAILROADS. 

Before entering upon the subject of railroads in New Orleans, we must take a 
brief glance at those historic railroads which were the precursors of all our present 
mighty line of travel. The Stockton and Darlington line in England first ran 
September 27, 1825, with a train of 3-4 cars and one locomotive, of which Stephenson 
«as the engineer. A man on horseback trotted in advance of this wonderful train. 



298 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

whose greatest speed was 15 miles an hour. This was the first railroad in the world, 
but the Liverpool and Manchester, constructed later (1829), had a greater effect 
in impressing on the public mind the magnitude of the new invention. 

The first railroad in the United States planned by Gridley Bryant and built 
with the aid of Colonel T. II. Perkins, ran in 1826, carrying granite from Quincy, 
Mass., to the nearest tide water. The second ran in 1827 from the coal mines at 
Mauch C'liunk to the Lehigh Kiver. Three locomotives were purchased at this time 
by the Delaware & Hudson Canal Company; one, built by Stephenson, arriving 
at New York in the spring of 1829; one, built by Foster Sastrick & Co., coming soon 
after, going upon the railroad at Honesdale Eailroad, and making the round trip 
with Horatio A. Slen as engineer. With these locomotives steam power was first 
introduced upon the American railroad. The locomotive last referred to called the 
Stourbridge Lion, had four wheels, a multi-tubular boiler and an exhaust blast, and 
may now be seen in the National Museum, Washington, D. C. 

Passing over the beginning of the Baltimore & Ohio Eailroad in 1828, the 
building at Baltimore, 1830, of the first locomotive used in America for passengers, 
the animal power railroad from Charleston to the Savannah Eiver, South Carolina, 
which was propelled at the rate of 12 miles an hour by a horse on an endless plat- 
form; the use on this same road, 1835, of a steam locomotive, called the "Best 
Friend," the first to use four wheeled trucks and the building of various other lines, 
among them one from Eichmond to the coal mines, we come to the New Orleans & 
Pontchartrain Eailroad, four and one-half miles long, running April 16, 1831. 

Though in 1832 there were 92 miles of railroad in the United States, and by 
1858, 7,000, only one considerable venture was made during this time by New 
Orleans, and that proved a failure. M. W. Hoffman and the Hon. Clark Woodruff 
in 1835 obtained a charter for the building of a railroad to Nashville. But after 20 
miles of it had been built and were in operation, the enterprise failed disastrously, 
and in a few years no traces of it could be found. 

In 1852 an impetus was given to public spirit by a series of papers published 
by C. S. Tarpley, urging the building of a road from New Orleans to Jackson, 
Miss., and a meeting was held at Monticello of Louisiana and Mississippi delegates. 
The following committtees w^ere apppointed : 

On Eoutes — John Marshall, Hon. E. Ford, W. H. Bowen, A. Steele, 

Love, S. M. Catchings, W. A. Grice, John M. Bell, and N. S. Edwards. 

On Statistics — W. F. Eobinson, J. T. Lampkin, C. S. Tarpley, G. Nicholson, 
E. Safford, and J. D. B. De Bow, the latter of New Orleans. 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 299 

On Memorials — S. J. Peters, James Robb, J. W. Stanton, A. Hennon, J. Leeds, 
and James Saul, all of New Orleans; and Messrs. Penn, Tarpley, Stone, Catchings, 
Matthews, Guion and Waull, of Mississippi. 

A meeting held March 81, 1850, was poorly attended, but in April, 1851, 
a few prominent gentlemen excited public enthusisam and promised their aid in 
building the railroad under discussion. Mr. Eobb in particular awakened great 
interest by his speech. A bonus of $100,000 was promised by members from 
Opelousas to any company who would build a railroad to Point Coupee. The 
Attakapas county was also urgent in demanding railroads ; and at a meeting presided 
over by Maunsel White, it M'as decided to build a road all the way down to New 
Orleans. A series of resolutions drawn up by Glendy Burke at the City Hall, June, 
1851, called for a general convention of Southern and Western delegates and a 
committee was appointed of Glendy Burke, A. D. Grossman, J. D. B. De Bow, 
Alexander Monton and C. S. Tarpley to visit the various States and awaken inter- 
est in the subject of railroads. 

An elaborate address prepared by this committee and read before a meeting in 
New Orleans, January, 1852, contained these words : 

"What, then, must be done for New Orleans ? She must, by a wise and liberal 
stroke of polic}', regain a part, if not the whole, of the trade she has supinely lost, 
and open new sources of opulence and power which are abundant all around her. 
She can do this by changing and modifying her laws bearing lanequally or hardly 
upon capital and enterprise; by cheapening her system of government ; by affording 
greater facilities and presenting less restrictions to commerce; by establishing m.an- 
ufactures, opening steamship lines to Europe and conducting a foreign import trade; 
and finally, and what is of first importance and should precede every other effort, by 
MUNIFICENT APPROPKIATIONS TO EAILROADS BRANCHING TO 
THE WEST, AND THE NORTH, AND THE EAST, FROM A TERMINUS 
AT HER CENTER, OR FROM TERMINI ON SUCH INTERIOR STREAMS 
AND RIVERS AS ARE NECESSARILY TRIBUTARY TO HER. Now is the 
accepted time. To-morrow will be too late'" 

The two lines then in projection for the purpose of connecting Louisiana with 
neighboring States were as follows : 

1. The New Orleans & Jackson Railroad, designed to be extended to Holly 
Springs, Tenn., to Kentucky and the Ohio River. 

2. The New Orleans & Opelousas Railroad, ultimately designed to be extended 
to Texas, and thence to Mexico. 



300 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

At that time Louisiana liad only sixty-three miles of railroad in operation, as 
follows: Carrollton, G miles; Clinton «fe Port Hudson, 24 miles; Lake Ponchar- 
train, 6 miles; and the Mexican Gulf, 27 miles. Following arc brief histories of 
the several railroads now centering in New Orleans: 

There was a division in this last convention, certain delegates withdrawing for 
a convention of their own, in which Alfred llennen occupied the chair. Their pre- 
amble and resolution follow : 

"Whereas, The delegates to the New Orleans & Jackson Kailroad convention 
favorable to tlic route via ]\Iadis(mville have felt constrained to withdraw from its 
deliberations, they deem it due to themselves and liio public to declare the reasons 
therefor; therefore be it 

"Resolved, That the refusal of the convention to allow the advocates of the 
Madisonville route to be heard through their engineer, Lieutenant L. H. Smith, 
United States Engineers, who had surveyed the route, by laying on the table a resolu- 
tion in its behalf before its supporters had an opportunity of being heard, made it 
imperative on them to withdraw from their seats in that body." 

This convention favored the route across Lake Ponchartrain, whose total cost 
was estimated at $33G,400; steamboats for crossing the lake, $70,000 each, and 
cost of operating them $15,000 a year. The superior advantages of this route were 
described at length by Lieutenant Smith. 

The Mississippi Legislature granted a charter to the New Orleans & Jackson 
Eailroad Company; and by July, 1851, nearly $500,000 was raised. It was proposed 
to build the road (of 213 miles) up tlu- loft bank of the Mississippi to avoid 
swamps and navigable streams. 

New Orleans was awakened to her duty as a progressive city by the loss to her 
commerce from linos of railroad then in action. For instance, in 1850 New Orleans 
lost 12.6 per cent of the cotton crop. Charleston and Savannah together had gained 
13.8 per cent. This was owing to the opening of the Western & Atlantic Railroad 
between Chattanooga and the two coast cities, while the extension of the Chat- 
tanooga road into Alabama and Tennessee, then in contemplation, would prove a 
still greater disaster to New Orleans. 

A railroad convention was held June 4, 1851, composed chiefly of wealthy Cre- 
oles from the parishes, who represented about $15,000,000. These men determined 
to show the world that the Southern States could take their place in the front ranks 
of progress without aid from the North. The officers of this meeting were : 

President, Maunsel White; vice-presidents. Judge Overton, General Declouet, 



STANDARD HISTORY OP NE]Y ORLEANS. 301 

Governor Mouton, 0. Cornay, J. W. Tucker, W. Jxikinot, Dr. Kittridge, D. F. Kcn- 
ner, Ambrose Lanfear, A. D. Grossman, L. Matthews, E. Lesseps, A. Boutee, A. B. 
Segar, H. E. Lawrence and Judge Woodruff; secretaries, John E. King, Eobert 
Taylor, Dr. Hawkins, John Burns and Frederick L. Gates. 

A railroad was planned by the convention from New Orleans to Washington, 
St. Landry Parish (173 miles) and the permanent committee of the Opelousas, Atta- 
kapas & Kew Orleans Eailroad was as follows : 

M. 0. H. Morton, J. B. Bellocq, M. M. Cohen, J. W. Stanton, Buckner H. 
Payne, Alexander Lesseps, R. F. Nichols, J. Bernard, S. Benoit, Benjamin Buisson, 
C. Forshey, Ambrose Lanfear, Judge Labranche, D. F. Kenner, John Thebank, 
A. Mouton, Joaquin Revillon, E. H. Martin, J. C. Anderson, Alexander Declouet, 
John Moore, F. D. Richardson, John B. Murphy, J. C. Potts, J. H. Hanna, George 
S. Guion and A. Collins. 

The report (December, 1851) of Civil Engineer Augustus S. Phelps concerning 
this projected route gave as its cost, $244,596. Phelps surveyed the portion between 
Thibodaux and Berwick's Bay, and A. G. Blanchard that between Algiers and Thibo- 
daux (51 miles), the cost of which he stated as $800,000. 

A company to build this road was incorporated by the Legislature by the name 
of the New Orleans, Opelousas & Great AVestorn Railroad Company, with a capi- 
tal of $3,000,000, divided into shares of $25 each. The first officers of the road 
were as follows : 

President, Christopher Adams. Directors — Christopher Adams, Jr., Ambrose 
Lanfear, J. Y. de Egane, J. W. Stanton, A. Chiapella, J. D. Denegre, R. B. Sumner, 
L. J. Sigur, L. Leon Bernard, General A. Declouet, Harvey Hopkins and M. 0. H. 
Norton. 

The part of this line known as Morgan's Louisiana and Texas line, extending 
from New Orleans to Vermillionville (144 miles), its company being chartered in 
1877, with $5,000,000 capital, has the following branches: From Vermillionville 
to Alexandria, 84 miles; from Terre Bonne to Houma, 15 miles; from Terre Bonne 
to Thibodaux, 6 miles ; from New Iberia to Salt Mine, IQ miles ; from Cade to St. 
Martinsville, 7 miles ; from Baldwin to Cypremort, 1 5 miles, the latter being con- 
structed in 1885. 

The company also owned four ferryboats, a number of dredge boats, tugs, 
seventeen iron going steamships, six plying between New York and New Orleans, 
nine between Morgan City and various Texas and Mexican ports, two from New 
Orleans to Florida and Havana; also most of the stock of the Gulf, Western & 



302 STANDAh'n IlISTOliV OF NEW OHLEANS. 

Pacific Railroad, Texas Transportation Company, Buffalo liayoii Ship ('hniiiiol 
Company and Houston & Texas Central Railway Company. 

In 18S4 A. C. Hutchinson, of New Orleans, was president of the company." and 
also in ISS6, at this latter date J. Q. Schricver being vice-president; J. B. Richard- 
son, secretary and treasurer. 

In January. 1853, a great railroad convention was held at New OrlcMiis, wiih 
600 delegates from thirty Louisiana parishes; JclTcrson City, New (hlcans, Lafay- 
ette, Virginia, Kentucky, Tennessee, Alabama, Florida, Missouri, Mississippi, .Vr- 
kausas, Texas and Ceorgia. It renuiined in session from January T) to January !>, 
its otliccrs being: 

Tresident, ex-Governor Alexander Mouton. Viiv-presidenls — C. S. Tarplcy, 
Mississippi; Joseph Forsyth, Florida; Lucius C. Polk, Tennessee; William N. Hur- 
well. Virginia; Amos Morrill, Texas; H. Chouteau, Missouri; P. T. Parham. .Ma- 
bama; J. N. Beadles, Kentucky; Judge James Campbell, Louisiana, and Absalom, 
Arkansas. Secretaries — John Calhoim, Louisiana; R. C. Farreley, Arkansas, and 
John Duncan, Mississippi. 

Various committees were appointed and a resolution adopted to the elTeet tluit 
New Orleans would liberally contribute to the proposed road; another approving 
donations by which public lands and public interests would be benefited. A national 
road was favored to the Pacific Ocean, its terminals on the ^lississippi. one north, 
one south of the Ohio ; and later the Louisiana Legislature incorporated by an act 
the New Orleans. Jackson v^* On\it Northern Railroad Company, with $3,000,000 
capital, and these ollicers: 

President, James Kobb. Directors — James Robb, A. D. Kelly. J. P. Benjamin, 
J. P. Harrison. Isadore Labatut, W. S. Campbell, John Slidell. W. P. Converse, 
E. W. Morse. Ku\ile La Seiv. H. S. Buckncr and Charles Bride. 

The New Orleans, Mobile & Chattanooga Railroad Company was chartered in 
Alabanui, November St, 1SG6; in Mississippi, February 7, ISOT; in Louisiana, .\u- 
gust 0, ISiiO, and in Texas, January 10, 18(10, its design being to construct under 
these several charters railroads from Mobile to New Orleans, 141 miles; from New 
Orleans to the Sabine Rivt-r. '.^V^T miles; from the Sabine River to Houston, Tex., 
108 miles; with branches from Vermillionville. La., to Shreveport, 195 miles, and 
from Vermillionville to Brashear City. La.. C>5 miles, the total length of the main 
lines and branches. T35 miles. 

In 18t>7 it acquired tlie rights of the Wills Valley Railroad Company, extend- 
ing from Gadsden. Ala.. 84 miles, with the plan of continuing to Cliattanooga. and 



STAND A III) IIIHTOKY OF NFAV ORLf'JANS. 303 

Louisiana subscribed to this company $2,500,000 and a subsidy of $3,000,000, pay- 
able in four installments; the completion of the road to Donaldsonville, to Vermil- 
lionville, to the Sabine River and to Houston, Tex. New Orleans also granted 
valuable terminal facilities. 

In October, 1870, a division of this road between New Orleans and Mobile was 
finished, and in 1871 a second division from New Orleans to the Sabine River was 
completed to Donaldsonville, when the company was reorganized under the name 
of the New Orleans, Mobile & Texas Railroad Company. Some litigation in 1874 
resulted in the transfer of the road west of Vermillionville to the Louisiana West- 
ern Railroad Company. Other portions of this road were transferred, the portion 
from New Orleans to Mobile being sold in 1880 under foreclosure and leased to the 
Louisville & Nashville Railroad Company for fifty years. 

The New Orleans, Opelousas & Great Western Railroad Company, chartered 
in April, 1852, for the purpose of building a line of railroad from Algiers via Thibo- 
daux, Berwick's Bay and Washington to the Sabine river, and with a branch off to 
the northwest to the southern boundary of Arkansas, completed its road of 80 miles 
to Berwick's Bay, Brashear City, in 1857. On June 21, 1852, New Orleans voted to 
tax herself $1,500,000 to pay for this road, and in 1853 Louisiana agreed to sub- 
scribe one-fifth of the stock (conditionally). Congress donated certain lands 
(which, however, never came into possession of the company), and in August, 1852, 
the road was begun. On November 6, 1854 the road was opened from Algiers to 
Lafourche Crossing, a distance of 52 miles; on October 15, 1855, to Tigersville, on 
March 1, 185C, to Bayou Boeuf, and on April 12, 1857, to Berwick's Bay; total dis- 
tance, 80 miles. 

On February 1, 18fiG, this road, held during the war by the Federals, was re- 
turned to its company. It was purchased in 1869 by Charles Morgan of New York 
City, for $2,050,000, and the branch to Havana completed in 1871. In 1879-80 
the extension from Berwick's Bay to Cheneyville, distance 124 miles, was finished, 
and also the Thibodaux branch, C miles long, and later the Salt Mine branch, the 
St. Martinsville branch and the Cypremort branch were constructed. 

In 1884 the capital stock of the railroad company was purchased by the South- 
ern Development Company, and in 1885, 40,627 shares out of 50,000 passed into 
the hands of the Southern Pacific, a new company then controlling the lines of the 
"Sunset Route" between New Orleans and San Francisco. At this time the lines 
of railroads and steamboats were divided into three systems : 

First, the Pacific system; second, the Atlantic system; and third, the steam- 



304 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

ship lines. The Pacific system was then 3,001.19 miles in length; the Atlantic 
system, 1,709.84 miles, and the steamship lines, 4,205 miles, giving a total length 
of 8,916.03 miles. 

The eighteen sea-going steamships of the Morgan line, running in connection 
with the Southern Pacific railway lines, plied semi-weekly between New Orleans 
and New York, and weekly between New York and Galveston; New York, Key 
West and Havana ; Morgan City and Vera Cruz ; and Galveston, Indianola, Corpus 
Christi and Brownsville. The officers of this company elected in April, 1885, were : 
Leland Stanford, president; C. P. Huntington, vice-president; Charles Crocker, 
second vice-president; C. F. Crocker, third vice-president; A. N. Towne, of San 
Francisco, general manager of the Pacific system, and A. C. Hutchinson, general 
manager of the Atlantic system, at New Orleans. 

The Southern Pacific Railroad Company was formed October 12, 1870,. of the 
consolidation of the following lines: The Southern Pacific, chartered December 
5, 1865; the San Francisco & San Jose, chartered August 18, 1860; the Santa Clara 
& Pajaro Valley, chartered January 2, 1868; and the California Southern, char- 
tered January 22, 1870. The Southern Pacific Branch Eailroad Company, char- 
tered December 23, 1872, was consolidated in the Southern Pacific, August 19, 1873, 
and the Los Angeles & San Pedro Railroad Company, chartered February 18, 1868, 
was consolidated therein December 18, 1874. The total length of the lines of all 
these companies was 1,022.20 miles. 

The road as completed was opened to Fort Yuma, 729 miles from San Fran- 
cisco, via Lathrop and Goshen, May 5, 1877. From the California boundary 
eastwardly the road was extended by the Southern Pacific Railroad Companies of 
Arizona and New Mexico, connection being made with the Atchison, Topeka & 
Santa Fe at Deming, N. M., 466.6 miles east of Yuma and 1,197.5 miles east of San 
Francisco, March 18, 1881. During this year the road was continued to El Paso, 
88 miles, making a connection with the Mexican Central, which was completed in 
1883, to the City of Mexico, and also with the Galveston, Harrisburg & San Antonio, 
thus forming a through connection, or transcontinental line, from San Francisco 
to New Orleans. This through line, of which the Texas & New Orleans, the Lou- 
isiana Western and Morgan's lines, formed parts, was opened for traffic to New 
Orleans January 15, 1883. 

This latter line in 1885 passed under the control of the Southern Pacific com- 
pany, which practically began Jlarch 1, 1885. having by July, 1887, control of the 
Central Pacific, of the Southern Pacific, of the Atlantic system, of the New York, 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 305 

Texas & Mexican, and of the Southern Pacific Coast Line, and o\vning 613 locomo- 
tives and 15,845 cars. 

From July 1, 1889, the railroad leases in Texas held by this company were can- 
celled and operated from that time by their own officers. The following lines in 
Texas were controlled by the Southern Paciiic Company: The Texas & New Or- 
leans; Galveston, Harrisburg & San Antonio; Gulf, Western Texas & Pacific, and 
the New York, Texas & Mexican. 

The New Orleans, Jackson & Great Northern Railroad, before referred to, was 
completed by 1860 to Canton, Miss. ; the Mississippi Central by 1860 to Jackson, 
Tenn., and by 1873 to the Ohio Eiver; and by October 29, 1889, a route was opened 
of 2,888.47 miles between New Orleans and the great lakes. This road, becoming 
November 8, 1877, the Chicago, St. Louis & New Orleans Railroad, was leased June, 
1882, to the Illinois Central Company. Its capital stock is now $10,000,000; its 
bonded debt, $18,000,000. 

In 1889 the Mississippi & Tennessee Railroad was consolidated with the Chi- 
cago, St. Louis & New Orleans Railroad Company, and was also leased to the 
Illinois Central. 

The Yazoo & Mississippi Valley Railroad extends from New Orleans to Mem- 
phis, a distance of 456.15 miles, and has several branches, increasing the length of 
the system to 807.27 miles, that being the length of the lines in operation June 30, 
1897. The Illinois Central Railroad Company purchased nearly all the stock of 
the Louisville, New Orleans & Texas Railroad Company in 1892, on the basis of 
paying $5,000,000 in cash and $20,000,000 in its 4 per cent called bonds of 1953, 
and in the year last mentioned the latter railroad company and the Yazoo & Missis- 
sippi Valley Railroad Company were consolidated, and since November 1, 1892, 
they have both been operated by the latter company, which owns the Yazoo division 
of the Illinois Central Railroad, of which division there are two branches ; one run- 
ning from Jackson, Miss., to Parsons, a distance of 115.69 miles, and the other 
running from Durant, Miss., to Tchula, a distance of 24.67 miles, this division 
having been leased to the Illinois Central Railroad Company in 1888. 

The Mississippi, Terre Aux Boeufs & Lake Railroad Company was chartered 
March 23, 1877, for the purpose of building a railroad from New Orleans to Shell 
Beach, distance 30 miles. The road was opened May 8, 1884, and the directors 
elected March 2, 1886, were as follows: Lloyd R. Coleman, Lucas E. Moore, James 
A. Shakespeare, M. R. Spcllman and B. S. Story, all of New Orleans, and John R. 
Elder and William L. Elder, both of Indianapolis, Ind. John R. Elder was chosen 



3o6 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

president, and Lloyd E. Coleman vice-president. The capital of the company was 
$199,500, and the road cost $483,740.25. This company in 1886 was merged in a 
new company called the New Orleans & Gulf Railroad Company, which had been 
chartered to build a line from Poydras, on the line of the former company's road, 
to Point-a-la-Hache, the quarantine station for the port of New Orleans, a distance 
of 36 miles, with two branches aggregating 2.5 miles. The capital stock of this new 
company was $300,000, and the officers remained after its incorporation the same 
as those of the older company. 

Track laying was begun in January, 1887, and the line was completed the 
same year. The company purchased the three steamboats and the entire business 
and good will of the Red River & Coast Line Steamboat Company from New Orleans 
to the Jetties, which included the United States mail contract and gave the com- 
pany a monopoly of the traffic between New Orleans and the Jetties on both sides 
of the Mississippi River. As now constructed, the main line of this road extends 
from New Orleans to Bohemia, 50 miles, and the Shell Beach branch is 15.50 miles 
long. The officers up to 1891 remained as above given. 

As successor to the above company, the New Orleans & Southern Railroad 
Company was chartered September 15, 1891, the property having been sold under 
foreclosure March 5, preceding. A receiver was appointed for the property June 6, 
1895, and the property was leased to the New Orleans & Western Railroad Company 
February 1, 1896, the latter company owning a railroad from Port Chalmette to 
Shrewsbury, La., 12 miles, and from the latter place to Southport, 2 miles. This 
company was chartered January 17, 1895, their road being opened January 11, 1896. 
It owns extensive terminal facilities at Port Chalmette, including 2,300 acres of 
land, 1,500 feet of covered wharfage, eighty warehouses, four cotton compresses, a 
grain elevator, waterworks, etc. Its road connects with every railroad entering the 
city. On February 1, 1896, this company leased the New Orleans & Southern 
Railroad for one year, provided it were not sold imder foreclosure before the expira- 
tion of that period. 

In 1896 the officers were as follows: President, Charles E. Levy; vice-presi- 
dent, Charles B. Van Nostrand, of New York ; secretary and treasurer, D. B. Morey, 
and auditor, G. McD. Nathan. The office of the company was then in the cotton 
exchange building in New Orleans. 

The rails of the New Orleans & Western Railroad connect directly with those 
of the Illinois Central, the ^lississippi Valley, the New Orleans & Northeastern 
and the Louisville & Nashville, and interchange is made with the Texas & Pacific 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 307 

by boat to Port Chalmette, and with the Southern Pacific by transfer boat to Port 
Chalmotte, the same as with the Texas & Pacific, and by rail throiigh the Louisville 
& Nashville. 

The Port Chalmette terminals are the largest and most complete in the South- 
ern States. There is a wharf frontage of 2,475 feet, with more than 1,800 feet of 
shed on the same. Seven steamers can all occupy quay berths and load at the same 
time and during the last cotton season (1898-99) more than once ten steamers were 
at one time loading various cargoes at this wharf. In addition to these wharf facili- 
ties, the company owns and operates three large cotton compresses; eighty brick 
warehouses, whose aggregate capacity is 96,000 bales of flat cotton, and also several 
large storehouses, in which 40,000 additional bales of cotton or other freight can 
be stored. It also has a 500,000 bushel elevator. These large terminal,? and other 
facilities are located on historic ground, the place having been formerly known as 
the "Battle Ground Plantation." The remnants of the manor house are where Gen- 
eral Packenham had his headquarters in the war of 1812, and from this manor 
house to the public road is an avenue of live oaks unequalled anywhere else in the 
South. One of the principal advantages of these terminals and the belt line is that 
shippers are not confined to the terminals of the road over which they ship, and 
manufactories located on its line are practically located on every line coming into 
the city. The officers of the New Orleans & Western Railroad Company are : W. 
C. Dotterer, receiver and general manager; J. W. Mumper, assistant general man- 
ager; G. McD. Nathan, secretary and treasurer ; Charles W. Towsley, general agent, 
and R. B. Fowler, general superintendent. 

The New Orleans, Spanish Fort & J-ake Railroad Company is an old organi- 
zation. The property was purchased in 1896 by Eastern capitalists and leased to the 
New Orleans & Western Railroad Company for the purpose of giving that company 
an entrance into New Orleans. Spanish Fort used to be the chief lake resort for the 
people of New Orleans, but of recent years it has become the chief resort of the 
colored portion of the inhabitants. 

The Texas & Pacific Railroad Company, formerly known as the New Orleans 
Pacific Railroad Company, was organized in June, 1875, for the purpose of building 
a railroad from the upper Red River country to New Orleans, the latter city con- 
tributing $354,000; Alexandria, $15,200; Natchez, $25,000; Mansfield, $15,000; 
De Soto, $100,000; Shreveport, $25,000; Caddo, $20,000, and Marshall, Tex., $60,- 
000, together with the charter of the Marshall & Mansfield Railroad Company, and 
286,720 acres of land belonging to this latter company. The work of construction 



3o8 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

was carried on from 1875 to ISTO, the Louisiana Construction Company ceasing 
work in 1878, after spending $100,000. In July, 1880, the American Railroad Im- 
provement Company took charge, and in October resumed the work of construction, 
and the last rail was laid July 11, 1882, the road at that time being 171 miles long 
and having cost $3,537,000. On September 19 of that year the new road was trans- 
ferred to the Texas & Pacific Railroad Company, under articles of consolidation. 
The part of the old road between Shreveport, La., and Marshall, Tex., was com- 
pleted July 38, 1866, the first train passing over it the next day. The first train 
from Dallas to Shreveport over the Texas Pacific road reached Shreveport August 
11, 1873, and the road was opened for regular traffic August 13, 1873. 

This road was first projected early in the forties, and a sketch of the road made 
in 1851. The branch from Baton Rouge Junction to Port Allen forms a part of 
this system, and the new road from Alexandria to Arkansas City, as well as the 
road from Plaquemine to Indian City. 

In 1892 this company purchased the Kansas City, El Paso & Mexican Railroad, 
generally known as the White Oaks road, which was projected from El Paso to 
White Oaks, ten miles of which frpm El Paso north had been constructed and laid 
with steel, the cost to the purchasing company being $50,000 ; but this road was 
afterward sold to a local company for a sum sufficient to cover the cost and interest. 

The Louisville, New Orleans & Texas Railroad was built to a point 80 miles 
above Vicksburg by July 25, 1884, and 315 miles of continuous track led north from 
New Orleans along the Mississippi River. February 1 of that year the telegraph 
was completed to the terminus of the road, fifty miles north of Walnut Hills. The 
road was completed January 1, 1885. Its branches are the Glendale & Eagle Nest, 
the Leland & Huntington, the Wilzcinski & Glen Allen, the Lament & Rondale and 
the Slaughter & Woodville. 

This railroad company was formed by consolidation August 12, 1884; the 
main line was completed in October and opened November 1, 188-1. The main line 
forms the connecting link between the Chesapeake & Ohio system on the north and 
the Southern Pacific system on the south. The only New Orleans member of the 
board of directors elected in 1884 was A. C. Hutchinson. The distance from New 
Orleans to Memphis by this line is 456.18 miles. In 1884 its branches were the 
Leland branch, from Leland to Huntington, Miss., 21.90 miles, and the Washington 
branch, 34 miles long, making the entire length of the road 512.08 miles. The 
Issaquena branch, 1.37 miles long, was opened in 1888. October 3, 1887, R. T. Wil- 
son was elected president, and in 1896, I. E. Gates was president; J. Kruttschnitts, 
vice-president, and Paul Flato, treasurer. 



STANDARD IIISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 309 

The Xew Orleans & Xortheastern Kailroad Company was chartered March 16, 
1870, its tirst president being Adam Thompson, and its first chief engineer, G. In- 
gram. Surveys of the route were made, but the project of building the road was 
not immediately carried out, and it was not until 1881 that the surveys began for 
the actual construction of the road. At the close of that year work was begun on 
the road, the road being complete to Meridian, Miss., in November, 1883, and being 
opened for traffic to New Orleans November 1. The length of the road was then 
195.9 miles, of which 151.595 miles were in Mississippi, and the total cost was 
$5,612,778.24. 

This road is now a portion of the Queen & Crescent system, which comprises the 
Cincinnati, New Orleans & Texas Pacific, 336 miles ; the Alabama Great Southern, 
295 miles ; the New Orleans & Northeastern, 196 miles ; the Vieksburg & Meridian, 
142.5 miles; the Vieksburg, Shreveport & Pacific, 189 miles, and the Postevent 
& Faure. In 1885 the following directors were elected : From New Orleans, Rob- 
ert Mott, E. L. Carriere, J. H. Oglesby and Henry Abraham; the president being 
John Scott, of Cincinnati. Of the 196 miles between New Orleans and Meridian, 
194.17 miles had steel rails. December 31 of this year the company had an ag- 
gregate of 927 cars and twenty-four locomotives, and the capital stock was 
$5,000,000. 

On March 2, 1885, Frank S. Bond was elected president of this company, and 
Charles SchifE vice-president. In 1887 Charles Schiil was elected president, and C. 
C. Harvey vice-president, serving also in 1889. In 1897, C. C. Harvey was elected 
president and Charles Schifl vice-president. 

The Louisiana Western Railroad, from Yermillionville to Orange, Tex., was 
begun in 1879, the entire line being completed in 1880, which completed the direct 
line from New Orleans to Houston, Te.x., as follows: The Te.xas & New Orleans 
Railroad from Houston to Orange, 106 miles ; the Louisiana Western from Orange 
to Vermillionville, 112 miles; and Morgan's Louisiana & Texas Railroad from Ver- 
millionville to New Orleans, 144 miles; total distance 362 miles. In 1884 the entire 
line was under the management of C. P. Huntington, president, and the capital 
stock of the Louisiana Western was $3,360,000. The entire line was leased to the 
Southern Pacific Company February 10, 1885, for ninety-nine years from jNTarch 
1, 1885. 

The New Orleans, Fort Jackson & Grand Isle Railroad Company was chartered 
in 1890 for the purpose of constructing a railroad from New Orleans to Fort Jack- 
son, with the view of connecting at the latter place by steamboat with Grand Isle. 



3IO STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

The road was completed in 1891 to Buras, La., a distance of 59.6 miles, and from 
Socola Junction to Grand Bayou, La., 13 miles. Tlie officers of this company in 
1896-99 were H. C. Warmouth, president; J. Wilkinson, secretary; A. Baldwin, 
treasurer; and F. L. Place, auditor. The office of the company is in New Orleans. 

In closing the subject of the railway advantages of New Orleans, the follow- 
ing considerations may be adduced : The short rail distances from several of the 
interior grain market and packing-house centers to New York and to New Orleans 
compare as follows : 

Miles 

To To Saving to 

New York. N. Orleans. N. Orleans. 

Chicago, 111 , 913 912 

Duluth, Minn 1,390 1,337 53 

Minneapolis, Minn 1,332 1,279 53 

St. Paul, Minn 1,321 1,268 53 

Sioux City, Iowa 1,423 1,258 164 

Omaha, Neb 1,402 1,070 332 

Dubuque, Iowa 1,079 988 91 

St. Louis, Mo 1,058 695 363 

Peoria, 111 1,006 860 146 

Cairo, 111 1,089 554 535 

Evansville, Ind 989 708 881 

Louisville, Ky 867 746 121 

Nashville, Tenn 939 557 '382 

Denver, Colo 1,933 1,356 576 

Kansas City, Mo 1,335 878 457 

Terminating in New Orleans and radiating therefrom in all directions are the 
following six great railroads : The Southern Pacific, operating 7,614 miles of road ; 
the Queen & Crescent, operating 1,155 miles; the Louisville & Nashville, operating 
in its own name 2,988 miles, and controlling, through ownership of stock, the Nash- 
ville, Chattanooga & St. Louis Railwaj', 1,189 miles more, making in all, 4,177 
miles ; the Texas & Pacific Railway, operating 1,493 miles ; the Yazoo & Mississippi 
A' alley Railway, operating 969 miles, and the Illinois Central Railway, operating 
3,679 miles, making a total railway mileage tributary to New Orleans of 19,086 
miles. 

Whether these several railways discriminate in favor of or against New Orleans 
is a question too complicated and far-reaching for this work to undertake to deter- 
mine, but it may be stated that the total value of the imports and exports of the 
port of New Orleans for the year ending June 30, 1899, was $100,090,537, while 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 311 

the total receipts of the roads above enumerated from the carriage of passengers 
and freight was $130,037,703. Another matter is somewhat remarkable, for whereas 
in former years all the cotton that reached New Orleans was brought in by steam- 
boat or other vessels, the railways since their recent improved condition have so 
reduced freight rates as to successfully compete with river transportation, and in 
tlirce of the recent years not a bale of cotton was carried to New Orleans by boat. 
It is certainly true that the railways centering in New Orleans have one great advan- 
tage over those centering in New York, in the matter of transporting freight from 
Chicago and other Western points, for the roads entering New Orleans from Chicago 
have a dead lift of only 214 feet, while in running from Chicago to New York there 
is a dead lift of 1,571 feet, or on some lines which cross the Alleghanies by longer 
routes the dead lift is about 500 feet. 

A mail coach ran in 1804-5 from New Orleans to Manchac Church twice a 
week. It was owned by Hays & Commack. 

The oldest line of street cars in the city, and in fact the first line established 
in the United States, was that of the New Orleans & Carrollton Company, which 
opened September 26, 1835 (having been chartered in 1833). It ran from the 
corner of Baronne and Canal to tlie little village of Carrollton, practically the 
same route now traversed by its cars. The charter obtained from Governor A. B. 
Romain is rather amusing when read in the light of modern progress and improve- 
ment : 

"Be it resolved, that the New Orleans & Carrollton Eailroad Company be and 
are hereby authorized to place one single rail track from the lower limits of the 
Nims plantation, down Naydes street (St. Charles avenue), across Tivoli place 
(Lee Circle), down Triton walk (Howard avenue) and Baronne street to the point 
where this last street meets with Canal street. 

"Be it resolved, that at any time hereafter the majority of the inhabitants and 
property holders through which the road passes can complain thereof as a nuisance, 
and the company, after receiving thirty days' notice from the mayor of the city, 
shall cause said railroad track to be removed, and the street put in the same order 
as it was before." (The company had the mud street paved with cobble stones at 
its own expense). 

In 1834 the fare of this line was fixed ; 12| cents from Canal to Tivoli Circle, 
18| cents from the Circle to Jackson; 50 cents from the Circle to Carrollton. The 
president was then D. F. Burthe; the secretary, L. F. Generes. In 1845 steam 
"dummies" were placed on the road, running all the way from Carrollton to Lake 



312 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

Pontchartrain, the line becoming the Jefferson & Lake Pontchartrain Kailroad. 
From Lee Circle the cars were brought down by means of animal power. While 
General Beauregard was president of this company, rope cables were tried as a way 
of propelling the cars, but, owing to the shrinking of the rope with changes of the 
barometer, had to be abandoned. Of course, the wire cables afterwards tried in 
San Francisco proved a great success. 

The city station was formerly on the block enclosed by Baronne, Poydras and 
Perdido streets, afterwards occupied by the Globe Theater. The right of way was 
of 384 foot breadth. 

In 1894 electricity was tried on this road, the first in the city to adopt it. Last 
year (1899) the track was rebuilt. It has now a fine road-bed, with stone ballast 
and strong cross-ties. The cars are good and run easily; the road is solid. April 
15, 1899, the Canal & Claiborne Railroad was purchased by it and now forms part 
of the line, which comprises 70 miles of railroad. The two power houses (of 3,400 
horse power together) are situated respectively at Napoleon avenue and the river 
front, and the head of Elysian Fields street. The New Orleans & Carrollton Com- 
pany own 200 cars. They have grants for 40 more miles of track. Their franchise 
will not expire until 1933. The receipts in 1899 amounted to $675,000. The lines 
are as follows : 

The St. Charles avenue belt line, from the head of Canal street through St. 
Charles avenue to its terminus, at Jeanette street, returning via Carrollton avenue 
and Tulane avenue to the starting point. 

The Tulane avenue belt line, starting from the head of Canal street, through 
Tulane avenue and Carrollton avenue to its terminus at Jeanette street, returning 
via St. Charles avenue to the starting point. 

The Jackson avenue line, starting from the head of Canal street, passing out 
through St. Charles avenue to the head of Jackson avenue and return. 

The Napoleon avenue line, starting from the head of Canal street and pass- 
ing out through St. Charles avenue to the head of Napoleon avenue and return. 

The Claiborne line, starting from the head of Canal street and passing through 
Canal, Claiborne, Elysian Fields and St. Claude avenue to its terminus at Louisa 
street. 

This system of street railways is now under the control of the following officers : 
J. K. Newman, president ; Joseph H. Degrange, vice-president ; S. H. March, second 
vice-president; Walter V. Crouch, secretary, and George H. Davis, general man- 
ager. 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 313 

The Canal & Claiborne line was a "mule road," chartered in 1867 and begin- 
ning to run in 1868. It is now an electric line and part of the New Orleans & Car- 
rollton road, in which the two former lines, Claiborne avenue and Tulane avenue, 
are merged 

The company of the City Eailroad formed in June, 1860, with $100,000 capi- 
tal. It commenced to run June 1, 1861, starting at Canal and Rampart, where the 
people were assembled in crowds to watch it. The cars ran down Rampart and out 
Esplanade to Bayou bridge; fourteen crowded ears in all that day. They were 
built in omnibus fashion. The fare each way for the 3-mile trip was 5 cents. At 
the end of the line was the old-fashioned turn-table, turned by mules, such as most 
of us recall a few years ago on all the lines. On June 2, 1860, a little negro boy, at 
the corner of Canal and Rampart streets, was run over and killed, this being the 
first accident on the line. In June, 1864, improvements were made on the line to 
prevent accidents. At this time the company had cars running as follows: On 
Magazine street, 23 ; on Bayou road, 17 ; on Prytania street, 1-t ; on Canal street, 18 ; 
and on Dauphine street, 24. In 1873 this company had the following lines in opera- 
tion : The Esplanade line, to Bayou bridge, 3^ miles ; the Magazine and Prytania 
lines, both running to Pleasant street, 2^ miles; the Rampart and Dauphine lines 
to the Barracks, 5 miles; the Canal street line, running to the city park and the 
cemeteries, 3 2-3 miles, the latter being patronized then more than any other line in 
the city. The original cost of constructing and equipping these lines was $997,- 
194.86, of which sum the horses and mules costing $99,329.40, and the cars, $74,- 
438.75. 

The Levee line opened May 6, 1866, the company (the City Railroad Company) 
having a stock of $1,300,000. In 1871 the Canal street track, at a cost of $37,000, 
was removed from over the Canal to its sides. In 1872 the Barracks line was ex- 
tended to the slaughter house and other improvements were made. 

The City Eailroad Company was chartered February 28, 1899, for ninety-nine 
years. The capital stock consists of $2,500,000 of 5 per cent cumulative preferred, 
dividends payable in January and July, and $5,000,000 of common stock. The pre- 
ferred stock has preference over the common as to assets, as well as to dividends, 
and the company cannot create a new lien without consent of a majority of the pre- 
ferred stock, which latter also elects a majority of directors, until dividends shall 
have been paid thereon for five consecutive years. 

This company has purchased the properties of the N"ew Orleans City and Lake 
and the Crescent City Railroad Companies. West End, a pleasure resort on Lake 



314 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

Pontchartrain, lias been nnieh improved since it has been under its present owners. 
It has a fine band stand and pavilions. During the summer music, vaudeville shows, 
flower beds and the scenic railway combine to make it a most attractive place. No fee 
is charged for admission to this resort, and on summer evenings it is usually crowded. 

The St. Charles Street Eailroad Company organized in ]866, and in that year 
built the Carondelet, Dryades and Clio lines. The five men most active in this 
work were: William H. McLellan, president; Alden McLellan, secretary; and 
John H. Nicholson, Henry Hart and John Pettit, the engineer being Samuel L. 
James. The capital was $500,000, increased in 1873 to $600,000, when the Koyal 
street lino was built, and in 1893 to $1,000,000. The president is now Albert G. 
Phelps; the secretary, N. Riviere. There arc forty cars and 18 miles of road. The 
power liouse, corner of Marigny and North Peters streets, contains three cross-com- 
pound Hamilton Corliss engines, and three 8-pole 200 kilowatt Walker generators. 
The directory is composed of Edward Toby, S. 0. Thomas, John W. Fairfax, H. T. 
Hart, E. S. Eeems and John McCloskey. The mechanical engineer is E. B. McKin- 
ney, and the electrical engineer Alexander L. Black. 

The lines run as follows : 

The Carondelet street line starts on Elysian Fields avenue, passes up Royal to 
Canal, up St. Charles, Howard avenue and Baronne to the station on Eighth street, 
returning by Carondelet, Bourbon and Esplanade avenue ; the Dryades street line ex- 
tends from Clay statue up St. Charles to Howard, on Dryades, Felicity and Baronne 
to the Eighth street station, and returning by Dryades, South Rampart and Canal ; 
the Clio line extends from foot of Elysian Fields avenue up Royal, St. Charles, How- 
ard avenue, South Rampart and Clio to the station, and returns by Erato, Caronde- 
let, Bourbon, Esplanade and Decatur. 

In 1898 this company began issuing transfer tickets from one to another of 
its various lines. 

The Orleans Railroad Company organized in 1869, with $185,000 capital, and 
has three lines : Bayou St. John, Broad street. City Park and French Market, a to- 
tal of 11.3 miles. Electricity was first used in 1895. The power house, near the 
Old Basin, has an Ellis-Corliss engine of 200 horse power. The company has thirty- 
one cars (single and double motors) and 150 employes. The president is E. Perrin; 
C. J. !MacMurdo, secretary ; V. Willoz, electrician, and W. G. Leahy, chief engineer. 
The first president was Felix Labutat. 

It may be said in conchision that New Orleans has one of the best systems of 
street ears in the world. There is hardly a portion of the city or its suburbs to 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 315 

which one or another of the excellent lines just mentioned is not accessible. The 
cars are handsome and comfortable, nm easily and preserve a steady schedule in 
traversing their routes. 



CHAPTER XIII. 



SECRET ORDERS. 
BY Walter Parker. 

SECRET ORDERS have thrived in New Orleans since the opening chapter of 
the city's history. IMasonry came with the early refugees, and the latter day 
fraternal organizations were, as a rule, introduced here soon after their in- 
ception. For over a hundred years the Masons have had lodges in New Orleans, 
and, with the exception of a few years prior to the civil war, they have enjoyed con- 
tinuous progress and prosperity. Odd Fellowship gained a foothold in New Orleans 
a few years after the city became part of the United States, making rapid strides 
during the forties, when many now lodges were formed. The Knights of Pythias 
began organizing lodges immediately after the civil war and successfully combated 
the evil political influences which prevailed in those trying times, and to-day this 
organization is one of the strongest in the State. The labor and trade organiza- 
tions were not so prompt to get a foothold here, but once established, their growth 
has been rapid and substantial, and indications are that within the next few years 
labor organizations will have become firml}- established and will embrace in their 
membership rolls all trades and occupations. In the last few years many organiza- 
tions, such as the p]lks, which now has handsome headquarters, the T. P. A., etc., 
have been organized in New Orleans, and the membership and work of the various 
orders is generally satisfactory. 

MASONRY. 

Masonry was introduced into Louisiana during the latter part of the eight- 
eenth century, its establishment being hastened probably by the hostility of Spain 
to the order, for while the Masons in New Orleans were mostly Frenchmen and few 



3i6 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

in number, and while they were compelled to act cautiously and with considerabk 
circumspection in order to avoid giving offense to the authorities and becoming 
amenable to process of law, yet these restrictions only resulted in bringing the 
brethren closer together and strengthening -their bonds of union, a most natural 
result of any form of tyranny or oppression. Masonry had for many years existed 
in San Domingo, introduced by the French, and when a number of refugees came to 
Xew Orleans from the West Indies, it was but natural that they should seek their 
own countrymen here, and that the natives and immigrants should seek to strengtlien 
further the bonds of friendship by the organization of lodges of their own order. 
Hence, in 1T93, several Frenchmen, Freemasons, then residing in New Orleans, 
organized themselves into a lodge, by the name of Parfaite Union, and made appli- 
cation to the Grnnd I-odge of South Carolina for a charter, whicli was irriinied, pnd 
they were constituted as "'T.oge r.irfaite Union No. 39,'' the officers being installed 
in the York rite, March 30, 1794, by Jason Lawrence, who was specially deputed 
for that purpose. These first officers were : Laurent Sigur, W. M. ; Laurent Chou- 
riac, S. W. ; and Andres Wakernie, J. W. 

During the same year, 1794, several members of the French or Modern Eite 
resolved to form themselves into a lodge, under the name of ''Etoile Polaire," apply- 
ing to the Grand Orient of France for a charter ; but this application proved futile, 
owing to the fact that the Grand Orient of France had suspended its labors because 
of political troubles then agitating that country. This being learned, these members 
made a similar application to the Provincial Lodge, "la Parfaite Sincerite" at Mar- 
seilles, which granted them a provincial charter in 1796, entrusting it to Dominique 
Mayronne with power to constitute the new lodge and to install its officers. Polar 
Star Lodge was, therefore, duly constituted and its officers installed under the 
French rite, December 27, 1798, with officers as follows: Duprelong Peytavin, W. 
M. ; Chcv. Desilets, S. W., and F. Marc, J. W. 

The Grand Orient of France, having in 1803 resumed its labors, took action 
on the petition of the members of the Polar Star Lodge, sent in 1794, and in 1.804 
granted a charter and deputed Ch. Tessier to carry it to them and seal their work. 
Under this charter Polar Star Lodge No. 42C3 was reconstituted and its officers 
installed November 11, 1804, by A. Pinard and A. Marmillion, specially deputed 
for that purpose by the Grand Orient. The first officers under this charter were 
A. B. Chastant, W. M. ; A. Marmillion, S. W. ; and J. Pinard, J. W. 

Some time previous to this latter date certain residents of New Orleans and 
former members of Candor Lodge No. 12, of Charleston, S. C, which had become 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 3^7 

extinct, resolved to revive their old lodge in this city, and made application for a 
charter to the Grand Lodge of Pennsylvania, which was granted May 18, 1801, the 
lodge receiving the name of Candor Lodge No. 90, and having for its first officers, 
N. Definiels, W. M. ; Gaspard Debuys, S. W. ; and Pierre D. Berne, J. W. Under 
this charter it is thought by the best authorities on Masonry in New Orleans that 
no organization was effected, for the reason that its Worthy Master was the same 
as Charite Lodge No. 93, which was chartered March 1, 1802, but did not receive 
its charter until 1804, on May 13 of which year the lodge was duly constituted and 
the officers installed in the York Rite by Eugene Dorsiere, specially deputed for 
that purpose by the Grand Lodge of Pennsylvania. Its first officers were : N. Defi- 
niels, W. M. ; D. Baron, S. W., and J. Carrick, J. W. 

Louisiana was admitted to the Union April 30, 1812, a political change 
which had a corresponding effect on Masonry in the Territory, now changed to a 
State. Measures were immediately taken to form a Grand Lodge for the new State, 
the movement being initiated by Perfect Union Lodge No. 29, each of the lodges in 
the State sending three delegates to a meeting held in its hall at the corner of Camp 
and Gravier streets. New Orleans, April 18, 1812, the lodges represented being 
as follows: Perfect Union, No. 29; Charity, No. 93; Louisiana, No. 1; Concord, 
No. 117; Perseverance, No. 118; Harmony, No. 122, and Polar Star, No. 129. 
The delegates to this meeting organized themselves into a "General Masonic Com- 
mittee of the State of Louisiana to provide for the establishment of a Grand 
Lodge in the city of New Orleans," with P. F. Dubourg, president, and two secre- 
taries. The second meeting of this general committee was held May 16, 1812, at 
which it was resolved that a summons be issued calling together a "Grand Con- 
vention" to deliberate upon the necessity of organizing a Grand Lodge for the 
State. This grand convention met June 13, 1812, and as a result of its delibera- 
tions the "Grand Convention of Ancient York Masons" assembled in the room 
of Perfect Union Lodge, No. 29, and elected grand officers as follows: P. P. 
Dubourg, Grand Master; Hon. L. C. E. Moreau Lislet, Deputy Grand Master; 
Jean Blanque, Senior Grand Warden; Francois Pernot, Junior Grand Warden; J. 
B. Pinta, Grand Treasurer; J. B. Veron, Grand Secretary; Mathurin Pacaud, 
Grand Orator; Yves Lemonnier, Grand Pursuivant; and Augustin Macarty, Grand 
Steward. Thus was the Grand Lodge of the State formed June 20, 1812, and in due 
time this Grand Lodge was admitted into full fellowship with all her sister grand 
lodges in the United States. 

The Grand Royal Arch chapter of Louisiana was formed March 8, 1813, by 



3i8 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

Concord and Perseverance Royal Arch Chapters, working under charters from 
the Grand Chapter of Pennsylvania and attached to lodges of the same name, 
and on March 13, the Grand Officers were elected and installed as follows : P. F. 
Dubourg, G. H. P.; Moreau Lislet, D. G. H. P.; J. Soulie, G. K. ; and Thomas 
Urquhart, G. S. 

It should be stated that when the Grand Lodge was organized two of the 
lodges then in existence failed to participate, viz. : Louisiana Xo. 1, and Har- 
mony Xo. 122. Up to the close of the year 1818, the Grand Lodge had granted 
nine charters, only three of which were for lodges in Louisiana, and none of tlie 
three in New Orleans. But the three new lodges, together with the five which 
united in forming the Grand Lodge, made eight lodges in the State acknowledging 
its jurisdiction. Louisiana Lodge had gone out of existence and Harmony Lodge, 
No. 182, was still working under its charter from the Grand Lodge of Pennsyl- 
vania and there was another lodge in the State of which the Grand Lodge had 
no knowledge until years afterwards. From this time on until 1846 there was a 
great deal of confusion in Masonry in the State, lodges being formed under jurisdic- 
tions other than the Grand Lodge of the State, as under the French Rite, under 
the Grand Lodge of Mississippi, and other bodies; but since 1850 there has been 
little or no conflict of authority, all of the lodges having come under the jurisdic- 
tion of the Grand Lodge of Louisiana. For a detailed history of Masonry in 
Louisiana the reader is referred to the "Rise and Progress of Freemasonry in 
Louisiana," by James B. Scot, who had unusual facilities for writing a book of this 
kind, and did his work well. The following is a list of the Masonic lodges in 
New Orleans, together witli the dates of their organization: 

Perfect Union Xo. 1, organized 1793, date of present cliarter August 15, 
.1812 ; Polar Star No. 1, originally No. 5, organized in 179-1, date of present charter 
August 15, 1812; Perseverance No. 4, organized in 1810, date of present charter 
August 15, 1812; Cervantes No. 5, organized February 14, 1884; Los Amigos del 
Orden, organized September 24, 1842, having been consolidated August 23, 1883, 
with Silencio No. 9; Germania No. 46, charter dated April 18, 1844; Friends of 
Harmony No. 58, April 22, 1848; Mount Moriah No. 59, March 24, 1849; George 
Washington No. 65, March 3, 1850 ; Hiram No. 70, March 3, 1850 ; Alpha No. 72, 
February 14, 1860; Quitman No. 76, March 4, 1850; Hermitage No. 98, January 
21, 1851; Louisiana No. 102, January 23, 1851; Ocean No. 144, February 10, 
1857 ; St. Johns No. 153, February 10, 1858 ; Linwood No. 167, February 13, 1861 ; 
Kosinos No. 171, February 9, 18G4; Union Xo. 172, February 17, 1865; Dante No. 



STANDARD IIISTOIir OF NEW ORLEANS. 319 

174, February 14, 18C6; Corintliiau No. 190, February 9, 1869; Jefferson Xo. 191, 
February 9, 1869. Besides these lodges there are the following organizations : 

The Grand Chapter, organized March 13, 1813 ; and the Grand Conimandery 
of Knights Templar, chartered February 12, 1864, and two commanderies in 
New Orleans subject to the jurisdiction of the Grand Conimandery, viz. : The 
Invisible Friends Conimandery, No. 1, chartered May 4, 1816, and the Jacques De 
Molay Commandery, No. 2, chartered April 15, 1851. 

Under the Grand Royal Arch Chapter of the State are the following : Orleans 
Royal Arch Chapter, No. 1, and Concord Royal Arch Chapter, No. 2. Under 
the Grand Council of Royal and Select Masters, which meets annually in Feb- 
ruary, there is the Louisiana Council, No. 2, which meets monthly. There are also 
the Eagle Council of Kadosh, No. 6 ; the Pelican Chapter, Rose Croix, No. 11 ; the 
Albert Pike Lodge of Perfection, No. 1 ; the Jerusalem Council, Nobles of the 
Mystic Shrine, and the ]\Iasonic Veterans Association. 

The colored JIasons have the following organizations : 

The W. M. Eureka Grand Lodge and constituent lodges as below : Richmond 
Lodge, No. 1 ; Berry Lodge, No. 2 ; Stringer Lodge, No. 3 ; St. Luke's Lodge, 
No. 4 ; Tuscan Lodge, No. 5 ; Gilbert Lodge, No. 6 ; DeGruy Lodge, No. 7 ; Progress 
Lodge, No. 16; Mount Olive Lodge, No. 21 ; Vera Cruz Lodge, No. 24; Ezra Chap- 
ter, No. 1, R. A. M. ; Alpha Chapter, No. 2, R. A. M. ; Eureka Chapter, No. 3, R. A. 
M. ; Constantine Conimandery, No. 1, K. T. ; Bethany Commandery, No. 2, K. T. ; 
and Godfrey, No. 3, K. T. 

In connection with the history of the Louisiana State Lottery it should be 
mentioned that a lottery was authorized by the Legislature for the purpose of 
erecting a Masonic temple in New Orleans; but under that authority it is not 
now remembered that any action was taken. But in 1859 the Masons of the city deter- 
mined to erect one of the finest temples in the country, and purchased for $60,000 
the ground known as the Carrollton Railroad Depot, included between St. Charles, 
Carondelet, Calliope and Delord streets, with the exception of a small angle at 
Carondelet near Calliope, upon which stood a couple of houses. Upon this ground 
the foundations of a temple were laid at a cost of $30,000, the design being to 
erect a building to cost $250,000, but the project was abandoned because of the 
great expense. Land was sold off to the amount of $80,000, and the old Commercial 
Exchange building, standing at the corner of St. Charles and Perdido streets, was 
purchased for $55,000, the building being used as a temple until about 1890, 
when the erection of the present temple was begun, the corner-stone being laid 



320 STANDARD HISTORY OP NEW ORLEANS. 

October 20, that year. The building was completed in 1892 at a total cost of 
about $110,000. 

INDEPENDENT ORDER OF ODD FELLOWS. 

Odd Fellowship was founded in Louisiana by the organization of Louisiana 
Lodge No. 1, under a charter granted by the Grand Lodge of the United States, 
February 20, 1831, the lodge being instituted May 23, following. The Inde- 
pendent Order of Odd Fellows was introduced into the United States in 1806, 
and in 1819 some persons who had been members of English lodges established 
a lodge at Baltimore which soon received a charter from the Manchester Unity. 
Thomas Wildey, who was one of the promoters of the Baltimore lodge, was largely 
instrumental in organizing the Grand Lodge of Louisiana, a charter for which 
was granted by the Grand Lodge of the United States, in an adjourned meeting 
held at Baltimore March 5, 1832, the Louisiana branch being proclaimed insti- 
tuted January 6, 1833. Eleven years later the State Legislature passed an act 
incorporating the body, the charter extending over a period of fifty years. The 
first encampment of the patriarchal branch was named Wildey, No. 1, and was 
organized under a charter from the Grand Lodge of the United States, granted 
March 5, 1832, to be located at New Orleans, and instituted by Grand Sire Wildey, 
December 24, 1832. Afterward other encampments were organized in different 
parts of the State. The Grand Encampment was organized under a dispensation 
issued October 2, 1847, to Wildey, No. 1; Louisiana, No. 2, of St. Francesville; 
Hobah, No. 3 ; and Magnolia, No. 4, of Baton Eoiige, the Grand Encampment to 
be located at New Orleans, and known as the Grand Encampment of Louisiana. 
The preliminary meeting to act upon the dispensation was held January 13, 1848, 
the same being accepted and the meeting adjourned on the 10th of the month fol- 
lowing. Under Grand Lodge authority to establish Rebekah lodges, Naomi Lodge, 
No. 1, was instituted May 16, 1874, at New Orleans, and other lodges of the same 
degree were soon afterward organized at other places in the State. To the jurisdic- 
tion of Louisiana belongs the credit of originating and carrjdng to success three 
important adjuncts of the order, viz. : The General Eelief Committee, organized 
in 1846 ; the Odd Fellows Eest cemetery, consecrated Febriiary 26, 1849, and the 
Widows and Orphans' Relief Association, organized in 1864. The Auxiliary En- 
dowment Association of Louisiana was organized in May, 1882. 

The home of the Odd Fellows in New Orleans was formerly located at the corner 
of Camp and Lafayette streets, where now stands the Fisk Free and Public 
library building. Here the corner-stone of the first Odd Fellows' Hall was laid 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 321 

April 26, 1850, and the building was dedicated November 23, 1852. It was de- 
stroyed by fire July 4, 1866, and the present Odd Fellows' Hall, situated on Camp 
street, between Lafayette and Poydras streets, was built in 1867-68, and dedicated 
November 10, of the latter year. 

In 1862 the Grand Lodge and the Grand Encampment effected a separation 
from the Grand Lodge of the United States and assumed independent authority. 
Fraternal relations were restored in the early part of 1865. 

During the great epidemics of yellow fever in New Orleans the Odd Fellows, 
as did all the older fraternal orders, accomplished many noble deeds in relief work. 

Prior to 1840, charters were granted to the following New Orleans lodges: 
Louisiana, No. 1; Perseverance, No. 2; True American (changed to Washington), 
No. 3; Unity, No. 5. Louisiana, No. 1; Perseverance, No. 2; Washington, No. 3, 
and L'nity, No. 5, surrendered their charters May 23, 1840, in order to form a 
lodge to be known as Union, No. 1. The charter was granted, but, due to the 
fact that a new lodge could not take the number of an old one, the name of the new 
lodge was changed to Union, No. 6. Subsequently Louisiana, No. 1, and Wash- 
ington, No. 3, reclaimed their original charters. 

The subordinate lodges of Odd Fellows now in existence, together with the 
date each was instituted, follow : 

Louisiana, No. 1, May 23, 1831; Washington, No. 3, December 27, 1838; 
Teutonia, No. 10, April 28, 1846; Magnolia, No. 22, January 29, 1848; Independ- 
ence, No. 23, October 25, 1848; Columbus, No. 24, April 23, 1849; Southwestern, 
No. 40, January 2, 1854; Gretna, No. 53, January 16, 1889; Progressive, No. 54, 
June 24, 1899. 

Ora Rebekah Lodge, No. 7, was instituted November 13, 1890, and Vashti 
Rebekah Lodge, No. 17, February 15, 1899. 

Wildey Encampment, No. 1, was instituted December 24, 1832, and Washing- 
ton Encampment, No. 6, March 11, 1848. 

The colored organizations of Odd Fellows are as follows : 

Louisiana Grand Lodge, No. 21, and subordinate lodges; Butler, No. 1336; 
Amos, No. 1487; Emblem of Progress, No. 1507; Pride of Louisiana, No. 1529; 0. 
J. Dunn, No. 1548; Crescent, No. 1646; Good Intent, No. 1656; Pride of Jeffer- 
son, No. 1679; La Creole, No. 1918; Israel, No. 1971; Magnolia, No. 1990; Orleans 
Progress, No. 2327 ; and John and Jacob, No. 2842. 



322 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

KNIGHTS OF PYTHIAS. 

The Knights of Pythias organized lodges in Louisiana as early as 1868, but 
shortly thereafter, in fact as soon as the Grand Lodge had been got in shape, 
the political corruption which was then tearing the State from center to circum- 
ference, invaded the organization and an effort was made to control the vote of the 
members. This quickly caused a revolt and the Grand Lodge was practically 
disorganized. The next effort of the order was made in 1876 when on April 1-5 
of that year Orleans Lodge, No. 1, was organized under a charter granted hve 
days previously. In May of 1880 Supreme Chancellor S. S. Davis, of Maine, came 
to Louisiana and reorganized the Grand Lodge at Monroe. The Endowment and 
Uniform Eanks were also organized about this time, and since then the order has 
flourished here. The Louisiana branch of the K. of P. bears the distinction of 
having liad at one time an orthodox Catholic priest as prelate of one of its lodges.. 
The headquarters of the Grand Lodge are now located' at New Orleans, with the 
following officers : P. A. Capdau, G. C. ; W. A. Knapp, G. V. C. ; W. L. Erwin, 
G. P. ; T. C. Will, G. M. of E. ; John A. McLean, G. K. of R. and S. ; W. C. Davis, 
G. M. A. ; P. J. Chappuis, G. I. G. ; P. J. Alexander, G. 0. G. ; J. Zach Spearing 
and Henry Bernstein, Supreme Representatives. The lodges of the Knights 
of Pythias, together with the date each was organized, are as follows : 

Orleans, No. 1, April 10, 1876. Halcyon, No. 66, April 10, 1886. 

Crescent, No. 3, Aug. 31, 1878. Garibaldi, No. 72, Oct. 21, 1886. 

Royal Arch, No. 8, March 28, 1879. Excelsior, No. 74, Oct. 30, 1886. 

Samaritan, No. 9, Aug. 25, 1879. Lexington, No. 73, Nov. 4, 1886. 

Paragon, No. 16, May 14, 1880. Washington, No. 75, Dec. 2, 1886. 

Ivanhoe, No. 22, Jan. 14, 1881. Samson, No. 80, April 25, 1887. 

Tivoli, No. 25, March 8, 1881. Jefferson, No. 81, April 26, 1887. 

Alma, No. 42, Oct. 12, 1883. Virginius, No. 88, April 27, 1889. 

Dionysius, No. 45, April 17, 1884. Audubon, No. 90, June 3, 1889. 

Myrtle, No. 47, July 5, 1884. Ivy, No. 93, Nov. 3, 1889. 

Perseverance, No. 48, July 12, 1884. Onward, No. 95, Dec. 6, 1889. 

Syracuse, No. 50, Oct. 2, 1884. R. E. Lee, No. 99, March 14, 1891. 

Columbia, No. 52, Feb. 3, 1885. Empire, No. 113, April 9, 1892. 

Manhattan, No. 53, May 25, 1885. James G. Gregory, No. 117, April 29, 1893. 

France, No. 56, September 16, 1885. Apollo, No. 127, March 23, 1894. 

Eagle, No. 57, Oct. 13, 1885. Metairie, No. 126, March 24, 1894. 

Minerva, No. 58, Oct. 38, 1885. Beauregard, No. 128, May 17, 1894. 

Kenilworth, No. 69, Nov. 6, 1885. Confidence, No. 131, July 7, 1894. 

American, No. 62, Dec. 10, 1885. Virginia, No. 136, June 15, 1895. 
Hercules, No. 68, April 3, 1886. 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 323 

KNIGHTS OF HONOR. 

Tlie Knights of Honor became established in Louisiana July 8, 1881. with 
the organization of Alj^ha Lodge, No. 2501, at Shreveport. The first New Orleans 
lodge was Pelican, No. 2511, which was formed July 25, 1881, with forty members. 
The prime movers in the organization of this lodge were Dr. S. M. Angell, F. H. 
Eobinson and D. J. Searcy. The lodge has been a popiilar one ever since it was 
chartered, and at the beginning of 1900 had a membership of 140. There are 
at the time of this writing 18 lodges in New Orleans, with a total membership of 
1676. The Uniform Bank was established in the State December 6, 1887, by the 
formation of Eagle Commandery, No. 9, which was afterward changed to the 
Crescent City Commandery. The subordinate lodges in the city are as follows: 
Pelican, No. 2511; New Orleans, No. 2515; Eagle, No. 2519; Eureka, No. 2524; 
Excelsior, No. 252G; Union, No. 2531; Continental, No. 2532; Washington, No. 
2540; Columbia, No. 2546; Carrollton, No. 2747; Algiers, No. 2549; Orion, No. 
2561 ; Arlington, No. 3532 ; Progressive, No. 3578 ; Avenue, No. 3586 ; Perseverance, 
No. 3596; Germania, No. 3606; Minerva, No. 3626; and Palmetto, No. 3775. 

ANCIENT ORDER OF UNITED WORKMEN. 

The Ancient Order of LTnited Workmen was not introduced into Louisiana 
iintil eighteen years after the order was founded at Meadville, Pa., in 1868. 
The first Louisiana lodge was established at Gretna in 1884, under the title, 
Jefferson Lodge, No. 12, biit, due to the prejudice then existing against New Orleans 
because of epidemics, the order was kept out of the city proper until 1894, when 
Corinthian Lodge, No. 19, was organized, and duly chartered with 87 members. 
Just prior to the organization of this lodge, the Southern Jurisdiction, embracing 
Louisiana, Arkansas, Texas and the Indian Territory, which had existed from 
1884 to 1892, was changed to embrace Arkansas, Louisiana and the Indian Ter- 
ritory, with the Grand Eecorder's headquarters at Bentonville, Ark., and it was 
due to this change that the ban against New Orleans was removed. While being 
one of the largest in point of membership of all the fraternal organizations in this 
country, the Ancient Order of United Workmen does not appear to have gained a 
particularly strong foothold here. The lodges in the city proper are: Corin- 
thian, No. 19; Lafayette, No. 20; and Crescent, No. 22. The Louisiana repre- 
sentatives to the Supreme Lodge are J. H. Shepherd, Shreveport; W. W. Whit- 
tington, and W. J. Calvert, Alexandria. 



324 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

AMERICAN LKGION OF IIOXOR. 

The American Legion of Honor gained a foothold in Xew Orleans through the 
organization of Chalmette Council, No. 801, in the latter part of 1881. The 
days of greatest prosperity for the order in this part of the country were between 
the years 1885 and 1890, when the membership in the State reached about 2,500. 
The membership is not so large now. The next meeting of the Grand Council 
will be held in New Orleans in May, 1901. The subordinate councils in New Or- 
leans are: Concord, No. 206; Louisiana, No. 455; Orleans, No. 507; Chalmette, 
No. 801; Bienville, No. 869; De la Salle, No. 862; Dixie, No. 879; Columbia, No. 
926; Walhalla, No. 939; and Tulane, No. 1167. 

Among the other orders represented in New Orleans are the following : 

The Knights and Ladies of the Golden Eule, by Chalmette Castle, No. 100, 
the Grand Chapter having been organized in 1884. 

The Order of Heptasophs, or S. W. M. — Subordinate Conclaves, Eagle, No. 
3, and Aetna, No. 15. 

The Ancient Order of Druids, with the following groves: Concordia Grove, 
No. 1; Mispel Grove, No. 6 (German) ; Orient Grove, No. 10; Louisiana Grove, No. 
13 (German) ; Crescent, No. 17; Merlin, No. 18; American, No. 19; Harmony, No. 
22; Friendship, No. 23; Elvin, No. 24; Ivy, No. 25; Orleans, No. 26; E. E. Lee, 
No. 27 ; Stonehenge, No. 28 ; Hope, No. 29 ; Morvin, No. 30 ; Manhattan. No. 32 ; 
and Louisiana Circle, No. 1. 

Tlie Templars of Honor and Temperance with two organizations — The Grand 
Temple of Honor of Louisiana, and Howard Temple, No. 2. Besides these there 
are the New Orleans Catholic Total Abstinence Association, the St. Joseph's Total 
Abstinence Society, St. Alphonsus Total Abstinence Society, and the Woman's 
Christian Temperance Union. 

The Catholic Knights of America have the following branches in New Orleans : 
Numbers 271, 278, 291, 311, 343, 352, 356, 394, 416, 467 and 506. 

The Woodmen of the World have the following camps : Palmetto, No. 1 ; 
Orange, No. 8; Eureka, No. 27; Hickory, No. 28; Tulane, No. 48; Acorn, No. 51; 
Live Oak, No. 53 ; Magnolia, No. 58 ; and Yellow Pine, No. 60. 

The Patriotic Order Sons of America has the following camps: Washington, 
No. 1 ; No. 4 ; No. 5 ; No. 6 ; No. 11 ; No. 15 ; No. 16 ; and No. 17, and the Louis- 
iana Commandery, which meets on the fourth Thursday of each month, at No. 407 
Carondelet street. 



STANDARD HISTOHY OF NEW ORLEANS. 325 

The Patriotic Order of Americans has the following camps: Martha Wash- 
ington, No. 1 ; No. 2 ; and No. 3. 

The Independent Order of B'nai B'rith has the following lodges : Crescent 
City, No. 182; B'nai Israel, No. 188; Gulf, No. 224; Home, No. 243; and James 
W. Gutheim, No. 439. 



CHAPTER XIV. 



THE NATURE OF BIRD LIFE AT NEW ORLEANS. 

i 
By Henry H. Kopman. 

IT IS singular that a city so near the tropics as New Orleans should be restless 
and changeful, yet it is so, not only in its civic institutions, but also in 
nature's round. Though its temperatures are rather even than otherwise, the 
place does not bask in the undisturbed enjoyment of a subtropical climate. Still, 
when we thoroughly realize now and again the strength of the tides of changing 
seasons with us, the true conception comes rather in the nature of a surprise; 
for the extent of New Orleans' climatic changes does not live perpetually before 
the minds of the inhabitants, and with a few exceptions the whole course of the 
year makes an impression of much more equable conditions than exist. 

This partial failure of adjustment between observation and somewhat pre- 
conceived notions is explained by the fact that while a very lasting and a very clearly 
determined predominance is not ordinarily the accompaniment of the sets of 
commoner conditions belonging separately to each of the four seasons, there are 
several changes much more sudden and much more complete than is commonly 
realized. These changes are, especially, the ones caused by the thrilling life of 
spring; they are very effectual in introducing a new course of natural affairs. 
By them the early Southern summer is very remotely separated from the Southern 
winter as its predecessor; a long way lies again to winter through the successive 
steps of autumn. Yet even after a little observation makes it manifest that in 
its own time and in a modified way New Orleans passes through the whole succes- 
sion of year phases proper to the temperate belt of the Northern hemisphere, the 



326 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

possibility of tlie most radical disarrangements and reorganizations of the bird 
forces is not taken into consideration except by those who have had their attention 
drawn to these things. As a matter of fact, such phenomena are most dependable 
witnesses to the often covered advance of seasonal activities. But if the whole 
subject of movement among the birds is ignored nothing like a correct idea of 
the composition of the avifauna at New Orleans or in other Southern localities 
can be formed. In the North it is familiar enough that many of the birds are 
gone all winter, and their home-coming is most patent; but, excepting a few 
generally appreciated facts, as, "Eobins come in cold weather," the extent of 
what goes on in bird migration with us is not suspected by most persons. They 
see many birds here the year round, and they look upon them as unequivocal in- 
habitants of the soil, the birds of Louisiana only, and not of twenty or thirty 
other States as well. This impression that lower Louisiana, particularly, is a land 
peculiar in its bird dwellers may be traced very probably to the richness of the 
avifauna in certain tribes of birds, and to the often well-earned conspicuousness 
of single species whose fame emanated largely from here through the expositions 
of great Audubon. Many of his biographies had a very direct bearing on North 
American birds as found tenanting this State. Gaudy and varied marsh denizens, 
Orphean Mockingbirds and Wood Thrushes, the Nonpariel, the rainbow's color 
chart, all these among a host were held up to the world as samples of a multitude 
of beauties that were not absolutely peculiar to the section from which many of 
them were depicted, but which shone there on all sides. 

But, after taking actual census, what do we find most of the birds of all parts 
of Louisiana to be but the birds of North America, and what the very small re- 
maining fraction but those of a considerably extended Gulf region, in several 
cases merely proving most characteristic within such limits, and widely trans- 
gressing them in a more restricted manifestation. There is absolutely no species 
of bird known to be peculiar to Louisiana. Still that does not remove the fact that 
bird-study in New Orleans' environs presents many differences from other bird- 
lore; we catch a peculiar light on the strangers that pass our land. What is seen 
of the bird life here, as in all other sections of the United States, is only different 
segments of the great body of a continental avifauna, whose advance to the north- 
ward or southward depends upon the operation of the weather and climate forces. 
Having, like other cities, its times of exodus among annual travelers, and its 
waves of disturbance arising from readjustments of residence made necessary 
by the course of activities and pursuits, New Orleans is as natural a place as 



STAAWAED HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 327 

any for a comparison of the bird movements and human concerns. Like the great 
thronging in early summer to cooler climates is the all-embracing spring progress 
of the birds northward, with the corresponding return in fall; at other times of 
the year are the local exchanges of population. At those periods in the year 
during whicli release from routine, no matter when it comes, is enjoyed by city- 
bred men and women, it must occasion interest to learn the constant character 
of the aspects proper to these recurring times. 

Especially in the autumn, when nearly every one is touched more or less 
directly by the important readjustments previous to the settling down of affairs 
to a winter status, a chance arises of watching the birds that enliven the days 
of fall bustle and preparation, of the return of travelers, the greetings of friends. 
During this time, which is focal in so many lives, the ornithologist feels that he is 
taking up a very fresh chapter in the yearly history of his bird friends. The 
weather, as a basis of this study, is of its usual importance; in this case its point 
of notice is the strange mixture of warmth and the energizing quickness and 
freshness of bright fall weather, especially about the second and third week of 
October. Either returned from a higher latitude or filled with deep satisfaction 
in the reviving air of the season after a summer at home, the interest of the 
ornithologically inclined centers in the wish to be out and to recall how this 
weather and its accompaniment of birds harmonizes with a country which at 
last acquaintance was under the sway of very different conditions of the weather. 

As the actual city borders are nowhere within a short distance of anything 
approaching woodland, the bird life that laps against the city's threshold at 
other times than the nesting season presents a majority of species living in fields 
and other open places. Still these species give to the town naturalist hints of 
what is proceeding among wider bird areas. 

If an excursion for the purpose of noting these things is delayed until Octo- 
ber 10, we shall certainly find an assemblage that is without an exact parallel at 
any other time. Battered rows of corn and okra stalks are thoroughfares for the 
Savanna Sparrows that slip through the grass ; in notes, feathers, and form there is 
decided delicacy about these birds; their color is pale, and their markings are 
faint, as is the slightly metallic note that escapes each as it oscillates in low flight 
over the grass. The Phoebe bird, from low, exposed perches, calls attention to 
itself by its somewhat peremptory salutation. Blended gray and brown, it need 
have no shame for its plain feathers, whose color is repeated all over the tops of 
the weed fields, and in the fall grasses. The Indigo birds, purely brown at this 



328 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS.' 

season, are an invading army during their three weeks of passage through the 
vicinity of New Orleans. Their day is about over when the Kiltdeers are be- 
ginning to come, a few at a time, to the pastures. Out upon the fields to profit 
by the plentiful grasshoppers and other insects, making a iinal rally in the still 
warm sun, are the Sparrow Hawk and the Loggerhead Shrike, the latter undoubt- 
edly with an eye to the small birds that stay along the edges of the thickets or 
in the weeds. Never absent from these scenes, but unconcerned in the affairs 
of the other birds, White-bellied Swallows float and sail all day. 

About October 20 the occurrence of the most perfect examples of the days 
peculiar to these middle weeks of October ceases, though possibly a little later than 
that date there is often a very bright, fresh-aired day, its atmosphere less akin to 
true fall weather than to the days of the earlier winter. This is the time for the 
coming of the first Titlarks, which are heard during the day, flying by at a con- 
siderable height. If many pass at once, there is a conglomerated twittering, but 
the voices of the single birds are rather decisive. After this there is a continual 
approach to Indian summer, whose absolute fulfillment comes some time after 
all summer birds are gone, and the fall transient migrants, too. The last birds 
of these two classes with a few exceptions, stay scarcely until November 1. In 
the last week or ten days of October there is a tremendous exodus of Indigo-birds, 
Chimney Swifts, Nighthawks, Hummingbirds, many Warblers, noticeably, the 
Hooded, Parula, Eedstart, Magnolia and Tennessee, and sometimes the Black- 
throated Green and associated species; all remaining Catbirds, Wood Thrushes, 
Tanagers, Red-eyed, Yellow-throated and Philadelphia Greenlets, Barn Swallows, 
Green-crested Flycatchers, Wood Pewees and Cuckoos. For a short while there 
are not many birds to take the place of these, but soon White-throated Sparrows 
and Goldfinches troop through the woods and thickets, reinforced by the many 
Myrtle Warblers. The Robins, with hardly any exceptions, are the most cautious 
about installing themselves here for winter, the Rusty Blackbirds, however, being 
of about the same mind. The completest representation of this array is found, 
perhaps, in December, for the whole fall from October is signalized by a series of 
southward, deliberate advances. In the migration of the White-throated Spar- 
rows this is especially well seen; each new invasion of winter, severer than the 
one before, brings detachments of them; those before welcome those forced on, 
this order being repeated until all the White-throats are transported, and in the 
face of the winter's later biting winds no fresh voices are added to the call notes 
of the hosts. Specifically described, the first White-throats appear furtively and 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 329 

uncertainly the last half of October among the great numbers of birds about; by 
All Saints day the numbers swell, and Thanksgiving passes with an accompaniment 
that comes universally from the thickets. 

After the sudden cold breath that initiates each change whereby the country 
is more securely held under the grasp of winter conditions, not those of tem- 
perature alone, there is generally a lapse into a period of mild, half bright, some- 
times steaming weather, which seems to afford great pleasure to the birds. They 
associate a great deal at this season, as there is an evenness of taste among them 
about where to disport themselves ; the smaller growths along the edges of the low 
woods, preferably with a cover of briers near, suits the needs of nearly all. Here, 
when summer walks in his sleep among his despoiled domains, lively birds become 
jubilant over the nearness of his presence; there are Kinglets, Titmice, Wrens, a 
Thrasher or Hermit Thrush, and far less frequently a Bluebird; Myrtle Warblers, 
White-throats, Swamp Sparrows, Cardinals and sometimes in these lower levels 
of the woods a flock of Goldfinches, and, as a sentinel for the whole body, the 
ever-same Phcebe-bird. Two birds that are thoroughly at home in this company, 
but that are found with it more rarely, are the Orange-crowned Warbler, and the 
Blue-headed Greenlet. The latter is an interesting bird as a winter resident, the 
general supposition appearing to be that it does not remain within the United 
States after fall; while rarely met with here in the migrations, it is regular in 
midwinter. 

Going just outside of New Orleans in winter to the first woods we find, we 
are at once in the midst of the normal conditions of bird life here in winter. There 
is such a thorough agreement between the birds and the surroundings that it is 
hard to realize that the majority of the former belong only secondarily to the 
soil, brought to it by the progressive changes of the year. In addition to the Ruby- 
crowned Kinglet, and the Myrtle Warbler, the Swamp and White-throated Sparrows 
form the body of these winter sojourners. The last two species and the Savanna 
Sparrows, however, are of equal importance outside of the woods, being, in fact, 
immeasurably the most plentiful winter sparrows in districts of Louisiana similar 
to those near New Orleans. Any field that is wet or marshy in spots and that 
has thickets of dead weeds or briers is the absolutely certain abode of all three 
species. The Vesper Sparrow is seldom found in the fields at New Orleans, and 
the Fo.x-colored Sparrow is ordinarily a rarity, most likely to appear with and 
after the occasional spells of rigorous weather experienced at the end of our winter ; 
the same is true in the main of the glowingly bright Purple Finch. February 



330 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

is a contradictory month in its bird movements ; at one time there seems undeniable 
progress towards spring conditions and without warning comes a retrogression to 
a temporary winter siege. The balmy breezes on cloudy days may induce the 
arrival of venturesome Purple Martins by February 10, or even sooner, and the 
middle of the month, at least, usually brings the first of this species. Representa- 
tive of nearly the other extreme of weather, at all events of the inclement February 
days, are the Cedar-birds seeking out the berry-bearing trees of the city that will 
yield the best repast for their small amount of trouble. However, Cedar-birds 
show no inclination to go after the disagreeable February weather is long for- 
gotten in the realization of spring. 

When the blizzards keep hands off long enough for our woods to show what 
they can do with a fair chance, many of the trees are in a very inviting condition 
almost by March 1, especially live oaks and willows. Following the advent of the 
month by from four days to a week come the first summer birds that arc in any 
sense wood birds, the Parula Warblers. The faint music of the scouts swells in a 
day or two into the delicate symphony of scores. This is always the first fact of 
unequivocal importance in the growth of winter into spring. With the coming 
of this bird breaks the spell which made it seem as though in the matter of birds 
our winter had not caused us many deprivations. The reputation of a balmy. 
Southern climate has not appeared more than deserved; as we have followed the 
birds through the winter, their homes have come to seem a veritable bird metropolis, 
with plentiful animated dwellers; but how low the ebb of all this life even, how 
little thrill in it, when we are brought face to face with the unbroken inpouring 
of spring's birds. This follows the slight pause after the Parulas enter the woods, 
and after the passage through them of the magician, warm spring moisture, 
who unseals the buds and drapes the twigs with filmy, fluttering leaves. As we 
have seen, other signs of spring's beginning have been vouchsafed before this, 
but when the trees in the primitive swamps and level woods become misty with 
young foliage, the increase in spring's votaries is almost immediate. The Hooded 
Warbler is in the forefront of this invasion from the tropics. For the first two or 
three days after March 10 or 12 one may go through the woods and find the birds 
only here and there, singing modestly, but others have crowded in by the end 
of a week, and their music is not seriously rivaled in the woods except by that of 
the White-eyed Greenlet and the Parula Warbler. If the latter species were 
represented by only a few of its kind in a small area, its notes would not tell, 
though they are very incisive; but as there are such numbers of Parulas, their 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 331 

songs form almost a background for other notes. As one of the louder-voiced 
musicians ceases to sing, it happens half the time that there is the unfinished trill 
from one of a score of Parulas distant a hundred yards or more to punctuate the 
other song. 

Another bright Warbler that soon follows the Hooded Warbler in its occu- 
pancy of the woods, especially those that are swampy, is the Prothonotary Warbler, 
which arrives with lively habits, and a gleesome heart that often overflows with 
a short rippling song, direct, and as bright and simple as a nosegay of spring wild 
flowers. Its feathers, indeed, are a bouquet of colors, yellow, blue and white, 
dispersed in that order from head to tail. 

The new leaves now are past the stage when to a human eye each one is a 
marvel; a deeper green is stealing into them, and the gaunt tree frames which 
have stood out so sturdily against winter's assaults are already well screened. 
Hardly later than the Prothonotary Warbler comes the Red-eyed Greenlet; as it 
slinks about in the heart of the foliage it is a particularly inconspicuous bird; it 
is slim, green above, with darker cap, bordered by strong lines, and white below, 
tinted, especially about the sides, with pale greenish yellow. The notes commonly 
heard from it at this time comprise a much accentuated double whistle, often 
immediately repeated in another key. As sounds impress us, these are just a little 
wistful. 

It would not do to be all of the time within the cover of the woods at this 
season; one would miss then as pleasant a sight as spring affords, the first Chimney 
Swift cutting quickly across the sky or vacillating as it coquets with the breeze. 
It has returned with others of its kind in time to dance in the air, filling with the 
rising spring incense from locusts, sweet olives, and magnolia fuscatas in city 
gardens. The Swift is an easy figure to recognize under nearly any circumstances; 
the long black wings form a crescent, whose perfection of outline is scarcely 
broken by the small, dark short-tailed body. As almost a responding voice to the 
Swift's homelike, often excited twitter, we hear the Blue-gray Gnatcatcher's per- 
suasive lisp, nearer the earth, among suburban trees, the smaller live oaks seeming 
especially to be given over to it. This is one of the frailest of North American 
birds, and apparently absolutely fearless, besides. Its white underparts, washed 
with light gray, the ashy blue upperparts, and the long white and black tail call 
attention to this mite of a bird, which is always remembered by what might be 
said to be its grown-up ways, some of them appearing as if copied from its larger 
relatives — the Mockingbird and the Catbird. 



332 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

Acquaintance with tlie Sandpipers and other small wading birds in their 
more usual environment of the seashore would scarcely suggest the possibility of 
their conveying as true a spring flavor as surrounds them when they tarry in 
migration at inland feeding tracts. By the middle of March, under the full sway 
of balm-bearing winds and genial rains, they are induced to range far and wide 
over wet or pond-splotched pastures. In their quick transits from spot to spot 
they often come within the shadow of the fresh woodland borders. Two of the 
kinds most conspicuous are commoner inhabitants, it is true, of wet or only 
grassy localities away from the seashore tlian they are of coasts. Solitary Sand- 
pipers, or Tattlers, in companies of only two or three, to irresponsible flocks of 
as many as twenty, are probable lingerers about any good-sized puddle or muddy 
pond. They often permit a close approach and after flying rise high, or, making 
a small detour, slant on half-closed wings to the ground again, silently, though 
with great earnestness. But their leave-taking of any spot from which they are 
frightened is made known to every creature within many stones' throws; time 
after time the clear "peet-weet" whips the air. 

Among the pleasant evening spring sounds the soft note of the Bartramian 
Tattler, famous as the "Papabotte," is prominent for part of the spring after 
March 25; the marvel of this bird's call is that a voice absolutely free from all 
the harsh elements of sound can travel so far; calmness is its pre-eminent quality. 
In clover pastures this species may become a familiar sight throughout April, 
though it is during the southward migration late in summer and in the fall that 
it attracts such attention from hunters, caterers, and epicures successively. The 
only really common flocking Sandpiper at New Orleans in spring is the "Grass 
Snipe," properly the Pectoral Sandpiper. Quickly moving, compact bodies of 
this species fly restlessly and noisily among marshy pastures. 

The same side of bird-life in spring as the Sandpipers exhibit, the bird-life 
that chafes at narrower limits than those of fresh, open green places, has for its 
further exponents the Swallows, glittering and multitudinous in the soothing 
brightness of spring sunshine. The White-bellied, as at nearly every time of the 
year, is the commonest species, though Barn Swallows are often astonishingly 
plentiful in April; brown Rough-winged, and Bank Swallows are lost in the out- 
numbering crowds of the two other species. At New Orleans the Cliff Swallow 
appears to be almost unknown. 

The woods are well filled a few days before April 1, yet an important group 
of summer residents have vet to come, and numberless transients. The month of 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 333 

showers is followed by a retinue of bright and graceful birds to bring smiles the 
quicker when the tears have been shed. Ordinarily just preceding the inception 
of the woodland gayeties of these later migrants a curious example of bird travel 
can be noticed in the city. When a week's growth of the potency of spring air 
appears to occur between the morning and evening of a day in late March, hun- 
dreds of Chimney Swifts arrive; the air thickens with them in the later hours of 
afternoon. Then come whole troops of Orchard Orioles, the Wood Thrush, the 
Summer Tanager, the Yellow Warbler, the Kentucky Warbler and the Indigo- 
bird, famous for their melody and their plumage, with other less noted fellow 
travelers. That class of woodland near New Orleans distinguished by the greater 
variety of its gro^vth,, and the absence of low, wet tracts, draws the majority of 
these birds. The largest number of birds seen in a single day is noted when the 
birds recorded in such woods the first week or ten days of April form part of the 
number. Ovenbirds, Water Thrushes, Catbirds, Thrashers, Red-eyed and White- 
eyed Greenlets, the Crested Flycatcher, and the Wood Pewee swell the concourse 
of the more beautiful species and of those Warblers that have been noticed already 
as customary in spring. Despite the wealth of color distributed among the birds 
then present, and the pleasant condition of the woods, the charm of this chapter 
in the spring story does not originate wholly with those circumstances. The soft 
showers that make the earth and growing things mellow set the birds in almost 
as cheerful and as beautiful an aspect as the sunlight; boughs dripping with warm 
moisture become mysterious from the scores of small, feathered forms that continue 
with unallayed industry their fruitful explorations ; there is a suppression of music, 
but not of activities in these early April showers that produces a curious effect; 
in the light of the lower part of the woods Catbirds, Ovenbirds, Wood Thrushes 
and others of the larger birds engage in a continual restless moving about that 
seems almost like a romp among them, except that their notes seldom disturb the 
silence. 

Still, the consummation of spring in southern localities from an ornithological 
standpoint is in some ways very imperfect. The final result of so many migratory 
advances is not woodland and fields filled with the welcome birds that have come 
back one after another; on the contrary, the country is poorer in many birds at 
the end of the season than in its early part, for our districts are not by any means 
the goals of many of the migrants. 

One odd feature of the supplying of our woods with their summer birds is 
that several species should not arrive until the height of the direct course of the 



334 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

spring migration is over, carrying past birds that will nest well to the northward, 
and that would not seem, therefore, to have precedence in travel over those kinds 
that are to be perfectly fitted to Louisiana's summer conditions. The Cuckoo 
and the Yellow-breasted Chat exemplify this matter. At the same time, their 
coming does not bring the migrations to a close, for while their advent has been 
later even than the dates we should ascribe for the first passage of many birds 
nesting northerly, actual experience with such kinds has shown that their travels 
through our land, when apparent, usually occur at the very end of spring. It is 
very likely that the earlier part of the migrating of such birds does not take place 
along tracks of travel through the belt of country in which New Orleans lies. 
The most noticeable of the birds that are finally swept along by the receding of 
perfect spring conditions that have had a temporary extension far southward are 
several of the Thrushes. In the last third of April and a few days in May their 
graceful ways are half hid by the pleasant shade of the thickets and forest. No 
songs come from their throats at this time, but their forms and wood-brown 
colors have the refinement of beautiful music. The Olive-backed and Gray-cheeked 
Thrushes are nearly always associated at this time, and the Wilson's Thrush is 
often with them. 

It is commonly during the early part of this period, in which the late migrants 
take advantage of the last opportunity of resting here during weather suitable 
to their needs, that the meadows of Audubon Park grow doubly cheerful with the 
odd ditties of the Black-throated Bunting. There is no need of searching deeply 
for the source of its song ; there it is, right among the pink clovers, and the soft, 
wavy breeze. Barn Swallows add the pleasure of the eye to what the Black- 
throated Bunting has done for the ear. The highest pitch to which this short burst 
of delights rises comes always very near April 20. It sometimes happens that a 
succession of warm thunderstorms occurs a few days later than this. It is char- 
acteristic of this locality to find Spotted Sandpipers in the warm, bright days 
following such disturbances. These alert birds start out from the banks of canals 
and basins as one approaches. 

May is still very young when these and other l)irds, moving nortliward 
under like circumstances, the less common Thrushes and Warblers, occasional 
Scarlet Tanagers, Rose-breasted Grosbeaks, and Baltimore Orioles, cease to be seen. 
Then there is only the even round of the lives of birds quartered in our woods and 
suburbs for the summer. Excepting the Woodland species the Orchard Orioles 
are more prominent than any other birds, though the Yellow-billed Cuckoos are 
commendably industrious in occupying many shady retreats. 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 335 

The maturing forces of summer continue steadily until after the middle of 
June, wiien slight indications of restlessness rise to the surface. A few of the birds 
are then beginning to range a little more widely from the close bounds of their 
nesting neighborhood. Purple Martins collect in considerable flocks about dead 
trees; but after three weeks or a month more it is no longer by faint intimations 
that a turn in the year is made apparent. When the sea breezes of July die at 
nights they leave an open way of invasion for innumerable Warblers of certain 
species, which need very little encouragement to press southward. The fairly 
substantial resemblance to autumnal conditions produced by the north airs that 
often blow after dark is certain to be followed by the coming of the Yellow and 
the Black-and-White Warblers, the Eedstart, sometimes one or two species of 
Greenlets, several of the Sandpipers and Swallows. Though migratory move- 
ments do not continue as apparent at all times in the remainder of the summer, 
it is doubtful whether they ever cease long previous to the regular fall migration. 
More than half of September may pass, however, without conspicuous influxes of 
birds ; but between the 30th and 25th of the month important events are occurring. 
Usually, when the cool shadows lie under the thickets and groves on bright days 
in late September, the Olive-backed Thrush and the Catbird are back once more, 
the Eedstart plays airily on the under boughs, and Kingbirds collect in the more 
open places for a final rally. 

During these times it is particularlv noticeable what good observation grounds 
weedy fields about the city make in fall, especially where there are thickets or 
higher growths of some kind. Nearly all the birds present stop in them at one 
time or another; the Warblers, as the Magnolia, the Tennessee, and the Yellow, 
gravitate most naturally to these repositories of insect or vegetable dainties. 

When the woods are comparatively unfruitful for the observer whose purpose 
is to extend his experience to as many different birds as possible, the circumstance 
of finding an unusually fresh concourse of birds in the commonest weeds is strong 
argument in proof of the unusual conditions of bird-life about New Orleans. 

In fact, the peculiarities here are very plain when it is recalled tliat the 
country is such as can effectually invite inhabitance of Catbirds at certain times 
in the year, can harbor all summer the Wood Thrushes, and that it is the very 
stronghold of the White-throats from autumn to spring, yet that it seldom sees 
a Baltimore Oriole or a Bluebird, and that a Song Sparrow or a Chipping Sparrow 
is practically unknown within its limits. Further, it overflows with Tcnnes.see 
Warblers in autumn and more than occasionally displays in that season a decided 



336 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

commonness of several Warblers of Dendroeea that are limited in nesting time to 
northern districts, but in spring affords glimpses of such birds most infrequently. 

The matter of the rarity of several of our birds is interesting because it is 
the limitations of their surroundings here that prevent their greater abundance. 
They are set completely into these surroundings but occasionally, when all favor- 
able circumstances occur at the same time. Then they are no rarer than birds 
constantly found in our districts. Good fortime for the ornithologist in these 
cases is to be in the right places at the right time. 

To be able to see the unusual among the birds at Xew Orleans requires 
experience in watching the weather and the progress of spring and fall as they affect 
migratory movements. The success of trips out of the city, measured by the 
variety of birds seen, is only conditional if, as is generally true, the expeditions 
are planned of necessity for a definite date without reference to the probability of 
favorable circumstances. One might go into the woods here for years, even in 
spring and fall, without ever coming upon certain birds, if the expeditions were 
made on days lacking the element of the weather necessary for brisk and all- 
embracing migration. On the other hand, diiring a flurry of intense migratory ac- 
tivity the suburbs fulfill nearly all the requirements of satisfactory observation. 
For detaining many of the Warblers, the normally constituted and usual woods do 
not surpass many peculiar spots whose condition has arisen somewhat through 
human means; for instance, growths, not native, planted with some special object, 
but which are not held to the exact state intended for them, are moulded back as a 
whole by nature to a likeness of themselves where they exist naturally. These often 
supply the very harbors which the passing migrants, accustomed to such growths 
in the land of their nesting life, are seeking. Examples of spots distinguished by 
this peculiarity are many of the suburban gardens in Xew Orleans; groves and 
high hedges about sparingly cultivated fields are likewise interesting places for 
the bird-lover in migration. 

The best woods for observation near New Orleans are across the river from 
the city, in Jefferson Parish, especially those about a mile back from the river 
and from half a mile to nearly two miles west of the Harvey's Canal. The woods 
on the Xew Orleans side of the Mississippi are rather poor in varieties of birds, but 
some suburban localities repay many visits. In the upper districts of Xew Orleans, 
the neighborhood of Nashville and St. Charles avenues, particularly the unopened 
street called "Blue Alley,"' is visited by many unexpected birds. North of this 
neighborhood, out among the cut-iip fields and generally moist pastures, are suf- 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 337 

ficient diversifications of these open places to induce a considerable number of 
birds to establish themselves there, or at least to tarry. Audubon Park is un- 
doubtedly growing more interesting each year in some of its bird conditions. 

The expedition from New Orleans that one does well to save until late in 
April is out on a canal or bayou into the marshes. The Company's canal in Jef- 
ferson Parish, meeting the Mississippi at Westwego, is particularly favorable for 
bird-observing. It is like dreamland to pass quietly along this water alley, a mere 
fissure in the thick swamp, whose inner life thus crowds to the very edges of the 
parting. As for the birds, they are not to be held to the divisions this artificial in- 
trusion has made in their domain, Init continually break from the trees along the 
shores and hastily cross the water. During the first part of this route the songs and 
notes that issue from the swamp are the amassed representation of the birds that 
earlier in the season were severally distinctive of certain periods. There is now one 
general blend of the songs of the Red-eyed and White-eyed Greenlets, the Indigo 
Bunting, the Sycamore, Parula, Prothonotary, Hooded and Kentucky Warblers 
with each other and with the notes of the Tufted Titmouse, Carolina Wren, Caro- 
lina Chickadee and Cardinal. Some of this music is still assailing our ears when 
the view from the boat begins to open up ; when, in fact, the principal hindrances 
to clearly seeing the marsh beyond are irregular ranks of regal old cypresses. The 
most constant tenants of these are the Parula. the Sycamore aud the Prothonotary 
Warblers. It is curious to find Orchard Orioles common and thoroughly habituated 
to these swamp wastes. Small colonies of them live about the random willow 
groves on the beds of firmer land. In the part first traversed of this tract, the con- 
vergence of swamp and marsh, the Red-winged Blackbird is already common 
enough to suggest the character of the marsh avifauna, and among the most out- 
lying low willows, where the unbroken extent of marsh grasses begins, the Red- 
wing's title to being the liveliest and the showiest bird in such situations is made 
good, if for no other reason, by the absence of any considerable rivals. But once 
well in the marsh, we are brought in contact with another typical product of the 
place, the Boat-tailed Crackle, a large, lumbering Crow-blackbird. Its voice is 
perhaps the most unmusical among all our birds, but this fact cannot have become 
evident to it, for its noisiness quite equals the Red-wing's. Whether rising laboredly 
from the marsh or flying over at some height, or only making an unimportant 
change in its position a Boat-tailed Grackle rarely fails to keep its companions 
apprised of its movements and actions. This it does by a flat, uninflected 
"chuck," a guttural "plup-plup-plup," etc., like the quick flapping of wings when 



338 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

large birds rise from the water, or by more thin-voiced notes that would scarcely 
be rougher were they jolted out of the bird. The female would hardly be taken 
for the mate of such a resplendently glossy bird, being plain brown above, and a 
lighter, somewhat tan-colored shade beneath. As the tail feathers lack in the 
female the great length they attain in the male, the peculiar, keel-like arrange- 
ment which often they are made to assume in the latter is not particularly evident 
in the former. All the dimensions of the female are much less than those of the 
male. 

If there is any ground for believing that opposites meet, the facts of bird-life 
in the marsh would seem to support such a cult. Hidden in the grass over which 
the Boat-tails vociferate ceaselessly are birds mute in comparison. Foremost of 
them at this season are the Least Bittern and that beautiful water hen, the Purple 
Gallinule. The fame of the Gallinule's splendor is spread in all localities, whose 
gunners, woodsmen, or boatmen know the "blue rail." Usually when the Gallinules 
retreat from intruders they prefer threading their way among the marsh grasses 
to rising dangle-legged, above their surface. But when reassured, they answer from 
their various stations. Sometimes the note sounds like the noise made by striking 
a tin pan lightly, but on other occasions there is a deliberate guttural sound given, 
rather resembling a low note from a large frog. 

The season being so far advanced at this time, much of the nesting life of 
these different birds may be observed closely. Passing slowly from one to another 
of the platforms on which the Least Bitterns have laid their pretty, pale green eggs, 
or the Purple Gallinules the rich, flesh-colored, well-filled shells, with an extrava- 
gance of bright brown spots, and almost as large as hens' eggs, we are impressed with 
the sameness of purpose among these feathered tribes. When we tip-toe from the 
boat to peep into the pockets the Boat-tails have hung among the tall reeds, and see 
again the same pledges of future bird life, only concealed under a different exterior, 
the gaps between the birds themselves seems more nearly bridged than at any other 
time. In the fact of the workmanship on the structures made to hold the delicate, 
precious eggs: in the fact of the tireless care of the clustered treasures, existing 
birds, despite some renegades from these greatly honored traits, express elements of 
their being not matched in any other creatures. 

[The matter on the following pages was compiled Yty the author for the 
tabular form, in which shape it would indeed be far more convenient, attractive and 
useful; but, we regret to say, the mechanical character of this work will not admit 
of either a folder or of a chart with great blanks scattered through it. — The 
Publishers.] 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 339 

Following is a condensed view of bird life in the vicinity of Xew Orleans, 
giving— 

1. The local popular name, when there is one. 

2. The correct common name. 

3. The scientific name, in parenthesis. 

4. Marked characteristics. 

5. Locations preferred by the bird. 

6. Migratory movements and degree of abundance. 

7. The breeding range and season. 

(For the ducks and certain other birds not brought within this list, see supple- 
mentary remarks at the end.) 

Die Dipper; Hell Diver. Pied-billed Grebe. (Podilymbus podiceps.) Ease of 
disappearance on the water. Somewhat duck-like in form. Ponds and small 
streams. Present from fall to spring; not particularly common. Nests north- 
ward from Indiana, Illinois, etc. 

Loon; Diver. (Urinator imber.) Ability to swim considerable distances under 
water. Open water. Arriving some times in September and staying until 
spring. Not very common. Breeds in the northern United States and north- 
ward. 

American Herring Gull. (Larus argentatus smithsonianus.) Heavy body and 
grayish-brown plumage in young. Seen about the shipping on the Mississippi 
at New Orleans and on Lake Pontchartrain. Present in winter after October 
and until March or April. Breeds in the northern United States and north- 
ward. 

Ring-billed Gull. (Larus delawarensis. ) Slim-winged and slight-bodied compared 
to the former species. Flies regularly about the shipping at New Orleans and 
on Lake Pontchartrain. Common, from November to mid-spring. Breeding 
range northern United States and northward. 

Laughing Gull. (Larus atri cilia.) Medium size birds seen on the Mississippi in 
winter ; back and wings slaty blue, the latter with black tips. The river or the 
lake at New Orleans. Abundant, leaving the Mississippi at New Orleans in 
spring when nesting begins on the Gulf coast. May ( ?) to August ( ?) 

Bonaparte's Gull. (Larus Philadelphia.) Small size; much mingled blackish and 
white seen in the plumage of the birds on the Mississippi in winter. Seen 
on the Mississippi at New Orleans. Occasional in winter. Breeds in southern 
Canada and northward. 



340 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

Oyster Opener; Slicarwater. Black Skimmer. (Rhyncops nigra.) Glossy black 
upper parts, snowy under parts and curiously formed red bill, whose lower 
mandible protrudes farther than the upper. Common on the coast, sometimes 
ascending the Mississippi. 

Water Turkey; Bee-a-lancette (Creole). Anhinga; Snakebird. (Anhinga anhinga.) 
Extreme length of neck and tail, which makes the linear dimensions almost or 
quite equal to the wing-spread. Plumage black. Open swamps and swamp 
lakes. Resident and common. April-July. 

American White Pelican. (Pelecanus erythrorhynchos.) A winter visitor to Lou- 
isiana waters. Nests in the northern United States and northward. 

Pelecan (with French pronunciation). Brown Pelican. (Pelecanus fuscus.) Great 
size and low, often labored flight. Tendency to move about in filing flocks. 
Salt water. Resident. 

Storm Bird. Man-'o-war Bird. (Fregata aquila.) Great wing-spread and grace- 
fulness of flight. Salt water. Sometimes driven a considerable way from the 
Gulf by storms, and of possible occurrence at New Orleans. 

Flamingo. (Phoenicopterus ruber.) Its occurrence on the Gulf coast of Louisiana 
has been recorded, but there is no probability of its coming nearer New Or- 
leans than that. 

Flamingo. Roseate Spoonbill. (Ajaja ajaja.) Rosy and carmine plumage, and 
spoon-shaped bill. Remote and deep swamps and marshes. Becoming a 
rare bird in the eastern parts of Louisiana. 

Spanish Curlew. White Ibis. (Guara alba.) White plumage, black wing-tips 
and sickle-shaped, pink bill. Swamps and marshes. Abundant in summer, 
a few wintering possibly. April-July. 

Wood Ibis; Wood Stork. (Tantalus loculator.) General resemblance to the White 
Ibis, but much larger and greater extent of black on wings. Swamps and 
marshes. Not known to be common near New Orleans. 

American Bittern. (Botaurus lentiginosus.) Marshy ditches and canals. Found 
principally, if not wholly, in winter. Breeds chiefly in the more northern parts 
of the Ignited States. 

Gaze-soleil. Least Bittern. (Botaurus exilis.) Blackish and tawny feathers, long 
neck and peculiar crouching position when lit on the marsh grasses. L^sual 
locations, marshes. Noticed chiefly in summer. Abundant. April-July. 

Sandhill Crane; Big Blue Crane. Great Blue Heron. (Ardea herodias.) Blue 
plumage, great size and hoarse notes. Swamps and marshes. Oftenest seen 
in summer. 



STANDARD IIISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 341 

American Egret. (Ardea egretta.) Large size, immaculately white feathers, 
graceful flight. Marshes and other open wet places. Common only in sum- 
mer, but some probably winter. 

Snowy Heron. (Ardea candidissima.) Purely white plumage, with yellow legs and 
black toes. Not to be confused with individuals of the Little Blue Heron in a 
white plumage. Marshes and other open wet places. Becoming a rare bird, 
known principally as a summer resident. 

Louisiana Heron. (Ardea tricolor ruficollis.) The mi.xed plumage of blue, chest- 
nut and white, the second of these colors being seen on the neck, and the last 
on the under parts. Marshy places. Like the other Herons, noted chiefly in 
summer. 

Blue Crane; White Crane. Little Blue Heron. (Ardea eoerulea.) Almost uni- 
form blue or white color, and medium size. Swamps and marshes. Migratory, 
abundant ; arriving by the middle of March or earlier. Late April to July. 

Cap-cap. Green Heron. (Ardea virescens.) Somewhat crested appearance of 
head, length of neck, bluish green plumage and noisy notes. Wet woods, ponds 
and marshy places. Common in summer, the first coming after the middle of 
March, and great numbers passing at night late in April. April-July. 

Black-cro^vned Night Heron. (Nycticorax nyeticorax naevius.) Dark color of 
back and creamy color of breast, contrasting strongly with the slaty shade on 
the throat and under side of neck. Marshes. Common locally in summer. 
April-July. 

Grosbec. Yellow-crowned Night Heron. (Njcticorax violaceus.) Harsh cry heard 
chiefly in night-time flights. Swamps and marshes. Common from March to 
September. Breeds April-July. 

Whooping Crane. (Grus americana.) Occurs in lower Louisiana in winter. Breeds 
in northern localities. 

Sandhill Crane. (Grus mexicana.) Tall stature, white plumage, black wing-tips. 
Marshes, prairies and other open wastes. 

Marsh Hen; Eal Jaune (Creole). King Eail. (Rallus elegans.) Marshes. Resi- 
dent and abundant. 

Clapper Eail. (Eallus longirostris crepitans.) Salt marshes. Resident. 

Virginia Eail. (Rallus virginianus.) Marshes and other wet places. Found from 
autumn until April. Breeds in the northern United States. 

Soree; Ortolan. Sora Eail. (Porzana Carolina.) Low, weak flight, smal' size, 
relatively shorter bill than in the large Eails. Marshes and other wet places. 
Abundant from August to April. Breeds in northern localities. 



342 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

Yellow Eail. (Porzana noveboracensis. ) Yellowish tan plumage, very small size. 
Marshes and other wet places. Found in winter ; not common. Breeds to the 
northward. 

Blue Eail; Eal Bleu (Creole). Purple Gallinule. (lonornis martiniea.) Purple 
plumage, yellow legs. Marshes. Common, occurring chiefly in summer. 
Breeds April-July. 

Florida Gallinule. (Gallinula galeata.) General resemblance to the Coot, but dis- 
tinguished by the red shield on the forehead and brighter color of legs. Marshes 
and marsh ponds. Usually observed in summer. Common. Breeds April- 
July. 

Poule d'eau. American Coot. (Fulica americana.) Somewhat duck-like in ap- 
pearance and of deep sooty color. Ponds and open water. Commonly arrives 
on the first cool moonlight nights after the middle of September. Abundant 
during the winter, but few probably remain to breed. 

American Avocet. ( Reeurvirostra americana.) Upward curve of bill, and black and 
white plumage. Shallow water. Has been common formerly in Southern Lou- 
isiana, but now rare. 

Black-necked Stilt. (Himantopus mexicanus.) Long pink legs and black and 
white plumages. Shallow water in marshes, rice-fields, etc. Seen in summer, 
arriving in March. 

Becasse (Creole). Woodcock. (Philohela minor.) Swift rising and falling flight, 
long bill, peculiar position of the eyes. Bogs and swamps. Common in mid- 
winter, but a few remain to breed. The severer the winter the more plentiful 
they are. 

Becassine (Creole) ; Jack Snipe. Wilson's Snipe. (Gallinago delicata.) Erratic 
flight, rasping note and long bill. Wet fields and marshes. The bulk arrive 
in September, the extent of the numbers remaining in winter probably depend- 
ing on the condition of their feeding grounds where they arrive in the fall. 
North-bound migrants are abundant in the latter part of March. 

Dormeur (Creole). Eed-breasted Snipe. (Macrorhampus scolopaceus.) Similar 
to common snipe in form, but has a reddish breast. Flies in flocks and not 
so swiftly as the Jack Snipe. Seashore or wet places inland. Fairly common 
in some localities in spring and fall. Breeds north of the United States. 

Cherook (especially applied to thi«; species, but also applicable to all its closer al- 
lies). Pectoral Sandpiper; Grass Snipe. (Tringa maculata.) Rapid, rolling, 
nearly chattering notes; compactness and strange manceuvers of flocks in 



; STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 343 

, flight. Ponds, wet fields and pastures when occurring inland. Present at New 
Orleans, sometimes from the first week of March until May. Returns from 
the North by the middle of July, remaining until late in the fall. 

Least Sandpiper. (Tringa minutilla.) Very small size. Coasts and pond-borders 
inland. Sometimes observed with the previous species during the migrations. 
Also winters sparingly. 

Semipalmated Sandpiper. (Ereunetes pusillus.) Greatly resembles the previous 
species; slightly heavier and warier. Often occurs with preceding species. 

Sanderling. (Calidris arenaria.) Extent of white and light gray in plumage. 
Seashore. As this bird is common in August and September on the coast of 
Mississippi, its occurrence on the beaches of Lake Pontchartrain is always 
probable. 

Big Clook-clook. Tell-tale ; Greater Yellow-legs. (Totanus melanoleucus.) Long, 
yellow legs and loud, but melodious double note. Marshes and other wet places. 
Common in spring and fall in the remoter localities. Some winter. Arrives 
from the South in March and return from the North in July, some wintering. 
Nests in Northern States and northward. 

Clook-clook. Lesser Tell-tale; Yellow-legs. (Totanus flavipes.) Hardly distin- 
guishable from the former except by its smaller size. Marshes and other wet 
places. Common in spring and fall in the remoter localities, and a little more 
common, perhaps, than the preceding. Nests as the preceding. 

Swee-sweet. Solitary Tattler. (Totanus solitarius.) Shrill note and purely 
white under parts. Ponds. Arrives early in March and is abundant for over 
six weeks ; returns from the North in July. Breeds in the Northern States and 
northward. 

Papabotte. Bartamian Sandpiper; Field Plover. (Bartramia longicauda.) Soft, 
liquid notes, something like "quit-quit" of "whip-a-whip." Fields and pas- 
tures. Passes north in great numbers in the later part of March, and is pres- 
ent through April, at least. Returns from the North in July. Breeds north- 
ward from the Middle States. 

Chevalier de Batture. Spotted Sandpiper. (Actitis macularius.) Wary and fond 
of shores and small streams, progressing by curved flights from point to point. 
Chiefly a migrant in April and after the middle of July in fall. A few remain 
to breed. 

Long-billed Curlew. (Numenius longirostris.) Sickle-shaped bill, large size and 
dark plumage. 



344 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

Golden Plover. (Charadrius dominieus.) Migrant in spring and fall. Breeds in 
the far North. 

Killdee. Killdeer. (Aegialitis voeifera.) Shrill call, from which the name is 
taken. Fields, pastures, etc. Most abundant from November 1 to March 1. 
Breeds in all parts of the United States. 

Semipalmated Plover. (Aegialitis semipalmata.) Eesembles the former, but 
smaller, and has bright yellow legs. Edges of ponds when found inland. Mi- 
grant in April and in the fall after the first half of July. 

Turnstone. (Arenaria interpres.) Variegation of the white, black and chestnut 
plumage. Seashore, and wanders inland. Near New Orleans occasionally. 

Partridge. Bob White. (Colinus virginianus.) Fairly common on sugar planta- 
tions near New Orleans. March-August. 

Wild Turkey. (Meleagris gallopavo.) Not uncommon within reasonable distance 
of New Orleans. 

Passenger Pigeon. (Ectopistes migratorius.) In very cold weather a few of these 
birds have been driven southward to localities near New Orleans. 

Dove. Mourning Dove. (Zenaidura macroura.) Doves always become more plen- 
tiful in the latitude of New Orleans about October 1. 

Ground Dove. (Columbigallina passerina.) Small size and bright chestnut color 
on the under surface of the wings. Eather a rare bird, coming to Louisiana 
in summer. 

Buzzard. Turkey Buzzard; Turkey Vulture. (Cathartes aura.) Numbers do not 
change throughout the year. Nesting begins in January. 

Buzzard. Black Vulture; Carrion Crow. (Catharista atrata.) Wings without 
the pointed appearance and graceful curves seen in the preceding species, and 
having whitish spaces at their tips ; flapping of the wings more frequent than 
in the Turkey Buzzard. Numbers do not change throughout the year. 

Swallow-tailed Kite. (Elanoides forficatus.) Black and white plumage and long, 
deeply-forked tail. Soars over low woods, fields or marshy places. A summer 
bird, coming by April. 

Mississippi Kite. (Ictinia mississippiensis.) Deep slaty and blackish plumage and 
shrill whistle. Open parts of the woods. A summer bird, coming by April. 

Chocolatier (Creole). Marsh Hawk. (Circus hudsonius.) Conspicuous white 
spot on rump, contrasting with the slaty blue of the adult birds, and the red- 
dish or chocolate brown of the younger ones. Fields, marshes and other open 
places. September-March. 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 345 

Sharp-skinned Hawk. (Accipiter velox.) Eather small size, medium wings and 
moderately long tail. Known at New Orleans chiefly or wholly as a winter 
bird. 

Blue Darter. Cooper's Hawk. (Accipiter eooperi.) Eesembles the preceding, but 
larger. Known chiefly or wholly as a winter resident at New Orleans. 

Chicken Hawk. Red-tailed Hawk. (Buteo borealis.) Bright reddish upper sur- 
face of tail in mature birds. Tree-dotted fields in winter. October-March, 
commonest in mid-winter. 

Harlan's Hawk. (Buteo borealis harlani.) Blackish plumage, the bird being a 
dark sub-species of the preceding. 

Chicken Hawk. Eed-shouldered Hawk. (Buteo lineatus.) Loud, screaming call, 
like "kee-air-kee-air," and rich reddish tan color of the under parts in mature 
birds. Tree-dotted fields. Commonest in winter, but found sparingly in 
summer. Mating begins in January or earlier. 

Broad-winged Hawk. (Buteo latissimus.) Woodland. Not found nearer New Or- 
leans than in the neighboring pine belts. 

White-headed Eagle; Bald Eagle. (Haliaeetus leucocephalus.) Dark plumage, 
large size, and white head and tail in adults. Regularly resident, but not com- 
mon. 

Pigeon Hawk. (Falco columbarius.) General resemblance to Sparrow Hawk in 
form, but plumage darker and without red on tail. Fields and other open 
places with occasional trees. Arrives from the North in September and 
remains until March. Breeds north of the United States. 

Cleek-cleek. American Sparrow Hawk. (Falco sparverius.) Noisy notes, small 
size, and reddish tail, the back blue in the male. Fields and edges of the woods. 
Common from September until the middle or latter part of March. Breeds 
rarely or never in the latitude of New Orleans, but slightly to the northward. 

Fish Hawk; Osprey. (Pandion haliaetus carolinensis.) Large size; whitish breast. 
Large bodies of water. May be observed in the vicinity of New Orleans occa- 
sionally. 

Barn Owl. (Strix pratincola.) Light, almost whitish plumage. Old buildings 
and sugar houses in the country about New Orleans. Resident and not par- 
ticularly common. 

Field Owl. Short-eared Owl. (Asio accipitrinus.) Diurnal habits and fondness 
for grassy or slightly marshy fields. Rather common, October-March. Nests 
chieflv in the North. 



346 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

Hoot Owl. Florida Barred Owl. (Syrnium nebulosum alleni.) Strange, wild 
notes, heard mostly at night ; cross barring of the breast and lengthwise streak- 
ing of the belly. Swamps and groves. Eesident and common. 

Florida Screech Owl. (Megascops asio floridanus.) Small; high-pitched, trilling 
notes, heard at night. Trees in fields, often near houses. Eesident ; rather 
uncommon. 

Great Horned Owl. (Bubo virginianus.) Great size and conspicuous ear tufts. 
Swamps and woods. Resident, and only fairly common. 

Eain Crow. Yellow-billed Cuckoo. (Coceyzus americanus.) Slender form and 
rapid call of croaking notes. Groves, woodland and swamps. Abundant sum- 
mer resident; common from April 20 to October 10; extreme dates of migra- 
tion, April 6 and November 1. Breeds May- July. 

Black-billed Cuckoo. (Coceyzus erythrophthalmus.) Found only in migration; 
rare. 

Belted Kingfisher. (Ceryle aleyon.) Blue and white plumage, heavy crest, rattling 
notes. Ponds, streams, lakes, etc. Eesident and common. 

Southern Hairy Woodpecker. (Dryobates villosus audubonii.) Black and white 
streaked back. Swamps and woodland. Eesident; not very common. 

Downy Woodpecker. (Dryobates pubescens.) Similar to preceding, but smaller. 
Woods and groves. Resident; common. 

Yellow-bellied Sapsucker. (Sphyrapicus varius.) Yellow under parts, with black 
and crimson throat-patch. Woodland and groves. Winters plentifully from 
October 15 to March 15. Breeds in the North. 

Log Cock; Pileated Woodpecker. (Ceophloeus pileatus.) Large size, chiefly black 
plumage, red crest, loud rattling cry. Heavy swamps and woods (usually). 
Eesident and rather common. 

Red-headed Woodpecker. (Melanerpes erythrocephalus.) Tri-colored plumage, 
the head being scarlet. Groves and edges of the woods about cultivated fields. 
Eesident; in recent years well established at Audubon Park, and better rep- 
resented there than anywhere else about New Orleans. April-July. 

Red-bellied Woodpecker. (Melanerpes carolinus.) The vermilion crown patch and 
otherwise plain, barred plumage. Swamps and groves. Resident; commonest 
in winter usually. 

Yellow Hammer. Flicker ; Yellow-shafted Woodpecker. (Colaptes auratus.) Yel- 
low feathers in wings; somewhat pigeon-like in shape. Open woods. Com- 
monest in fall, but resident. 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 347 

Chuck-wiU's-widow. (Antrostomus carolinensis.) Evening cry resembling the 
words "chuck-wiirs-widovv." Great gape of bill. Low growth of the woods. 
Found very rarely in such a country as lies about Xew Orleans. Arrives late 
in spring and leaves late in fall. 

Whip-poor-will. (Antrostomus vocifenis.) The cry from which the bird is named. 
The lower parts of the woods. Known only as a migrant ; rare. 

Bull-bat. N'ighthawk. (Chordeiles virginianus.) Ease of flight, length of wings, 
large white mark on outer part of wing. Open places. Arrives by April 10, 
becoming common later in the month; most disappear early in May. Return 
in August, and a few remain until November 1. 

Chimney Swallow. Chimney Swift. (C'haetura pelagica.) Crescent-shaped out- 
line, blackish plumage. Sometimes arrives March 14, becoming common from 
the last week of March. Leaves at the end of October. Abundant. Mating 
begins by April 1. 

Euby-throated Hummingbird. (Trochilus colubris.) Spots where flowers are 
blooming. The majority arrive after March 20; most leave before October 
15, the last migrants disappearing by Xovember 1. Winters very rarely. 
Breeds April-July. 

Scissor-tailed Flycatcher. (Milvulus forficatus.) Long, forked tail and gray, whit- 
ish and pink or scarlet plumage. Fields near the edges of the woods. Has 
been found locally on sugar plantations near New Orleans, especially at the 
Fairfield plantation, Jefferson Parish, on the west bank of the Mississippi. It 
is common only as far as eastern Texas. 

Black or Big Grasset (Creole). Kingbird; Bee Martin. (Tyrannus tyrannus. ) 
Blackish upper parts, white under parts. Edges of woods, orchards, etc. 
Arrives after March 20 and remains until October 1. Commonest in August 
and September, rarely seen at New Orleans in the nesting season. 

Croque (Creole). Crested Flycatcher. (Myiarchus crinitus.) Woods and groves. 
Arrives about March 25-28 and is common until fall. 

Phcebe-bird. (Sayornis phoebe.) Large head, with slightly crested appearance. 
The emphatic note from which the name arises. Fields, thickets, fence-rows, 
etc. Common winter resident, arriving the first week in October and leaving 
by April 1-6. 

Wood Pewee. (Contopus virens.) Plaintive note, like the word "pe-wee," much 
drawn out. Groves and edges of the woods. Common summer resident from 
April 1 to October 20, the last loitering until nearly November 1. 



348 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

Green-crested Flycatcher. (Empidonax virescens.) Swamps and woodland. Ar- 
rives about April 6-8 and remains until the end of October. Common, but not 
conspicuous. 

Traill's Flycatcher. (Empidonax traillii.) Thickets in fields and woodland. Has 
been noticed occasionally in spring and fall as a transient. 

Least Flycatcher. (Empidonax minimus.) Somewhat open places. A transient 
spring and fall migrant, unaccountably rare. 

Blue Jay. (Cyanocitta cristata.) Crested head, rather large size and blue feathers. 
Woods and groves. A common resident. 

American Crow. (Corvus americanus.) Commonest in winter. 

Tish Crow. (Corvus ossifragus.) Smaller than the common crow, skilled in pick- 
ing small fish from the water; also feeds with vultures on animals not killed 
by itself, but not to be confused with the Black Vulture, or Carrion Crow. 
Rivers or the seashore. 

Ortolan; Ricebird. Bobolink; Reedbird. (Dolichonyx oryzivorus.) Streaky yel- 
lowish plumage of birds seen in the fall. Marshes and rice-fields. Passes 
northward from the tropics in April and is present in great numbers in the 
latter part of September, but is not often common in the immediate neighbor- 
hood of New Orleans. 

Cowbird. (Molothrus ater.) Nearly uniform black plumage of the male and gray- 
ish brown of the female, and stumpy bill. Wooded pastures and edges of the 
woods. Seen at New Orleans only in winter, especially during February. 

Ricebird (see also Bobolink) ; Petit Choc. Red-winged Blackbird. (Agelaius 
phoeniceus.) Red-shoulder patches of the male, contrasting with black. 
Marshes in nesting season, swamps in winter and in early spring. Always 
present and abundant, but not stationary. Breeds April-July. 

Caille Prairie (Creole) ; Field Lark. Meadow Lark. (Sturnella magna.) Brown- 
back, yellow breast and white feathers in tail. Fields and meadows. Com- 
monest at New Orleans in the meadows of Audubon Park, where it has become 
resident. Mating begins in April. 

Pape Prairie (Creole) ; Poplaree; Pop. Orchard Oriole. (Icterus spurius.) Chest- 
nut and black plumage of male and bright, loud song. Groves, meadows and 
orchards. Arrives March 22-25 and remains in abundance until September 
15 or 20. Nesting begins the middle of April. 

Baltimore Oriole. (Icterus galbula.) Bright orange and black plumage. Groves 
and open woodland. Known only as a rare migrant in April, especially about 
the 25th. 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 349 

Eusty Blackbird. (Scolecophagus carolinus.) Resembles the Red-winged Black- 
bird in size, but has no special markings. Females more gray than black. 
Open wet woods and thickets in fields. Abundant from the middle of Novem- 
ber until the middle of April, the last leaving about May 1. Breeds north of 
the United States. 

Choc ; Choc de Bois (Creole). Florida Grackle; Crow Blackbird. (Quiscalus quis- 
cula agelaius. ) Rather large ; comparatively uniform black plumage. Swamps, 
groves and woodland. Resident and abundant. Nesting begins about April 1. 

Choc de Prairie (Creole). Boat-tailed Grackle. (Quiscalus' major.) Large size, 
long tail in male ; smaller size and grayish brown plumage in female. Marshes 
in mating season (beginning about April 1) and fields in winter. Resident and 
abundant. 

Purple Finch. (Carpodacus pujpureus.) Impurely rosy red plumage, becoming 
crimson on crown. Edges of woods. Sometimes fairly common in winters 
with very cold spells ; has been known to remain until March 23. Breeds in 
the North. 

Wild Canary (also applied to other yellow birds). American Goldfinch. (Spinus 
tristis.) Yellow plumage, with black crown and wings, becoming flaxen-brown- 
ish and whitish in winter. Canary-like notes. Woodland, thickets and fields 
with shrubs or trees. Abundant from the middle or latter part of November 
until the latter part of March. 

Pine Siskin; Pine Goldfinch. (Spinus pinus.) Rare at New Orleans. A flock has 
been observed in the middle of March on their way northward. Breeds from 
the Northern States northward. 

Vesper Sparrow. (Poocaetes gramineus.) Plain gray plumage, white feathers in 
tail. Fond of grass fields, hence called Grass Finch also. A winter bird, but 
decidedly uncommon. Breeds chiefly in the Northern States. 

Savanna Sparrow. (Ammodromus sandwichensis savanna.) Small and fond of 
grassy places. Abundant winter bird from October 1 to May 1. Breeds chiefly 
in the North. 

Grasshopper Sparrow. (Ammodromus savannarum passerinus.) Faint, grasshop- 
per-like song. Meadows and weedy fields. At New Orleans hardly ever 
occurring outside of Audubon Park, where it arrives early in April and remains 
until August. 

Lark Sparrow. (Chondestes grammacus.) Wood-bordered fields or other open 
places. Never observed at New Orleans, but occurring occasionally in most 
sections of Louisiana. 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

White-crowned Sparrow. (Zonotrichia Icucophrys.) Conspicuous white patlis on 
the black background of the head. Woods and thickets. A rare bird in the 
fall, winter and spring at New Orleans; has been seen as late as May 1. Breeds 
chiefly north of the United States. 

White-throated Sparrow. (Zonotrichia albicollis.) Sweet, modulated whistle and 
white chin. Woods and thickets. Abundant from the latter part of October 
to April 15, leaving by the 20th to the 25th. 

Chipping Sparrow. (Spizella socialis.) Apparently never occurring at New Or- 
leans. 

Field Sparrow. (Spizella pusilla.) Pinkish-brown plumage ; pink bill. More open 
places in the vicinity of the woods. Eather uncommon at Xew Orleans. Breeds 
mostly in the Northern States. 

Snowbird ; Slate-colored Junco. ( Junco hiomalis.) Slaty and white plumage ; pink 
bill. Woods, especially their edges. Kare at New Orleans, coming only with 
the coldest weather. Breeds in the North. 

Song Sparrow. (Melospiza fasciata.) Fields and edges of woods. Almost un- 
known at New Orleans. Breeds chiefly in the North. 

Swamp Sparrow, (ilelospiza georgiana.) Swamps, marshes and thickets. Abun- 
dant in winter from October 15 to 20 to April 15 to 20; a few remain until 
May 1. 

Yox Sparrow. (Passerella iliaca.) Large size, rufous tail. Thickets and woods. 
A winter bird, usually uncommon and never present in great numbers. Breeds 
north of the United States. 

Joree. Towhee : Che wink : Ground Eobin. (Pipilo erythrophthalmus.) Black up- 
per parts, brown and white under parts. Its call sounds like "jo-ree," last 
syllable on a higher pitch and more accented. Woodland aiid thickets in the 
woods. Eesident and common. 

Eedbird; Cardinal (with French accent). Cardinal. (Cardinalis cardinalis.) Bed 
plumage, high crest and black space on head; plumage of the female, brown, 
showing red in flight. Breeds from the early part of April to July. 

Eose-breasted Grosbeak. (Habia ludoviciana.) Black and white plumage, with 
rosy breast-patch and wing lining on the male, replaced by tan on the female. 
Woodland. A rather uncommon fall and spring migrant. Breeds in the more 
Northern States. 

Blue Grosbeak. (Guiraca coerulea.) Uniform blue of male and heavy beak. Fields 
and edges of woodland. Eather rare about New Orleans, being found in spring 
and fall. 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 3Si 

Eveque (Creole) ; Blue Pop. Indigo Bunting. (Passerina eyanea.) Intensely and 
uniformly blue plumage on the males, the females being plain brown. Edges 
of the woods, thickets, etc. Arrives the last of March, increasing in the first 
week of April. Many migrants are present the latter part of September and 
through much of October, all being brown at tliat season. 

Pape; Pop; Bed Pop. Painted Finch; Nonpareil. (Passerina ciris.) Variegated 
plumage of the male, red, blue, green and yellow appearing. Borders of the 
woods, orchards and high thickets. Arrives in numbers the first week in April, 
remaining until October. Breeds April to July. 

Black-throated Bunting. (Spiza americana.) The quick song of bright, though 
somewhat wheezy notes. Fields or meadows, with bushes or low trees. Arrives 
about April 20 and is common for two weeks, after which very few are seen. 
Its movements in the fall are not obvioixs. 

Scarlet Tanager. (Piranga erythromelas.) Black wings and tail and scarlet body, 
the red changing to yellow in autumn. Woods and groves. Sparingly common 
migrant in April and in September and October. Breeds chiefly to the nortli- 
ward. 

Yellow Caille (tlie females and males in fall plumage). Summer Tanager. (Pi- 
ranga rubra.) Completely red plumage, in males, W'ith no crest. Woods and 
groves. Arrives April 3 or 4 and is common all summer. The last leave the 
latter part of October. 

Martin; Purple Martin. (Progne subis.) Unmistakable form of the Swallow and 
purplish black (in the male plumage). Arrives at the latest by the middle of 
February, becoming common early in March; is not conspicuous after Sep- 
tember 15. 

Cliff Swallow. (Petrochelidon lunifrons.) Eather close resemblance to the Barn 
Swallow, except in there being a shorter tail and a light frontal bar on the 
head. Eare in the immediate vicinity of New Orleans, appearing in the lo- 
calities where it occurs commonly chiefly in September. 

Barn Swallow. (Chelidon erythrogaster. ) Steel-blue back; reddish brown under 
parts; long forked tail ; graceful flight. Arrives in great numbers, for the first 
time, about April 20, decreasing by May 1 ; none present in June or most of 
July, reappearing the last of that month and remaining until November 1, 
but only locally. 

Tree Swallow. (Tachycineta bicolor.) Green upper parts, white under parts. Com- 
mon at various times of the year excepting June ; most abundant in April and 
October. 



352 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

Bank Swallow. (Clivicola riparia.) Brown upper parts, wliite under parts. Seen 
at various times in the spring and fall, and in late summer. Not very com- 
mon. 

Kough-winged Swallow. (Stelgidopteryx serripennis.) Colors same as in pre- 
ceding species, but throat and chin being continuously light grayish brown, 
instead of there being only a collar on the throat. Abundant in spring, late in 
summer and autumn. 

Cirier (Creole). Cedar-bird; Cedar Waxwing. (Ampelis cedroruni.) Conspicu- 
ous crest; disposition to keep in flocks. Groves and sometimes woodland. An 
erratic winter visitor, usually appearing in February and often remaining 
through most of April. 

French Mocking-bird. Loggerhead Shrike. (Lanius ludovicianus.) Heavy body; 
plumage resembles that of Mocking-bird. Fields with trees or buslies. Only 
a winter bird at New Orleans, arriving the last of August and leaving in 
March. 

Green Grasset. Eed-cycd Greenlet. (Vireo olivaceus.) Small size, green back, 
gray cap, white under parts. Woodland and groves. Arrives about March 20 
and remains until the latter part of October; especially common in August 
and in September. Nesting begins April 15. 

Philadelphia Greenlet. (Vireo philadelphus.) Strips of low woodland and low 
groves. A rather rare migrant, observed in the fall. Breeds only to the north- 
ward. 

Warbling Greenlet. (Vireo gilvus.) Groves. Arrives by the end of March and 
remains noticeable from its song until August. 

Yellow-throated Greenlet. (Vireo flavifrons.) Woodland and thickets. Com- 
monest in the early part of April as a migrant ; seen again in the fall. 

Blue-headed Greenlet. (Vireo solitarus.) Bluish-gray cap, and w-hite line curling 
about the eye. Woodland. A winter resident. Kathcr common from Decem- 
ber to March. 

White-eyed Greenlet. (Vireo noveboracensis.) The short, pleasing, emphatic song, 
heard everywhere in the woods and thickets in summer. Swamps, wet thickets 
and other shrubbery. Abundant summer resident from March 15 to October 
20 ; a few winter. Breeds from April 10 to June. 

Black and White Warbler. (Mniotilta varia.) Finely variegated black and white 
plumage. Woodland. In spring it is seen occasionally late in March and in 
April ; passes northward and returns late in July, remaining until October. 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 353 

Prothonotary Warbler. (Protonotaria citrea.) Slaty blue, bright yellow and 
white plumage. Swamps. Arrives March 15-20; is common in summer; tran- 
sients are passing southward in the latter part of July and in August, forsaking 
the swamps then for more open country. Nesting begins about April 15. 

Swainson's Warbler. (Helinaia swainsonii.) Lower growths of deep, damp wood- 
land. Extremely local near New Orleans and decidedly rare, arriving in one 
spot by April 6-8; probably breeds there. 

Worm-eating Warbler. (Helmitherus vermivorus.) Swamps and woodland. Found 
as a migrant in spring and late in summer and fall. Uncommon. 

Baehman's Warbler. (Helminthophila bachmani.) Swamps and woodland. Has 
been discovered near Lake Pontchartrain late in March. A very rare bird 
everywhere. 

Blue-winged Yellow Warbler. (Helminthophila pinus.) General resemblance to 
the Prothonotary Warbler, but is smaller and has a black line through the eye. 
Woods and thickets. An uncommon transient in spring and fall. 

Golden-winged Warbler. (Helminthophila chrysoptera.) Woods and thickets. A 
transient at New Orleans, noted in the fall migration about September 20. 
Kare. 

Orange-crowned Warbler. (Helminthophila celata.) Woods and thickets. A 
common mid-winter bird. Breeds north of the United States. 

Tennessee Warbler. (Helminthophila peregrina.) Borders of the woods and 
bushy or weedy fields. Abundant autumn migrant from September 20 to 
October 20, the last leaving by November 1. Pare or unknown in spring. 

Parula Warbler. ( Compsothlypis americana.) Odd, buzzing song, blue back with 
golden spot in the center. Woods, thickets and groves. Arrives regularly the 
first week of March, becoming common at once; may remain all summer; all 
leaving by the end of October. Nesting begins the last of March. 

Yellow Warbler. (Dendroica aestiva.) Completely golden plumage. Orchards, 
groves and thickets. Arrives by April 3 or 4, but does not stop to rest. Thou- 
sands return in the last half of July from further north. All leave in Oc- 
tober. 

Black-throated Blue Warbler. (Dendroica coerulescens.) Woods and thickets. A 
rare migrant in spring. Breeds mostly north of the United States. 

Myrtle Warbler. (Dendroica coronata.) Yellow spot on rump. Most places in- 
differently. Arrives sparingly by October 15-20, becoming very abundant in 
the early part of November; most have gone north by April 20-25. 



354 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

Magnolia Warbler. (Dendroica maculosa.) Black and yellow or graj- and yellow- 
plumage. Woods and hedges. Arrives about September 20 and is abundant 
until November 1, when all leave ; is very rare as a spring migrant, being usu- 
ally seen about May 1. Breeds chiefly north of the United States. 

Cerulean Warbler. (Dendroica coerulea.) Azure blue and white plumage, with no 
other colors. Woodland and thickets. Observed as a rather rare migrant, in 
the earlier part of April ; does not remain in summer and is rare in the fall. 

Chestnut-sided Warbler. (Dendroica pennsylvanica.) Woodland and thickets. 
Never observed in the spring, but is sometimes fairly common in the fall for 
a few days, arriving September 20 or earlier. Nests in the Northern States. 

Bay-breasted Warbler. (Dendroica castanea.) Woodland and thickets. On rather 
rare occasions fairly common for a few days in the fall migration; rarer still 
in the spring, but migrating late, even up to May 5. Nests in the North. 

Black-poll Warbler. (Dendroica striata.) The perfect plumage is grayish, 
black and white. Woodland and thickets. Bare in the fall and spring migra- 
tions. Nests north of the United States. 

Blackburnian Warbler. (Dendroica blackburniae. ) The patches of black and white 
and the orange throat are the most marked features of this bird. Woodland 
and thickets. Eather rare, in spring and fall migrations, occurring chiefly 
at the end of April and in the last of September and part of October. 

Sycamore Warbler. (Dendroica dominica albilora.) Yellow throat, slaty back and 
black-streaked white sides. Swamps and woodland. Arrives by March 1 and 
is soon common, remaining all summer. 

Black-throated Green Warbler. (Dendroica vircns.) Woodland and thickets. 
Seldom appears at New Orleans in spring; is occasional in the fall migration. 
Breeds' in the Northern States. 

Pine Warbler. (Dendroica vigorsii.) In breeding season, pine woods; in winter, 
mixed woods and in thickets. Usually found from December to March about 
New Orleans, but at no other times of the year. Breeds in pine woods North 
and South. 

Palm Warbler. (Dendroica palmarum.) Eeddish cap, yellow under parts, and 
its ground living habits. Wood-bound fields and roadsides. Common in win- 
ter from November until April 1 ; a few remain a week or so later. Breeds 
north of the United States. 

Oven-bird. (Seiurus aurocapillus. ) Green upper parts, specked, white under 
parts, and has a characteristic walking gait. Fairly common as a spring and fall 



STAN DA ED IIISTOBY OF NEW ORLEANS. 355 

migrant throughout April and between September 15-20 and October 15. 
Breeds in the North. 

Water Thrush. (Seiurus noveboraeensis.) Has a peculiar walking gait. Ponds, 
sloughs or ditches in the woods or fields. Present throughout April and from 
the early part or middle of August to the first week in October. Breeds in the 
Northern States. 

Louisiana Water Thrush. (Seiurus motacilla.) Closely resembles the last, from 
which it can scarcely be distinguished in life. Frequents clearer water than 
the preceding. Present at New Orleans as a transient in spring and fall, never 
stopping here to breed. Rather rare. 

Kentucky Warbler. (Geothlypis formosa.) Lower growths in the woods. Arrives 
by the last of March; becomes inconspicuous in the fall. Common summer 
resident. 

Mourning Warbler. (Geothlypis Philadelphia.) A very rare transient. Breeds 
mostly north of the United States. 

Maryland Yellow-throat. (Geothlypis trichas.) Black and yellow throat. Thick- 
ets, copses or wet, bushy places. Common and resident. Nesting begins the 
latter part of March. 

Yellow-breasted Chat. (Icteria vircns.) Large for a warbler, and has bright green, 
yellow and white plumage. Has several very odd notes. Thickets and bor- 
ders of woods. Arrives April 12-15; common summer resident. Nesting 
begins early in May. 

Hooded Warbler. (Sylvania mitrata.) Partial black hood, green back and golden_ 
under parts. Swamps and woodland. Arrives March 10-15. Common summer 
resident, leaving by the end of October. Breeds April 15- July. 

American Redstart. (Setophaga ruticilla.) The male is black, with a salmon- 
splotched plumage; quick in movement in pursuing insects. Woodland and 
groves. Very rare in spring; returns from farther north July 20-25; common 
all fall, leaving by the end of October. 

American Pipit. (Anthus pennsylvanicus.) Brown; characteristic walking gait; 
feeds in flocks on the ground. Fields and other open places. Arrives from 
the north October 22-25 ; very abundant all winter, some lingering until Jlay 
1. Breeds in the far North. 

Sprague's Pipit. (Anthus spraguei.) Resembles in the more marked habits the 
common Pipit, except that it does not live in flocks and mounts very high in 
flight. Weedy or grassy pastures, fields and wastes. Of limited distribution. 



3S6 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

from November to March; sometimes foiuid in the pastures at Harvey's canal; 
wanders to Louisiana from the ISTorthwest and West. Breeds in Dakota and 
northward. 

Moqueur (Creole). Mocking-bird. (Mimus polyglottus.) Imitative powers of 
song. Neighborhood of dwellings. Resident and common. Breeds from late 
March to August. 

Black Caille (Creole) ; Caille Laurier (Creole). Catbird. (Galeoscoptes carolinen- 
sis.) Nearly black plumage and strange, cat-like cry. Copses, briers and 
woodland thickets. Eather common throughout April; abundant from Sep- 
tember 22-25 to November 1. A few winter, but none breed. 

French Mocking-bird (see also Loggerhead Shrike) ; Moqueur de Canne (Creole). 

Brown Thrasher. ( Harporhynchus rufus.) Bright reddish brown; slim form; 
long tail. Borders of the woods, thickets, briers, etc. A winter resident, but 
most abundant in the latter part of September and throughout October and in 
the last part of March and first part of April. Breeds in the neighboring pine 
sections. 

House Wren. Carolina Wren. (Thryothorus ludovicianus.) Loud, cheerful whis- 
tle, familiarity, rusty brown plumage. The neighborhood of houses and the 
woods indifferently. Resident and common. Nesting begins early in March. 

Bewick's Wren. (Thryothorus bewickii.) Deep brown upper parts, ashy under 
parts and long, heavily barred tail. Bushy places, brush piles, etc. Occurs 
at most times of the year, excepting the nesting season. Never common. 

House Wren. (Troglodytes aedon.) Plain in all its markings, color contrasts be- 
ing absent. Weedy or bushy places and briers. Found only as a winter 
resident, from October 1 to the first week of April. 

Winter Wren. (Troglodytes hiemalis.) Very small; short tail, but resembles the 
preceding species considerably. Low thickets and various compact or clustered 
growths. Chiefly in mid-winter and not very common. Breeds chiefly north 
of the United States. 

Short-billed Marsh Wren. (Cistothorus stellaris.) Black, white and brown varie- 
gation of the back. ^Marshes or wet, weedy fields. A winter visitant; usually 
uncommon. 

Long-billed Marsh Wren. (Cistothorus palustris.) Liquid, gurgling song. Fresh 
or salt marshes. Resident, but commonest in summer. 

Brown Creeper. (Certhia familiaris anaericana.) Habit of ascending tree trunks 
in a creeping manner. Woodland. Uncommon winter visitor. 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 357 

Tufted Titmouse. (Parus bicolor.) Decided crest and notes resembling "peter, 
peter; peter, peter." Woodland, groves and thickets. Eesident and common. 

Carolina Chickadee. (Parus carolinensis.) Small size, generally gray plumage, 
black and white head. Woodland, groves and thickets. Eesident and common. 
Nesting begins by April 1 at least. 

Golden-crowned Kinglet. (Regulus satrapa.) Greenish plumage, small size, varie- 
gated bright crown-patch. Woodland, groves and thickets. Commonly present 
from the last of October until March 15. Breeds in the North. 

Ruby-crowned Kinglet. (Regulus calendula.) Close resemblance in life to the 
former, distinguished by the crown patch, which is simply vermilion or scarlet. 
Woodland, groves and thickets. Present from October 15-20 to April 1-G. 
Breeds in the North. 

Blue-gray Gnatcatcher. (Polioptila coerulea.) Small size; long black and white 
tail; inconsequent notes. Hedges, woodland borders and thickets. Arrives 
about March 15, becoming common March 21-25 or earlier; a few winter; most 
disappear early in the fall. Nesting begins almost by April 1. ^ 

Speckled Caille (Creole). Wood Thrush. (Turdus mustelinus.) Clear brown 
upper parts, black-streaked, satiny-white under parts; great musical powers. 
Woodland. Arrives by March 25-28, and is common until October 15, being es- 
pecially abundant about October 1 ; leaves by the end of October. 

Wilson's Thrush. (Turdus fuscesens.) Light brown upper parts, pale streaking 
of breast. Woodland and low groves. Known as a migrant, especially in the 
latter part of April and after the middle of September. Not common. Breeds 
in the North. 

Gray-cheeked Thrush. (Turdus aliciae.) Grayish or brownish-olive upper parts 
and purely white or gray throat and cheeks. Woodland and thickets. A tran- 
sient migrant, sometimes very common late in April, and less common in the 
fall. Breeds in the North. 

Olive-backed Thrush. (Turdus ustulatus swainsonii.) Closely resembles the pre- 
ceding; has tawny touches about the cheeks and throat. Woodland and 
thickets. Most regular in the fall after September 20 and until October 10-15; 
sometimes common late in April. Breeds in the North. 

Hermit Thrush. (Turdus aonalaschkae pallasii.) Tail bright rufous, otherwise 
resembling the last mentioned considerablv. Woodland and thickets. A win- 
ter resident, coming after the middle of October and sometimes remaining 
until April 12. 



358 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

Grive (Creole); Eobin. American Robin. (Merula migratoria. ) Medium size; 
gray upper parts and reddish or russet breast. Becomes very common by No- 
vember 15; numbers decreasing after March 1. Breeds from 35 degrees north 
northward. 
Bhiebird. (Sialia sialis.) Blue back and chestnut-colored breast. Borders of 
woodland, fences and telegraph lines. Seen sometimes in winter about New 
Orleans, but never in summer. 

The Terns, called also Sea Swallows, are known chiefly in the vicinity of New 
Orleans through their occurrence on Lake Pontchartrain, on the Louisiana and 
Mississippi Gulf coasts, and in the marshes of the extreme lower part of Louisiana. 
The usual species are the Royal Tern (Sterna maxima), the Forster's Tern (Sterna 
forsteri), the Least Tern (Sterna antillarum), and the Black Tern ( Hydrochelidon 
nigra surinamensis). 

Cormorants are represented on the various bodies of water near New Orleans 
by three species; the Double-crested Cormorant (Phalacrocorax dilophus), the Flor- 
ida Cormorant (P. diloplnis floridanus), and the Mexican Cormorant (P. mexi- 
canus) ; the first of these is observed only in winter, the others having a more 
southerly range. 

The Ducks of lower Louisiana have given it a reputation as a hunting ground 
surpassed in few parts of the country. Besides the continually present Wood or 
Summer Duck (Aix sponsa), there are in fall, more restrictedly in mid-winter and 
again in early spring, hosts of ducks belonging to a majority of the species found 
in North America. Important flights reach the latitude of New Orleans 
about October 1, a few Blue-Winged Teals having arrived shortly before that. Mal- 
lards and Green-winged Teals come together, sometimes being found feeding in the 
same spots, but such an association appears never to take place between the Mallard 
and the Blue-winged Teal. Of the other ducks best known and most prized among 
the hunters, the Widgeon, the Gray Duck, and the Pin-tail appear at very nearly 
the same time; the Scaups — Dos-gris, the Creoles call them — are in company with 
these birds, but they are indifferent table ducks. Midwinter produces a lull in the 
Duck season, many individuals having migrated much farther south, but Mallards, 
Pin-tails, Widgeons, Gray Ducks, Green-winged Teals, Dos-gris and Redheads 
remain in considerable numbers. Beginning in February, at least, these Ducks 
head northward, and nygration among them is well under way in a short time. 
About the last of these Ducks are leaving when those birds that have wintered 
south of the T'nited States begin to pass this latitude in large numbers. The 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 359 

passage of great numbers of the transients continues until April. Teals and Pin- 
tails are the principal species in this spring movement. The Blue-winged Teal 
remains in small numbers until the first part of May. 

Of the species which are plentifully represented among the sets of individuals 
that go no further south than Louisiana, the Mallard and the Pin-tail are the first 
to leave after the earliest beginnings of spring. 

DUCKS OCCURRING ABOUT NEW ORLEANS. 

American Merganser. (Merganser americanus.) 

Red-breasted Merganser. (Merganser serrator.) 

Bec-scie. Hooded Merganser. (Lophodytes cucullatus.) Black and white plumage 
and conspicuous crest. 

French Duck. Mallard. (Anas boschus.)" Large size and green head (in the 
drake). 

Black Duck. Black Mallard. (Not the bird called "Black Duck" at New Orleans). 
(Anas obscura.) Eesembles Mallard in size, but is of a general dark color. 

Canard Gris. Violon. Gadwall. (Anas strepera.) 

Zinzin. American Widgeon. (Anas americana.) 

Sarcelle d'Hiver. Green-winged Teal. (Anas carolinensis.) 

Sarcelle Printanniere ; Sarcelle Automniere. Blue-winged Teal. (Anas discors.) 

Cinnamon Teal (very rare in Louisiana). (Anas cyanoptera.) General rich- 
reddish brown color and bright-blue specula on the wings. 

Micoine; Spoonbill. Shoveler. (Spatula clypeata.) Paddle-shaped bill. 

Paille-en-queu. Pin-tail. (Dafila acuta.) Greatly lengthened tail feathers and 
fine gray plumage. 

Brancheur. Wood Duck. (Aix sponsa.) Great beauty of plumage and the habit of 
perching in trees. 

Dos Gris (Audubon). Red-head. (Aythya americana.) 

Canard Cheval. Canvas-back (not very common). (Aythya vallisneria.) 

Dos Gris. Scaup; Blue-bill. (Aythya marila nearctica.) 

Dos Gris. Lesser Scaup. (Aythya affinis.) 

Black Duck. Ring-necked Duck. (Aythya eollaris.) Generally black plumage, 
with white chin and brown ring about the neck. 

Golden-eye. (Glaucionetta clangula americana.) 

Marrionette. Buffle-head; Butter-ball. ( Charitonetta albeola.) 

Old Squaw (very rare winter visitor). (Clangula hiemalis.) Largely white plum- 
age, and long tail. 

Goddam. Ruddy Duck. (Erismatura rubida.) 



36o STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

The Geese found in southern Louisiana in winter, and which arc consequently 
likely to occur at Xew Orleans at any time, are the Blue Goose (Chen caerulescens), 
the Lesser Snow Goose (Chen hyperborea), the White-fronted Goose (Anser albi- 
frons gambeli), the Canada Goose (Branta canadensis), and its variety, Hutchins's 
Goose (B. canadensis hutchinsii). 

Two Swans, the Whistling (Olor columbianus), and the Trumpeter (Olor 
buccinator), winter on the Gulf, and are of possible occurrence very near New 
Orleans. 

Besides the Sandpipers named in the list, the White-rumped, the Baird's, 
and the Eed-backed are of possible, but uncertain, occurrence near New Orleans. 

On the nearest seacoast the Willet (Symphcmia semipalmata), a large tattler, 
is found. 

The Oyster-catcher (Haematopus palliatus) is found on the Gulf Coast, but 
probably comes no nearer to New Orleans. 

The Duck Hawk (Falco peregrinus anatum) follows the ducks to their best 
feeding grounds in winter, there preying upon them. 

The curious Burrowing Owl (Speotyto cunicularia hypogaca), found on the 
western prairies, is observed very rarely in southeastern Louisiana. 

The country about New Orleans, like many other southern localities, was 
formerly the home of the Carolina Parrakeet (Conurus carolinensis), but the bird 
has not been observed for many years. 

The now rare Ivory-billed Woodpecker (Campephilus principalis) is not known 
to occur within short distances of New Orleans. 



CHAPTER XV. 



LITERATURE AND ART. 
By a. G. Durno. 

LITERATURE is ever a plant of slow growth in new soils, and notwithstanding 
the fact that there were among the early inhabitants of New Orleans many 
men and women of elegant culture and brilliant intellect, no one of them 
appears to have felt any ambition to conquer new territory for the realm of letters. 
There were, indeed, in those early days, few incentives to authorship. Not only 
would the hard conditions of life in the colony, contrasted as they were with 
homesick memories of "la Patrie'' so dear to the French heart, tend to repress 
any native impulse toward composition, but the total absence of facilities for pub- 
lication ("Le Moniteur," the first newspaper, was not founded until 1791) 
added an element of impossibility to any sort of literary undertaking before which 
the most robust inspiration must have died. Reports of officers and engineers, 
however able and accurate, can hardly be classed as literature, yet, with one ex- 
ception, these are the only fruits yielded to the most painstaking search among 
the remains of the first century. 

The single exception is an epic poem — no less — which, whatever its defects, 
has the merit of having been inspired by an incident of colonial life. The 
author was a Frenchman, and the hero whose martial deeds he celebrates, the 
Spanish Governor of a Spanish colony, circumstances which render his patriotic 
fervor all the more creditable. 

JULIEN POYDRAS, the first poet of Louisiana, was a native of Nantes, 
born about the year 1740. As a youth he served in the French navy, but being 
taken prisoner by the English in 1760, and carried to England, he appears to have 
accepted captivity as a discharge from further naval service. Escaping from 
durance, he hid himself on board a West Indian merchant vessel, and so reached 
San Domingo, whence he passed over to New Orleans, arriving, as is supposed, 
in the fateful year 17C8 — memorable for the daring but ineffectual effort of the 
French colonists to snatch their adopted land from the clutches of Spain. Poydras 



362 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

(lid not remain as a permanent resident of New Orleans, but he was a constant 
visitor to the little city, and appears to have taken a warm interest in its affairs, 
as is evinced by his generous donations to her charitable institutions. It is not 
probable that Poydras brought much money with him to the colony, but he had 
the instinct for business which quickly recognizes opportunity, and the energy 
and address which as quickly seizes upon it. He was soon engaged in commercial 
affairs which constantly increased in magnitude and importance, and to which ho 
added the avocations of planter and banker, but in the midst of his multifarious 
occupations he found time to inscribe his name upon the roll of fame as author 
of the first poetical work printed in New Orleans. It celebrates the victory of 
Galvez over the English at Baton Rouge, and is entitled: 

LA PRISE DU MORNE DU BATON ROUGE. 
Par Monseigneur De Galvez. 
Chevalier pensionne de TOrdre Royal distingue de Charles Trois, Brigadier 
des Armees de Sa Majestic, Intendant, Inspecteur et Gouverneur General 
de la Province de la Louisiane, etc. 



A La Nouvelle Orleans, 
Chez Antoine Boudousquie, Imprimeur du Roi, et du Cabildo. 



MDCCLXXIX. 

Professor Alcee Fortier, who has restored the poem to the world after a cen- 
tury of oblivion, does not claim for it any great literary merit, but reminds his 
readers that in 1779 coldness and pomposity were characteristics of French verse. 
"The poetic inspiration of the seventeenth century," he adds, "was dying out and 
was only kept up by a few graceful and elegant writers. * * * Poets like Vol- 
taire, like Gres.set, like Andre Chenier, were rare in France in the eighteenth 
century. Why should we expect to find them in Louisiana? Let us be satisfied 
with Poydras' work and let us be thankful to him for having given us a poem 
in 1779." 

Thirty-five years elapsed before another book was added to the literary roster 
of New Orleans. During that time Louisiana had undergone several political 
changes, having been again for a short time a French province, then a territory 
of the United States, and finally a sovereign State. Two years after this last 
event there was issued from the press of the Courrier de la Louisiane a small 
volume of 58 pages duodecimo, bearing the title of "Poucha Houmma." 

LE BLANC de VILLENEUFVE, the author of "Poucha Houmma," was 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 363 

an ex-officer of the French army wlio had been employed by the government from 
1753 to 1758 among the Tchaetas. While thus engaged he heard the story of a 
Honmma chief who gave himself up to the avenger of blood to save his son. 
This instance of self-devotion so impressed M. de Villeneufve that more than fifty 
years afterwards, at the great age of seventy-eight, he made it the subject of a 
five act tragedy, cast in the regular classical mould, in order to prove to the 
world that the Indians were not, as had been charged, destitute of all human 
feeling. 

THOMAS WHAETON COLLENS, a native of New Orleans, born June 23, 
1812, was the author of one of the earliest dramas published in New Orleans. 
Mr. Collens was educated for the bar and rose to high position in his profession, 
being District Attorney of the District of Orleans at the age of twenty-eight, 
and at various times Judge of the City Court of New Orleans, Judge of the First 
District Court of the same city, and Judge of the Seventh District Court of the 
Parish of Orleans. While still a mere youth he wrote a five-act tragedy, based 
upon the revolt against Spanish rule in 1768, and the real tragedy which followed 
it. The play is called: "The Martyr Patriots or Louisiana in 1769," and was 
successfully performed at the old St. Charles Theatre a short time after its pub- 
lication. Judge Collens was a fluent writer on serious subjects, and the author 
of two philosophical works, "Humanics," and "The Eden of Labor," published 
respectively in 1860 and 1876. 

In connection with the tragedy above alluded to, it may be mentioned as a 
coincidence — by no means a surprising one — that in 1839 A. Lussan published in 
Donaldsonville a tragedy in five acts based upon the same historical incident, and 
entitled "Les Martyrs de la Louisiane." The play would seem to have been put 
upon the stage, though there is no record of its having been performed in New 
Orleans. A diiference is observed in the dramatis personae of the two plays, 
O'Keilly not appearing in that of Judge Collens, where Lafreniere fills the leading 
role, and Aubry, the former French Governor, that of chief villain. M. Lussan 
makes O'Eeilly the persecutor of the patriots, which is historically correct, and 
gives the principal role to Joseph Villere. 

CHARLES GAYARRE is one of the most distinguished names connected with 
New Orleans literature. Born only two years after Louisiana had passed into the 
possession of the United States, and connected through both parents with families 
closely identified with afl'airs of the colonial era, his attention, at an early age, 
was drawn to the romantic history of his native citv and State. Judofe Francois- 



364 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

Xavier Martin's "History of Louisiana," published in 1827, was the first connected 
history of the then newly-made State, but aside from the fact that its severely 
condensed style made no appeal to the imagination, it was written in English, a 
language little understood among the Creoles of that day. Recognizing the im- 
portance to them of a history of their State written in their own tongue, and 
inspired, without doubt by a genuine enthusiasm for his subject, Mr. Gayarre 
published, in 1830, his "Essai Historique sur la Louisiane," a work of 144 duodecimo 
pages. About the same date, Mr. Gayarre, who had studied law in Philadelphia 
under William Rawle, author of a work on the Constitution of the United States, 
and had been admitted to the bar both of Pennsylvania and Louisiana, was elected 
to represent New Orleans in the State Legislature. He subsequently occupied the 
position of Presiding Judge of the City Court of New Orleans, and three years 
later was honored by being chosen to represent the interests of his district in the 
United States Senate. Failing health prevented him from taking his seat, and 
sent him across the sea in search of medical advice and remedial agencies. He 
remained eight years in France, devoting much of the time to historical research, 
the pursuit always of paramount interest with him. On his return he was again 
elected to the State Legislature for two successive terms, but gave up his seat to 
accept the State secretaryship ofEered him by the Governor. In 1846-47 appeared 
his "Histoire de la Louisiane," in two volumes 8vo. In this work he followed 
the plan so successfully adopted by the author of the "Dues de Bourgogne," and 
still much in vogue among historical writers, of using contemporaneous records 
of the events narrated, whether personal letters and memoirs or official reports and 
documents. This method certainly makes very interesting reading, but it is criti- 
cised by Professor Fortier as failing to give "the philosophy of history." This 
initial work covered only the period of French domination. It was followed by a 
series of historiettes, beginning with a volume entitled "Romance of the History of 
Louisiana," in which the author has preserved the legends of the State, and ending 
with the "History of the Spanish Domination," published in 1854. All these works 
were revised in 1866 and included in three volumes, and in 1879 were again 
re-written in English, and expanded into four volumes as the "History of Louis- 
iana." In addition to his History of Louisiana, which is everywhere recognized 
as a standard work, Mr. Gayarre wrote Philip II of Spain, which, says Professor 
Fortier, "is not in reality a history of the gloomy and cruel tyrant of the Escurial, 
but a series of striking and forcible tableaux which remind us of Carlyle's 'French 
Revolution ;' 'Fernando de Lemos,' a novel ; 'Aubert Dubayet,' a sequel to the 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 365 

above; and a drama and a comedy, entitled, respectively, 'The School for Polities' 
and 'Dr. Bluff.' " Mr. Gayarre, however, was essentially a historian, and his fiction 
is inevitably cast in the historic mould. Fernando de Lemos has more claim to 
be considered a work of imagination than the sequel, but the pen that wrote it lacks 
the flexibility, and the hand, the lightness essential to romantic composition. In 
Aubert Dubayet is commemorated the career of a Louisianian, "who," says Professor 
Fortier, "shared with Kleber the glory of defending Mayence, who was a general 
of division in the army of the Eepublic, and who died at thirty-eight minister 
plenipotentiary of France at Constantinople." 

The long and honorable life of this eminent man, the last years of which 
were rendered painful by ill-health and pecuniary embarrassments, came to an 
end February 11, 1895, at New Orleans. 

JOHN JAMES AUDUBON, though born in the vicinity of New Orleans, 
has no legitimate connection with its literature. None of his works were pub- 
lished here, and there is no certainty that any portion of them was even written 
during his brief sojourn within our gates. It was accident rather than choice that 
brought his mother to the little town of Madisonville, where her famous son first 
saw the light in May of 1780 or 1781, and he was soon removed to France, where 
he was educated. He was not a very diligent student of books, and at the age of 
nineteen or twenty, his father, who was an officer in the French navy, gave him a 
piece of land in the neighborhood of Philadelphia, and sent him to live on it. 
Here it was that he began that study of birds which was to occupy his life, and 
result in the two magnificent works of which every American is justly proud. He 
died in New York City in January, 1881. 

ALEXANDEE DIMITEY is a name which stands for profound scholarship 
and splendid ability. Without having left any body of collected works under his 
own name, Mr. Dimitry has perhaps done more to foster the growth of literature 
in his native city than some writers who count their volumes by the dozen. Not 
only was he the founder of the free school system of Louisiana and the staunch 
advocate of education, but he was in his own person an ever-flowing fountain of 
information, from which all were free to draw, and where more than one young 
literary aspirant is said to have filled his little ewer. It is greatly to be regretted 
that no effort has been made to gather up some of his writings into a form which 
would render them accessible to present day readers. 

ADEIEN EOUQUETTE— Father Rouquette, as he is more familiarly and 
affectionately called by a wide circle of friends and admirers — and Dominique 



366 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

Eouquette, his brother, were united by closer ties than those of common parentage 
and early association. A passion for poetry distinguished their early youth, which, 
far from being dissipated by advancing years, became the ruling principle of their 
lives, leading them away from the crowded marts and artificial needs and pleasures 
of the town to dwell with Nature in her calm retreats and minister to the humble 
children whom she keeps ever near her heart. They enjoyed every advantage of 
education and travel, supplementing the course at the College de Nantes by ten 
years' wandering in Europe, yet they chose as their home a retired and lonely 
spot among the magnificent pine forests of their native State. About them dwelt 
"the remnants of the Chactas, the faithful allies of the French ; and in the wigwams 
of the Indians the brothers used to sit to smoke the calumet with the chiefs, or 
to look at the silent squaws skilfully weaving the wicker baskets which they were to 
sell the next morning in the Marche Francais." Adrien, after a time, took the vows 
and assumed the cassock of a priest of the Roman Catholic Church, and devoted 
himself still more actively to missionary work among the Indians, though he 
never abandoned his first love, 'la Poesie." Dominique, who is accounted the 
greater poet, wrote only in French, but Adrien employed both French and Eng- 
lish. His principal work is "Les Savanes," a volume of poems inspired by Ameri- 
can scenes. He also wrote "Wild Flowers; Sacred Poetry,"' "La Thebaide en 
Amerique," "L'Antonaide ou la Solitude avec Dieu," "Poemes Patriotiques," and 
"Catherine Tegclikwitha." But the most beautiful of his poems was his own life, 
and that is written only in the hearts of those who knew him. It came to an end 
in July, 1887. 

ALFRED MERCIER is one of the best known and most prolific of the numer- 
ous French writers of New Orleans. He was born at McDonogh, a suburb of 
New Orleans, June 3, 1816. Educated in France, as was customary with the 
Creole youths of his day, he remained in Paris for many years after his studies 
were completed. It was in that city in 1842 that his first works were published, 
three volumes of poetry: "La Rose de Smyrne," "L'Ermite de Niagara," and 
"Erato." They were very favorably received, particularly the two first mentioned, 
and thus encouraged, the young author resolved to try his hand at a prose romance. 
Arrangements had been completed for its publication in a literary journal, l)ut 
the morning the first installment was to appear the oftice was raided by the com- 
mune, and the forms "pied." Discouraged from further literary efforts by the 
disorders of the times, he now decided to study medicine, and returning to New 
Orleans after his graduation, he there took up the practice of his profession, but 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 367 

the virus was in his blood, and he seems to have been unable to resist the fascina- 
tion of pen and ink. 

Koturning again to romance, lie published in 1873, a novelette, "Le Fou de 
Palerme," which was followed four years later by "La Fille du Pretre," an attack 
upon the celibacy of priests, which created much commotion among the Catholics. 
"L'Habitation St. Ybars," published in 1881, is a story of life on a Louisiana sugar 
plantation in ante-bellum days. Professor Fortier says of it : "Although the work 
is of great interest as a novel, it is of still greater importance for the study of 
philology. Dr. Mercier, who is a master of the Creole patois, uses it freely in his 
book and keeps thus an admirable eouleur locale. * * * It is a pity that 
'L'Habitation St. Ybars' has not been translated into English, for it is a much 
more correct picture of Louisiana life than is to be found in many other works 
better known outside our State." 

In addition to the works already named Dr. Mercier published in 1881 
"Lidia," an idyl, portraying the "romantic love of two noble hearts," and in 1891, 
"Johnnelle," a philosophical tale directed against the crime of infanticide. He 
was also an industrious and valued contributor to "Les Comptes-Eendues de 
I'Athenee Louisianais," the journal of a society organized for the encouragement 
of the study of the French langiiage, continuing to write for it both prose and 
verse, and even a drama in five acts, until well past the Psalmist's limitary of three- 
score and ten. Apropos of a pretty little poem, "Message," quoted by him in his 
"Louisiana Studies," Professor Fortier says : "These charming verses, written by a 
man over seventy years of age, are a good proof that the atmosphere of Louisiana 
is not so stifling as it is sometimes said to be." Dr. Mercier died May 12, 1894, at 
the age of seventy-eight. 

ALEXANDER WALKER is a name often referred to in New Orleans as that 
of a man of strong personality and wide and varied knowledge. A native of Fred- 
ericksburg, Virginia, Mr. Walker came to New Orleans in 1840 and entered ujjon the 
practice of law, which, however, he soon abandoned for journalism. He was at 
various times editor of one or another of the newspapers of the city, notably of the 
Delta, which he conducted twelve years. His published works are: "Life of 
Andrew Jackson; Jackson and New Orleans," "History of the Battle of Shiloh," 
and "Butler at New Orleans." Judge Walker, as he became by virtue of his presi- 
dency over the City Court of New Orleans, was the possessor of a lucid style, at 
once graphic and dignified. Fond of color and of decorative phrases, he was yet 
too judicious to overload his descriptions with ornament, while his conscientious 



36« 



ST.wnMni iiisroin- of .\r:\v oin.i'JANS. 



ri'jiiinl I'cir iiiiuill ilrliiils wan nol iicrmil Inl Id ilcf^fiici'iilc inlo |ir(ili\ilv. .Iiulgc 
W'lllKri- (lic'il .liiiiiiiii'V 'v''l, IHil.'l, mI llir iij^'i' of s('\(iil V- 1 luce. 

(II'IOIJCI', W . CAIIM'; was li.ii-ii in New (»rlcims in llic vrar ISI I. Mis fallicr 
liMvili);; iliril wliilr (iiMii'i;!' WHS ulill a iricrr lad, it'iivin^ lull sli'mlcr means \\<y ilic 
sn|i|i(irl of 111!' raniily. tlic sun .s|('|i|iril rnnn liic scliool-nKiin into liir arena (if 
(■oiiinii'ri'iMl life, riilcrini', Ilic iisis a^'iiiiisl |ii)\i'rlv in lirliall' of niollirr anil sislcrs, 
Caiir.lil iiy llu' inlo of |iali-iolir fcrliiiL; Ihai swo|il llii'oui;li Iho Soulli in IS('i()-(ll, 
Mr, ('ill ill' 11 11 1 r aw av lo I lie war m I lie ranks of I lie l''ourtli M ississi|i|ii ( 'avalrv. On 
his rrliirn lir I'csiiini'il ins iilarr in Ilir liusincss udrlil, Iml his native iient tounrd 
lilenitui'e he^im In deehire itself, and he for a lime tilled a eolnmn of the Siindav 
I'ieMyune wilh a series of lii;llt sKetehes under the tille of "I >ro|i-Slui|." Some lime 
dnrini; the seventies he niiide II sileeessful dash for a hroader lleld. .\ storv SPIlt to 
a Northern ma;',"-'!"'' ""^ aeeepted, and was followed hy a half do/en others, with 
the liUe resnil. This series of seven tales was later eolleeled into hook form nnder 
the j;eneral title o( "()ld ('reole |la\s,'" and formed the eoriier stone of the author's 
fame for ;;oml and for had, ijeeeived wilh deli;;lit and apiihlliso by ,Nortlu'ni 
readers, and hv a lai';;e poiiion of ihe ".\ineriean" iio|iidalion of New Orleans, 
tho Creoles fnnnd in I hem hiiter eauM' of otVense, and seoi'iifully reiuidiated as eari- 
eatures Ihe |neluies of themselves whieh to others a|i|)eared so eharminu', Withmil 
wislnii.", to deliirh ihe peaee wliieh has at last ha|i|uly fallen upon the elamoronsly 
eolllosted lield, the privsenl writer \eiilures to assert U|ioii |iersonal knowledue Ih.il 
tlu're are Creoles who have re.id Mr, ('aide's hooks with pleusuro, and who reeoj;ilizo 
his portrailure as nol lieiiit; eniiiely unfaithful. 'I'wo eases in ]H)int may bo 
eiled the tirsi of a lady a "Creole of the Creoles," as tlu' sayinu: goes, wlio said 
to ihe writer iii ihe iini>erfeil i'!n!;U>li whieli she only learned to speak after lier 
ihildren were;;rown: "I am reading' the tlriiiulissiiiiis of Ml'. C.'ihle. 1 enjoy that 
hook \eiy iiiiieh, I lind there all my friends." 'I'lu' other ease is that of a eenlle- 
miiu, Mr. l\ — , a Creole of edueation and i;ood standing;, who made some sliglitiiij; 

remark nbont Mr. ('aide's wi'iiings in the presenee id' Mr. (i -, an ".Vmeriean" 

jjenllenuiii. and a fi'iend of the author, .'^aul Mr. (i : "Mr. 15 , liave yon 

ever I'ead any of Mr. ('aide's stories?" "No." was the reply, "hut 1 am told so 

luul so." "liiil." returned Mr. li , "it seems to me unfair to eondemu a m;in 

\ou have nol read. Mr. Ciihle is (o read this evenine- fron\ his own works, suppose 
vou ,i;o and hear him, ^ on will then he ahle to form an opinion of yiuir own." 

'I'he proiioMiion seemed mi reasomihh' liiat Mr, 1>- ■ promised lo aet upon it. 

The t'ollowinj; day. luippeninj;- to meet Mr. (1 — , lu' said to him: "Mr. li , 



STANDAh'l) lllSToh'V OF NEW ORLEANS. ^Chj 

I iiiusl Ihiiiik \i>\\ for iiit niiliii'in;; me lo Mi', ('iil)li'. I liciii'd him rcMil hisl iiii,'lit, 
1111(1 1 liilxc linck nil Unit I liMvc ever siiid iifiiiiiist his wriliiij^s. 1 iim ;j;<iin,i; iif;'i;iii 
lliis ('Veiling', 1111(1 take nil my raiiiily willi me. Mdrcdvcf I hiivc lidughl his hunks 
1111(1 inlcnd t(i rciid llicm nil iiiid liinc my I'limily rend I hem. As for .lilies SI. .\ngo," 
ho concluded in n hurst of eiitliusiiism, "1 kiinw ii dd/.eii of him !"" (I'ossoil .loiU", 
it niiiy he prdper tn exphiin. lind heeii diie (d' the mimhers (in the ovcninfi's ])ro- 
graninic.) 

Tlicsp (wo instiinees which have the iiidis|iiitahle i|uiility (if hard facts, would 
seem t(i indicate that (here is aiKither side to ('rcolc (i|)ini(iii as (o (he (i(i(dity to life 
of Mr. Cahle's |i(M't rail lire from that re|ircsciile(l liy |iiihlishe(l erilieism. 

With regard to Mr. ('aide's c\|iressc(l views on sociiil and political (Hiostion.s 
il is hardly necessary (o point out thai however much i(, is to hv rogrc((eil that he 
sliould have forsaken for a lime the lield in which lie had wrouglii with such happy 
results for himself and others, his opinions on such mailers do no! in (he least 
impair the \aluc of his strictly litcrai'y work. ,\n(l since we are writin.ij; history, 
it is oidy jn-oper to add that whatever view is (aken of his (irs( literary work, 
whether il he received as a faithful rctlectioii of life, or eondcnmed as false and mis- 
leading, i( inns( he admdted (lia( (he appearance of his ('reole sketches inaugurated 
n new ora in (he IKerary activities (d' New Orleans, and openc(l the eyes of the 
Croolcs tliemselves to the value, as literary material, (d' the old-W(n'ld ways of 
thought and speech, and the piet iires(pie selling of their lives, slated to them hy 
li fedoiig custom, hut si rangelv alt rad ivc to "cfs A mrncdnis." 

'V\w list of Mr. Cahle's works |)uhlislied since his Old Creole l>ays appeared 
in 1883 comprises '"J'lic Cirandissimes," "Madame Delphiiie," "Dr. Sevici'." "'riie 
Creoles of Louisiana," "The Silent S(ni(h," "nonavendira," "S(range True Stories 
of Louisiana," "The Negro (Jnosdon," "Life of William (JiliiKU'c Simms," ",?ohn 
March, Southerner," and "Strong llear(s." 

LAFCADIO IIEAIIN, (hough neither a native iku- a permanent citizen of 
New Orleans, helongs of right to her literary history, hecaiis(> here he lirst found 
conditions favorahle to the developmeiit (d' his genius. Mr. 1 learn was horn on nur. 
of the Ionian Islands in IS.Sd. His father was an lOnglish otlieer, his mother, a 
Greek. Deprived of his parents while still a mere infant, lie was hd't to the guar- 
dinnsliip of a paternal uncle. Much of his childhood was jiiissed on the Welsh 
Coast under the care of an idd iiiirsc, a native of the country, who fed his youthful 
imagination with endless fairy tales and willi the wild hgeiids id' the district. .\l 
(he age of (weiitv Mr. Ilearii came to this country, landing at New \ nvk a friend- 



370 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

less aud well-nigli penniless stranger. He found employment as proof-reader for 
a publishing house, an irksome occupation to one of his temperament, ilr. Hearn 
was never very communicative in regard to his personal affairs, but from his slight 
occasional references to this period of his life he appears to have looked back upon 
it as a sort of nightmare of distasteful drudgery and frigid weather. From New 
York Mr. Hearn drifted westward to Cincinnati, where he remained for some time, 
engaged in the hardly more congenial work of reporting for one of the daily papers. 
In 1877, in company with one of his fellow-reporters, he set out for a holiday ex- 
cursion to Xew Orleans. It was in late winter, or early spring — a season, at all 
events, when frost and snow prevailed in the region they were leaving — and as they 
glided southward (they had chosen to make the journey by water) meeting the 
mild and milder breezes from the Gulf, and seeing wintry barrenness give way 
to verdure and bloom, it seemed to the warmth and beauty-loving Hearn that he 
was being transported to some one of the fabled gardens of his nurse's tales. When 
New Orleans was reached, and he found himself among orange groves (there were 
orange groves around New Orleans then) and rose-bowers, breathing an air redolent 
of violets and sweet olive, he felt that he had entered Paradise, and he said to 
his friend : "You may go back if you like, but I stay here." He secured a position 
as reporter on the Daily States, and the influence of his new environment was soon 
manifested by a series of fanciful little sketches that began to illuminate a column 
of the Sunday edition. The originality and fine literary quality of these bits of 
word-painting attracted the attention of Mr. Page M. Baker, editor of the Times- 
Democrat, who sought out their author aud offered him a position on the staff of his 
paper. His contributions to the paper consisted chiefly of translations from the 
French, a language in which he was perfectly at home, and adaptations of Oriental 
legends. These last were afterward collected and published in book form under 
the title of "Stray Leaves from Strange Literatures." In the Times-Democrat also 
appeared a number of the Chinese legends which form the contents of that delight- 
ful little volume, "Some Chinese Ghosts," but by this time the author's genius had 
gained him a wider audience, and several of the legends were published in oue of 
the Harper periodicals. "Chita: A Memory of Last Island," was the fruit of his 
annual summer trips to Grand Isle, where he met an old steamer captain, who told 
him the tragic tale of the great storm of '56, which Hearn has retold with a splendor 
and power unrivaled in the English language. 

But now New Orleans had yielded to his curious and inquisitive mind all she 
held of interest for him. Always eager to penetrate beneath the surface of things. 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 371 

he had made himself familiar with the strange composite foreign population that 
shelters itself in her slums and purlieus, he had haunted the markets and wharves, 
holding parley with Sicilian fruit vendors, "Dago" fishermen and sailors, Mon- 
golian shopkeepers and laundrymen, from each of whom he gleaned some little 
fragmentary impression of that primitive under life which had for him so strong 
a fascination. Nor were these humble folk the only sources upon which he drew. 
Shy and recluse as he was by nature, knowledge drew him like a loadstone, and ho 
numbered among his friends some of the most scientifically learned men in the 
city, to one of whom he has dedicated "Chita." But these things no longer sat- 
isfied him, and he was eager to drink from deeper and fuller fountains. The 
brown races seem always to have exercised a strong attraction upon him, as if he sus- 
pected them- of being favorites of Nature, and holding secrets of hers not revealed 
to her white children. The Indies, West and East, beckoned him irresistibly, and 
he gladly embraced the opportunity offered by the Harpers to visit, in company 
with an artist, the Lesser Antilles and Guiana. His friends in New Orleans saw 
him go with regret, realizing that with him departed the most brilliant literary 
genius that had ever trod the streets of their quaint old town. "Two Years in the 
French West Indies," and "Youma," the story of a West Indian slave, both pub- 
lished by the Harpers in 1890, sum up the literary results of his voyage and of his 
sojourn in Martinique. Upon his return to the United States, Mr. Hearn set out 
almost immediately for Japan, where he has since resided. Three volumes, made 
up from papers contributed to the Atlantic Monthly, and published by Houghton, 
Mifflin & Co., show that his pen has not lost its cunning in the land of the Rising 
Sun. The books are: "Glimpses of Unfamiliar Japan," "Out of the East," and 
"Kokoro." The title of this last would seem to indicate that this eager, questioning 
spirit had last found the object of its restless search, "the heart of things." A 
valuable contribution of Mr. Hearn to the literature of philology is found in his 
"Gombo Zhebes," a collection of Creole-negro proverbs from New Orleans, Mar- 
tinique, French Guiana, Hayti and Mauritius. 

WILLIAM PEESTON JOHNSTON, son of General Albert Sidney Johnston, 
was a native of Louisville, Kentucky. A graduate of Yale and of the Law School 
of the University of Louisville, the breaking out of the Civil War found him 
established in the practice of law in his native city. He served through the war 
as major and lieutenant-colonel of the First Kentucky Infantry, and as aid-de- 
camp on the staff of Jefferson Davis. Shortly after the close of the war he assumed 
the chair of English Literature in Washington College, Lexington, Va. In 



372 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

1880 he accepted the presidency of the Louisiana State University, continuing 
to hold the position when the State University was reconstituted as the Tulane 
University. President Johnston was a close student of Shakespeare, and his 
"Prototype of Hamlet and Other Shakespearean Problems" won cordial recogni- 
tion from other Shakespearean scholars of the country. Mr. Johnston was also the 
author of an excellent biography of his distinguished father, and of three volumes 
of verse : "My Garden Walk,"' "The Patriarchs," and "Seekers After God." 

President Johnston died at the home of his married daughter in Virginia, 
September, 1899. 

WILLIAM H. HOLCOMBE was for many years a prominent figure in the 
most intellectual circles of New Orleans, where in 1864 he established himself in 
the practice of his profession — a physician of the Homeopathic school. Before 
removing to New Orleans he had embraced the mystic doctrines of Swedenborg, 
to which he continued to adhere to the day of his death. His published works are: 
"The Scientific Basis of Homeopathy," "Essays on the Spiritual Philosophy of 
African Slavery," "Poems," "Our Children in Heaven," "The Sexes Here and 
Hereafter," "In Both Worlds ; a Romance," "The Other Life," "Southern Voices," 
"The Lost Truths of Christianity," "The End of the World," "The New Life," 
"Helps to Spiritual Growth," and "Mystery of New Orleans." This last work is a 
novel which attracted general attention and was favorably noticed both in our own 
country and England. A brochure entitled "The Truth About Homeopathy" was 
published after his death, which occurred in 1893. 

ALCEE FORTIER is a Creole of Louisiana, son of a planter of St. James 
Parish, who, like most of the planters of Louisiana, was ruined by the Civil War. 
Thrown upon his own resources at an early age, Mr. Fortier, who had been edu- 
cated in part at the University of Virginia, became at twenty-three professor of the 
French Language and Literature in the old University of Louisiana, a position 
he still fills in its successor, "Tulane." Like all educated Creoles, Prof. Fortier 
is passionately attached to his mother tongue, and he has devoted much time and 
effort to the task of fostering in the community a more intimate knowledge of it, 
and a deeper interest in its literature. As president of "FAthenee Louisianais" 
he has done much to encourage the growth of an indigenous literature in the 
French langiiage, while as a member and president of the Louisiana branch of 
the American Folk-Lore Society he has made a valuable collection of Louis- 
iana folk-tales in French dialect and English translation. He has also 
published in French two volumes of historical lectures, "le Chateau de Chambord" 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 373 

and "les Conquetes des Normandes;" two of literary lectures, "le Vieux Francais 
et la Litterature du Moyen Age" and "Sept Grande Auteurs du XIXe Siecle/' 
"Gabriel d'Ennerich,"' a historical novelette, and "Histoire de la Litterature Fran- 
cais." In English, which Professor Fortier writes with great facility, and with 
only an occasional idiomatic slip, he has produced the very valuable and inter- 
esting work entitled, "Louisiana Studies," to which frequent reference has been 
made in this chapter. 

JOHN R. FICKLEN, who contributes to this history the chapters on "Edu- 
cation in New Orleans" and "The Indians of Louisiana," has been for about 
eighteen years connected with the chief educational institution of New Orleans, 
first as professor of English in the High School of the University under the old 
regime, then as professor of History and Rhetoric in Tulane, and later as pro- 
fessor of History and Political Science, which position he still holds. Professor 
Fieklen is a Virginian, and an alumnus of the University of that State. After 
his graduation he taught for a year in the Louisiana -State University at Baton 
Rouge as assistant professor of Ancient Languages, then went abroad for the 
purpose of studying the modern languages at Paris and Berlin. In collaboration 
with Miss Grace King, Mr. Fieklen has written a history of Louisiana, which 
has been adopted as a text-book in the public schools. He is also the author of "The 
Civil Government of Louisiana," and "Outline History of Greece," published by 
the Werner Company of Chicago; the article on New Orleans in Johnson's Ency- 
clopedia, and the "Historical Sketch of the Acadians," in Mrs. William P. Jolin- 
ston's "In Acadia." 

PROFESSOR WILLIAM B. SMITH, who occupies the chair of Mathematics 
in Tulane L^niversity, is an important factor in the intellectual life of New Or- 
leans. Professor Smith is a profound scholar, and a student of many things be- 
sides mathematics. His published works on the latter topic consist of "Coordinate 
Geometry," Ginn & Co.; "Introductory Modern Geometry," Macmillan; "Infinitesi- 
mal Analj'sis," (3 Vols.), Vol. I, Macmillan. He has also written much for the 
daily journals and for various periodicals and reviews on Economics and Biblical 
criticism. On the first named topic we may note a series of nine articles embodying 
a "Financial Catechism," contributed to the St. Joseph Daily News ; another series 
of six articles reviewing Gov. Altgeld's Music Hall Address, and published in 
the Chicago Record ; a brochure of fifty pages on "Tariff for Protection," and an- 
other of the same length on "Tariff Reform;" a series of seven articles published 
in the Unitarian Review under the title of "Studies in Paulinism," and three or 



374 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

four other articles for the same publication, the New World, and the Non-Sectarian, 
are all that have yet been made public on Biblical criticism, but the Professor has 
been for some time engaged on a work which he regards as the most important one 
to which he has yet put his hand, and one volume of which is now ready for the 
press, but will be submitted to scholars in Holland before publication. The work 
will bear some such title as "Structure and Origin of the New Testament," and the 
first part will consist of two volumes entitled "To Eomans: Vol I., Argumenta 
Interna; Vol. II., Argumenta Externa." 

EGBERT SHARP is a Virginian, a graduate of Randolph Macon College, and 
of the University of Leipsic. Since the year 1880 he has filled the chair of Greek 
and English, first in the University of Louisiana, and sebsequently in its successor, 
Tulane University. A "Treatise on the Use of the Infinitive in Herodotus," writ- 
ten in Latin, and published in Leipsic, bears his name as author, and he has con- 
tributed numerous articles on various subjects to journals of education and news- 
papers. "Beowulf," the old English poem which, in collaboration with James A. 
Harrison, of Washington and Lee University, he edited and furnished with Glos- 
sary and Notes, has had a pronounced success, having passed through four editions. 

REV. BEVERLY E. WARNER, M. A., D. D., has been a resident of New 
Orleans only since "93, at which time he assumed the rectorship of Trinity Church. 
He is a native of Jersey City, New Jersey, and received his scholastic and theo- 
logical training at Princeton and Trinity Colleges, and Berkeley Divinity School. 
Before his removal to the South Mr. Warner had lectured extensively for Univer- 
sity Extension, and had established a reputation as a writer on economics and on 
literary subjects. He was also author of a novel, "Troubled Waters; a Problem of 
To-Day," treating of the "labor" problem. During the winter of 1893, Mr. War- 
ner delivered a course of lectures on the study of history as illustrated in the plays 
of Shakespeare, which were afterwards collected into book form under the title 
of "English History in Shakespeare's Plays." These lectures deal with Shakes- 
peare, the historian, wielding, as Heine has said, "not only the dagger of Mel- 
pomene, but the still sharper stylus of Clio,"' and enlightening "truth with song." 
It is gratifying, though not surprising, to learn that the volume is much used as a 
text-book, and is now in a second edition. A series of Lenten discourses on the 
rationalism of the Apostles' Creed was issued in 1897 under the title of "The 
Facts and the Faith." Mr. Warner has now "on the stocks" three or four books, 
mainly on Shakespearean subjects. With all his other occupations he finds time 
to serve as president of a scientific society, and as one of the Tulane Board of 
Administrators. 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 375 

JOHN and CHAELES PATTON DIMITEY are the sons of Alexander 
Dimitry, to whom reference has already been made. They are both natives of 
Washington, D. C, but are connected with New Orleans by many ties. A portion 
of their boyhood was spent in that city, and they have both been connected with 
its press, John, the elder, having been for seven years dramatic and literary critic of 
the Times. He is the author of a "History and Geography of Louisiana," which 
was for a long time popular as a text-book in the public schools. A residence of 
two years at Barranquilla, United States of Colombia, supplied him with materials 
for a semi-historical novel — "Atahualpa's Curtain" — in which the customs of the 
people of Colombia are portrayed. He is also the author of a five-act historical 
drama: "The Queen's Letters." Charles has written several novels, among which 
"The House in Balfour Street" (1868) has been highly extolled. His latest work, 
"Louisiana Families," appeared serially in the New Orleans Times-Democrat, 
1892-93. 

ESPY W. H. WILLIAMS was born and educated in New Orleans, where he 
has been actively engaged in the insurance business since he was seventeen years 
of age. From early youth Mr. Williams' favorite reading seems to have been the 
works of the English dramatists, and his literary predilection is further emphasized 
by his first original work, "Prince Carlos." a tragedy in blank verse, written when 
he was twenty-one, and subsequently put on the stage by a local dramatic club. 
Other dramatic compositions are : "The Atheist," which is included in a volume of 
poems, "A Dream of Art, and Other Poems," published in 1892 ; "Eugene Aram," 
"The Last Witch," "Dante," and "Parrhasius; or Thriftless Ambition." This 
last has been made the basis of a tragedy, "Parrhasius," which Mr. Kobert Man- 
tell purchased and added to his repertory. "Eugene Aram" has also been recast 
for stage representation. 

HENEY EIGHTOE is another native New Orleanian, who has adventured 
in the Thespian art. He has written two comedies, "The Military Maid" and "The 
Striped Petticoat," both of which have been produced upon the stage with encour- 
aging results, and two one-act comedies, "Metaphysis" and "A Creole Cigarette," 
which are meeting with much success. In the last named piece the "Creole," as he 
lives and moves and has his being in New Orleans, is for the first time accurately 
portrayed upon the stage. Mr. Eightor is also the author of an extremely clever 
little volume of pithy sayings in prose and verse, contributed originally to Har- 
leqiiin, in which paper Mr. Eightor conducts a weekly column. The title of the 
column, "Harlequinade," is repeated as the title of the book. 



376 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

ME. SCUDDAY RICHAEDSON has written, in addition to numerous poems 
and stories, exhibiting force and originality, a novel, "The Youth and First Love 
of Philip Eeynolds," which has attracted wide attention on account of the sin- 
cerity and simplicity of its treatment. Mr. Eichardson is a native of New Orleans 
and has had a varied experience in both the civil and military branches of the gov- 
ernment service, as well as in metropolitan journalism. 

The Civil War gave occasion for a number of historiettes, monographs, and 
biographical sketches, among which may be briefly mentioned the "Military Opera- 
tions of Gen. Beauregard," by Col. Alfred Eoman, son of Governor Andre Bien- 
venu Eoman ; and a prominent member of the New Orleans bar ; Gen. Beauregard's 
own "Commentary on the Campaign and Battle of Manassas," and his "Summary 
of the Art of War;" Napier Bartlett's "A Soldier's Story of the War;" Col. Wm. 
M. Owen's "In Camp and Battle with the Washington Artillery;" and Mrs. Sarah 
A. Dorsey's "Eecollections of Henry Watkins Allen." ' 

Mrs. Dorsey was a novelist as well as a writer of biography, and stands credited 
■with the authorship of "Lucia Dare," "Agnes Graham," "Atalie; or a Southern 
Villeggiatura," and ^Tanola; a Tale of Louisiana." A native of Natchez, Missis- 
sippi, Mrs. Dorsey is connected with New Orleans only by the fact that she resided 
in that city for a short time toward the close of her life, and died there in 1879. 
Her name, however, may serve as a passing note wherewith .to introduce some 
account of 

THE WOMEN WRITERS OF NEW ORLEANS. 

MAEY ASHLEY TOWNSEND is undoubtedly the most distinguished name 
among the pioneers of the feminine corps of the quill. Mrs. Townsend is a native 
of the Empire State, but has lived almost constantly in New Orleans since her 
marriage in 185G. Her first literary venture was in prose, "Brother Clerks; a Tale 
of New Orleans," published in 1859. She is chiefly known, however, by her poetical 
works, of which there' are now three volumes extant, viz. : "Xariffa's Poems," "Down 
the Bayou and Other Poems," and "DistaflE and Spindle." "The Captain's Story," 
a poem of between six and seven hundred lines, first published separately in 187-1, 
was in 1895 incorporated into the same volume that contains the new edition of 
"Down the Bayou," a long descriptive poem, full of the warmth, and color and 
fragrance of a sub-tropical summer morning. It is much the custom to cite 
"Creed" and "A Woman's Wish" as having laid the foundation of Mrs. Townsend's 
reputation. While it may well be that these two beautiful and womanly poems 
were the first to attract attention, those who have restricted their acquaintance with 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. m 

Mrs. Townsend's work to them have but a very imperfect idea of the scope of her 
genius. Even among her earlier poems there are a number which, tried by the 
severer standards of literary excellence, are superior to them, but in the sixty-nine 
sonnets that form the contents of her latest volume, "Distaff and Spindle," we 
have the ripened, full-flavored fruit of which those others were but buds of promise. 
These sonnets, so strongly wrought, so nobly keyed, so steeped in love and prayer and 
praise, ought to set Mrs. Townsend's name among the foremost singers of the 
country. 

M. E. M. DAVIS is a writer whose fame is steadily increasing. Mrs. Davis 
is the daughter of Dr. John Moore, and was born at Talladega, Ala., but her 
childhood and early youth were passed in Texas, where her father was engaged in 
the occupation of a planter. Mrs. Davis began to rhyme while still in short skirts, 
and her first book of poems, "Minding the Gap, and Other Poems," was published 
before she was out of her teens. In 1874 Miss (Mary Evelyn) Moore was married 
to Major Thomas E. Davis, associate editor of the Houston Post. Shortly afterward 
the Post changed hands, and Major Davis and his wife removed to New Orleans, 
where he became engaged on the staff of the Picayune. Mrs. Davis now began to 
write prose as well as verse, her first attempts in this new line being a series of 
local sktches published in the Sunday Picayune, under the catching title of the 
"Keren-happoch Papers." As her touch became surer, and the Northern public 
began to show an interest in pictures of Southern life painted by those best fitted 
to describe it, she found herself writing for the wider circle of readers opened 
up to her by the Harper periodicals, and since 1885-86 her name has graced the 
pages of all the leading magazines. "In War Times at La Kose Blanche" is a 
volume of sketches in which are set forth the author's recollections of the bitter 
strife between the States, and probably Mrs. Davis will never write anything that 
will strike so deep a chord of sympathy in the hearts of her readers. It has that 
poignant charm, half pain, half pleasure, which invests the experiences of child- 
hood when seen through the softening vista of intervening years. In "An Ele- 
phant's Track, and Other Stories," and in her two novels, "Under the Man-Fig" 
and "The Wire Cutters," Mrs. Davis has utilized her knowledge of West Texas 
life. "A Masque of St. Roche, and Other Poems," contains, besides the poetic 
pageant, "Pere Dagobert" and "Throwing the Wanga," two of her most unique 
and widely known poems. Mrs. Davis' verse is always musical, and covers a wide 
range of thought, feeling and fancy. A new novel just from the press bears the 
attractive title of "The Queen's Garden." The scene is laid in New Orleans, with 
whose topography and social life the author is thoroughly familiar. 



378 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

^ GEACE ELIZABETH KING is a writer whose talent New Orleans may 
claim as purely indigenous. Not only is she a native of the city, but it is there 
that she received her education and has so far passed her life. During her school- 
days and earlier years her residence was in that region of the city kno^^Ti as the 
"Creole Quarter," and the intimate knowledge of Creole life and character shown 
in her short stories and novels is inwrought among the indelible impressions of child- 
hood. Even the Creoles do not dispute the accuracy of her presentation, and one 
young lady of that race has been heard to declare that the pictures of convent 
school-life arc perfect, and to admit having "rolled on the floor" in spasms of 
laughter over the story of the girl who "lost her sins." Unsolicited testimony of 
this sort from one to the "manner born" is worth more than columns of formal 
criticism from persons who know nothing of the matter. For the last few years 
Miss King has been devoting herself to historical writing. In addition to the 
school "History of Louisiana," of which she is joint-author with Prof. Ficklen, 
she has written a "Life of Bienville," "New Orleans, the Place and the People," 
and "De Soto and His Men in the Land of Florida." Her works of fiction are: 
"Bon Maman," "Monsieur Motte," "Earthlings," "Tales of Time and Place," and 
"Balcony Stories." 

EUTH McENEEY STUAET has obtained wide and rapid success as a writer 
of dialect stories. Mrs. Stuart's life on plantations, first as a child in Avoyelles 
Parish, where she was born, and later in Arkansas, where her married life was 
spent, gave her opportunities for studying the negro under circumstances in which 
his native characteristics have been least modified by contact with white influence. 
Her Africans are the genuine "darkies" of the sugar belt and the cotton regions, 
and are noticeably different from those of Mr. Page and Joel Chandler Harris. 
Mrs. Stuart did not begin to write until after the death of her husband, when she 
took up her residence in New Orleans with her mother and sisters. In 1892 she 
removed to New York in order to be nearer the "market," and also for the purpose 
of availing herself of better educational advantages for her only son. She sup- 
plied Mrs. Margaret Sangster's place as editor of Harper's Bazaar during that 
lady's absence in Europe, and has done much of her best work for the Harper publi- 
cations. Her collected stories are comprised in five volumes : "A Golden Wedding, 
and Other Tales," "Carlotta's Intended, and Other Stories," "The Story of 
Babette," "Solomon Crow's Christmas Pockets and Others," and "In Simpkin- 
ville." 

CECELIA VIETS JAMISON (nee Dakin) is a native of Yarmouth, Can- 



sTAXUAnn msTonr of new Orleans. 379 

ada. She was married to Samuel Jamison, of New Orleans, in 187!>, since which 
time she has resided in the Crescent Cit}'. Her novel, "The Enthusiast," was the 
first to attract general attention. "Lady Jane," "Toinette's Phili])," and "Seraph, 
the Little Violinist," are tales of child life in New Orleans, which were first pub- 
lished serially in the St. Nicholas Magazine. Her other works are : "Woven of 
Many Threads," "Crown From the Spear," "Eopes of Sand," and "Lilly of San 
Miniato." She has also contributed many short stories to Harper's and other 
magazines. 

JULIE K. WETHEKILL BAKEE is known in literary circles, north and 
south, as an essayist, critic, and poet of much ability. Mrs. Baker was born in 
Woodville, Miss., but educated in Philadelphia, her father's native city. Her 
literary tendency manifested itself very early, and even as a school-girl she was 
in the habit of writing romances and tales, which were often accepted by the papers 
to which they were sent. As her years increased poetrv became her favorite form 
of expression, though she still wrote occasional stories and sketches. In 1885 she 
became the wife of Mr. M. A. Baker, literary editor of the New Orleans Times- 
Democrat, and since that time her pen has been chiefly occupied with critical and 
literary work for that journal. In addition to the fine natural taste and the sensi- 
tiveness to literary efl'ect so essential to the critic, Mrs. Baker possesses the wide 
acquaintance with the best literatures, ancient and modern, which alone can furnish 
a proper standard of judgment. Her criticism is not, therefore, a mere expression 
of personal preference, but a reasoned opinion, based upon an understanding of the 
principles that underlie every composition which can justly lay claim to the title of 
literature. Her prose and her poetry express opposite sides of a richly gifted and 
finely balanced nature. While the latter, full of melody, fancy and exquisite im^ 
agery, breathes almost always a pensive strain, the former, direct and explicit, 
almost to_ severity, is often penetrated with a vein of subtle humor or of quiet irony 
that sends little thrills of merriment along the nerves and keeps a smile upon the 
lips. It is a subject of regret among Mrs. Baker's friends that she has never thought 
it worth while to collect either her poems or a selection from her essays into book 
form. 

ELIZA J. NICHOLSON (nee Poitevent) made her debut before the New Or- 
leans reading public under the nom-de-plume of "Pearl Rivers." Her first efforts 
in metrical composition appeared in the New Orleans Picayune, whose editor, Mr. 
Holbrook, she subsequently married. After Mr. Holbrook's death she married in 
second nuptials Mr. George Nicholson, business manager of the Picayune, in con- 



38o STANDARD HISTORY OP NEW ORLEANS. 

junction with whom she conducted tlie paper until her death in 1897. Mrs. 
Nicholson wrote a good deal of verse, but, except for one volume — "Lyrics" — pub- 
lished in 1873, none of it has ever been collected. Her longest and best known poem, 
"Hagar,"' appeared in the Cosmopolitan Magazine, November, 1893. 

MAKTHA R. FIELD, (nee Smallwood) was for many years connected with 
the New Orleans Picayune as creator and conductor of the Woman's Department. 
She wrote on many topics, and in a bright and pleasing style that attracted many 
renders. Mrs. Field made several trips to Europe, and her lively descriptions of 
what she saw and how she saw it added much to the interest of the Picayune's Sun- 
day issue. A few years before her death, which occurred in the fall of 1898, Mrs. 
Field became connected with the New Orleans Times-Democrat, for which journal 
her last work was done. A selection from her voluminous writings, edited by Mrs. 
M. E. M. Davis, has been published under the title of "Catherine Cole's Book." 



(Mrs.) A. G. Durno Las been for years connected with the Times-Democrat, con- 
ducting with ability and characteristic modesty an anonymous weelvly column of book 
reviews for that journal. Mrs. Durno is distinguished alike for the power of her intellect 
and the purity and delicacy of her imaginative faculty. She has written verses of singular 
sweetness and melody, while her prose is clear, strong and picturesque. Some of Mrs. 
Durno's best work has been in the shape of literary editorials, written for the regular 
Sunday columns of the Times-Democrat, during the absence or illness of Julia K. 
Wetherill (Mrs. Marion A. Baker). Much of Mrs. Durno's writing has been under the 
name of "Felix Gray." Mrs. Durno is a native of Ohio, hut came to New Orleans when 
young. — Ed. 



ART. 

The history of art in New Orleans is neither long nor complicated. 
Indeed, the historian who sets out to inquire into the art conditions of the earlier 
years of the city will find growing up in his mind a dire suspicion that his intended 
chapter will furnish a parallel to the famous chapter on snakes in Ireland. The 
contention of some writers that the supremacy of the ancient Greeks in the liberal 
arts was due to the leisure afforded the upper classes by the institution of slavery 
is hardly sustained by the record of art in the South. While it is true that our 
country as a whole has been very backward in developing anything worthy of the 
name of native art, it cannot be denied that the South has lagged far behind even the 
snail-like progress of the North. In the case of New Orleans this appears all the 
more singular when it is reflected that the ties of race which affiliated so large and 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 381 

influential a class of her population with France brought about a closer intercourse 
between her citizens and Paris, the great modern center of art, than obtained in 
any other section of the Union. As has been noted in the case of Dr. Mercier, the 
Eouquette brothers and Charles Gayarre, it was quite the custom among wealthy 
Creoles to send their sons to France to be educated, or for the young men to betake 
themselves thither of their own volition, yet the atmosphere of Paris and the con- 
templation of the masterpieces that line the walls of the great galleries of the Louvre, 
the Luxembourg and Versailles, do not seem to have awakened in any of these 
youths an ambition to become the pioneer of art in their own State. 

The chronicles of the colonial period yield the names of three legendary ar- 
tists, all Spanish, who are said to have sojourned in New Orleans an indefinite 
period of time something like a hundred and thirty years ago. The first of these 
bore the name of Salazar, and in 1769, it is said, painted the portraits of Mr. Charles 
Trudeau, surveyor of Louisiana, and of Madam Trudeau, his wife. Another, whose 
name was Romegar, is said to have done some "landscape work," for which he was 
awarded a bronze medal in Paris. After these came one whose name has not been 
preserved, but who painted several portraits, notably a "very fine" one of a Mr. 
Regio, but finding that he could not compete with Salazar, returned to his native 
land. This closes the record for the eighteenth century, and the next artistic inci- 
dent of sufficient importance to deserve mention brings us down into the third decade 
of the nineteenth. It is of another nameless Spaniard, who had "been traveling in 
Mexico,"' and who had painted a large landscape, 8x6 feet, "representing the scene 
of a famous murder,'' for which the St. I^uis Exchange presented him with a 
bronze medal. After this date the names multiply rapidly. There were Lanseau, 
Vaude Champ, Leon Pomarede, who painted the three large altar pieces still to 
be seen in St. Patrick's Church; Julian Hudson, a very light colored man who 
painted portraits which were much esteemed; Catlin, the Indian painter, who re- 
mained but a short time; and A. G. Powers, who came about 1848-9, and resided 
here many years, painting portraits of a number of the most distinguished citizens. 
A full length portrait of General Taylor, which he made in 1848 at Baton Rouge, 
hangs at present in the mayor's parlor at the City HaU. Powers had his studio at 
No. 102 Canal street. 

Bernard was a portrait painter of much talent who came to New Orleans about 
1850 and did some very good work. His style was similar to that of Julien and of 
Healy, the latter of whom also made a short sojourn on the banks of the Missis- 
sippi. 



382 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

Mr. George D. Coulon is an old resident of New Orleans, where he has won 
considerable reputation, both as a landscape and portrait painter and teacher. 

Theodore S. Moise was a South Carolinian who painted many portraits in Xew 
Orleans and its environs in ante-bellum days. Among the specimens of his work 
which are accessible to the public are an equestrian portrait of General Jackson, 
which hangs in the City Hall ; a portrait of Governor P. I. Herbert, which is in the 
State Library, and a piece known as "Life on Metarie," which contains likenesses 
of forty-four prominent turf men. 

Ciceri was a French artist of established reputation in his own country, whose 
government had intrusted him with a commission to Egypt in the interest of art. 
He came to New Orleans by invitation of the Opera House Association about 1859- 
€0, to decorate the interior of the opera house, then in process of building. Ciceri 
made friends in his new home, and remained there to practice his art. He painted 
many small pastels and guaches, which are highly prized by their owners, and had 
also much success as a teacher. 

Julio, a native of St. Helena, who came to New Orleans shortly after the war, 
was a painter of some pretensions. He painted the famous "Last Meeting of Gen- 
erals Lee and Jackson,"' which has been so widely circulated by means of engravings 
and photographs, and of which the original hangs in Washington Artillery Hall. 
His best works are "An Ox-team," and "A Cypress Swamp." His crayons and char- 
coal sketches are considered better than his work in colors. Julio died some years 
ago. 

Eichard Clague was another Frenchman of recognized ability in his own coun- 
try who made his home in New Orleans. Clagiie was a landscape painter, and made 
a specialty of Louisiana landscapes, of which he painted a great number. He died 
in 1873, since which event his pictures have more than doubled in value. 

Paul Poincy is a native of New Orleans, who received his art education in 
Paris at the Beaux Arts and in the studios of Gleyre and Leon Cogniet. Mr. 
Poincy is chiefly a painter of portraits and of children, though he has produced 
some landscapes and street scenes which are highly esteemed. Among his best work 
in portraiture is a speaking likeness of the late beloved Archbishop Perche In the 
City Hall hangs an enormous canvas whereon is depicted a parade of the old volun- 
teer Fire Department passing on Canal street, which is the joint work of Mr. 
Poincy and Mr. Moise. This piece contains sixty-four portraits of prominent mem- 
bers of the old Fire Department, and possesses a certain historic interest as a 
memento of departed glories. Mr. Poincy has also painted a number of pictures 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 383 

on sacred subjects, and it is jicrhaps toward tliis branch of art that his natural beut, 
^ould he follow it with profit, would most incline him. A well-known local con- 
noisseur says of him : "Poincy ought to have lived in the days of Raphael, when 
art was consecrated to the church. His genius is not appreciated in these modern 
times." His representations of sacred scenes are distributed among various relig- 
ious institutions of the city, and Jlarshall J. Smith is the owner of an unfinished 
sketch of Christ on the way to Calvary which is spoken of as a conception of strik- 
ing originality and power. 

Andres Molinary is a native of Gibraltar, a British subject, therefore, though 
of Italian ancestry, and speaking Spanish as his mother tongue. He was educated 
at the Fine Art Academy of Seville, and at Lucca's Academy in Eome under such 
masters as Valles and Alvarey. After quitting the school he traveled extensively in 
Europe and in Africa with the famous artists Fortuny and Reynold. Mr. Molinary 
has resided for many years in New Orleans, where his reputation, both as a painter 
and teacher, has steadily increased. As a portrait painter he has no superior, per- 
haps no equal, in the South, and his fame is rapidly spreading to other cities. In 
the room of the Louisiana Supreme Court hang portraits of Judges Eost, Buchanan, 
Marr, Merrick and Poche, and in the Charity Hospital those of Drs. Miles and 
Picard, all examples of Mr. Molinary"s work, and in the gallery of the Newcomb 
Art Building, loaned by the owner, Mr. P. M. Westfeltd, may be seen a most life- 
like presentation of Achille Perelli, the sculptor, who died in 189G. 

Achille Peretti, a native of Piedemonte, Itah', and a member of the third gen- 
eration of a family of artists, came to New Orleans in 1885. Mr. Peretti is a pupil 
of the Milan Reale Academia di Belle Arte, and a winner of diplomas and medals, 
both at the academy and at Eome. Since his advent in New Orleans he has deco- 
rated several churches, notably the interior of the Church of St. John the Baptist 
and that of St. Stephen, where he reproduced as a center piece the Stephen of Ra- 
phael in Genoa. Some eight or nine years ago Mr. Peretti was engaged to decorate 
the Church of St. Columbkill in Chicago, a work which elicited the highest enco- 
miums from the press of that city. Mr. Peretti is a painter of landscapes, as well 
as of the human figure, and is besides an expert wood-carver. 

About fourteen years ago, that is, in 1886, the little band of professional ar- 
tists in New Orleans was reinforced by the arrival of Mr. B. A. Wikstrom, a native 
of Norway, and a pupil of the finest art schools of Europe. As seems quite natu- 
ral in one of his nationality, Mr. Wikstrom's chosen metier is that of the marine 
painter. For j-ears he followed the sea in order to study it in all its moods and 



384 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

phases, and his painted images of ships racing before a spanking breeze or ploughing 
heavily across the tossing heights and hollows of mid-ocean have for the beholder 
much of the exhilaration and solemn fascination of the sea itself. Mr. Wikstrom, 
however, does not confine himself altogether to marine painting, and his landscapes 
and interiors form no mean second to his sea pieces. An industrious worker during 
his season of production, Mr. Wikstrom keeps himself fresh and au couraut with 
the great world of art by a yearly pilgrimage to Europe, whence he returns with 
renewed inspiration. 

The first symptom of the awakening of anything like a general interest in art 
matters among the people of New Orleans was shown in the organization of "The 
Southern Art Union" in 1883. The Union owed its existence to Molinary, who, with 
the assistance of Edward Livingston and Marshall J. Smith, undertook to induct 
such of the members as felt an impulse toward artistic expression into the mysteries 
of line and color. The organization began life under flattering auspices. The mem- 
bership increased rapidly, reaching at one time the very respectable figure of five 
hundred, and the financial basis seemed all that could be desired. A collection of 
paintings from the North was secured for exhibition in its gallery, at first with the 
charge of a small admission fee, and afterward free, which resulted in the sale of a 
number of the pictures. But the road to success in art is no less difficult than that of 
any other of the more elevated lines of human endeavor, and presently sundry of 
the neophytes began to long for something at once easier of accomplishment and 
more'showy in effect than the results of their efforts with brush and pencil. To sat- 
isfy these cravings, various forms of decorative work were introduced, at which the 
artist instructors complacently winked, but when it was proposed to add "art em- 
broidery" to the course of instruction, they packed up their brushes and colors, 
shouldered their easels, and incontinently abandoned the field to the false gods pre- 
ferred by so many to the severe divinity of "high art." The Union lingered on 
through some months of slow degeneration and disintegration, but finally gave up 
the ghost in 1886. "Too many cooks" was the verdict of the jury of experts who 
informally "sat upon" the remains. 

The same year saw the inception of another art society which, although it can 
hardly be said to have sprung, Phoenix-like, from the ashes of the defunct Union, 
certainly included some of its former members. The new organization, styled "The 
Artists' Association of New Orleans," was the happy thought of Mr. B. A. Wik- 
strom, then but newly arrived from lands where art has long flourished, and was 
accepted with enthusiasm by his brethren of the brush. The fraternity had but 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 385 

little spare cash, but they made up in abundant good vriW for the deficiencies of 
their exchequer. Every man was ready to put his hand to the work, and fingers 
that were accustomed to the delicate manipulation of palette colors now grasped 
the coarse brushes of the kalsominer and the house painter, and flourished other 
implements equally alien, but serviceable in the task of fitting up a home for their 
club. In order to increase their influence in the community, as well as to create 
a fund for the furtherance of art purposes, it was decided to form classes in the 
various branches of painting, the artist members giving their services as teachers 
free of other charge than the initiation fee and annual dues. The corps of instruc- 
tors included B. A. Wikstrom, water colors and out-door sketching; Paul Poincy, 
cartoon and perspective; Andres Molinarj-, oils; A. Perelli (sculptor), modelling. 
For a time the classes were full and the signs seemed bright with promise, but again 
the interest of the students died out, the classes dwindled, and finally, after three 
years of unremunerated labor, it was decided to discontinue them and to maintain 
the Association purely for the cultivation of good fellowship among the members, 
its relations with the public being confined to exhibits of original work and of such 
collections from other places as can be secured. In 1899 the directors of the Fisk 
Free and Public Library placed at the service of the Association a room adjoining 
the large reading room as a sort of gallery for the permanent exhibition of paintings. 
The Association has held fourteen exhibitions, the last one in December, 1899, 
to which twenty-two artists contributed. Of these, sixteen are residents of New Or- 
leans, professional and amateur. Prominent among the non-resident artists 
represented by their work were Dodge McKnight, of Mystic, Conn., who has once 
before exhibited in New Orleans, and George H. Clements, a native of Louisiana 
and an artist of European reputation, now located at Flushing, L. I. The other 
non-resident's are Walter Burridge and F. L. Linden, of Chicago, 111., Miss L. L. 
Heustis, of New York, and Eobert Koehler, of Minneapolis, Minn. Mr. Robert B. 
Mayfield, a local artist who was represented by a dozen canvases, has studied in 
Paris, where he spent three years in the ateliers of the best masters. He paints both 
figures and landscapes, though his time is chiefly given to illustrative work. Mr. 
Mayfield is the regular artist of the Times-Democrat. Among the amateur mem- 
bers of the Association who have achieved a very creditable degree of skill may be 
mentioned its president, Mr. P. M. Westfeltd, its vice-president, Mr. Frank Cox, 
and Mr. A. J. Drysdale. The Association numbers among its members several 
ladies, who are also among its most zealous workers. Mrs. Gertrude Eoberts Smith 
and Miss Mary G. Sheerer are artists by profession, and are actively engaged as 



386 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

teachers in the Art Department of Newcomb College. Miss M. M. Seebold, although 
she modestly styles herself "amateur," is enlisted heart and soul in painting, to 
which she devotes all her time. She is a pupil of Molinary, and was one of the first 
women in whose behalf the rigidly exclusive rules originally adopted against the 
admission of ladies to the Association were relaxed. Miss Seebold is distinctively 
a flower painter, although she often diverges into other lines. Her canvases meet 
with warm appreciation and bring good prices. 

Miss Jenny Wilde is known as the Carnival Artist from the fact that her time 
and talent are chiefly devoted to the work of designing the floats and tableaux of 
one of the most prominent carnival organizations. Miss Wilde is a granddaughter 
of Eichard Henry Wilde, the Irish-American poet, who had made his home in New 
Orleans a short time before his death. 

Marshall J. Smith, who has been already mentioned as one of the original pro- 
moters of the Art Union, studied painting first in New Orleans under Clague, and 
afterward in Europe, where he spent two years, working in various studios in Rome 
and Munich, traveling and visiting the most noted galleries. On his return to his 
own country he opened a studio, and for a time devoted himself exclusively to art. 
Subsequently he became engaged in the insurance business, and painting has since 
occupied a secondary position in his active life, if not in his affections. 

W. H. Buck, a Norwegian by birth, was also a pupil of Clague and painted 
much in the style of his master. He went to Boston and studied for a time, with 
the effect of producing some variation in his manner. Buck was little more than an 
amateur, although his pictures found purchasers. He was a cotton-weigher by 
occupation. 

Tliere remains to be spoken of tlic work of Professors William and Ellsworth 
Woodward, a work which, without question, is destined to prove the most potent 
factor in the develojiment of the art spirit in New Orleans, and the creation of an 
art center whose influence shall be felt throughout the South. 

The work was begun in 1884-85, and seems to have received its first impulse 
from the bringing together of a vast number of paintings, drawings, sculptures, etc., 
by the Cotton Centennial Exposition of that year. Tlie impulse led to the organiza- 
tion of drawing classes in Tulane College and High School, which held a session 
each afternoon in the gallery of the Government and States building. The follow- 
ing year free drawing classes were established in connection with Tulane, free to all, 
and attended by hundreds of men and women, overjoyed to avail themselves of such 
an opportunity. The classes were under the supervision of Professor William 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 387 

Woodward, and were continued until the removal of the University to its new build- 
ing, opposite Audubon Park. From the decorative art classes, composed of women, 
grew up an Art League which for several years conducted a "supply store"' and "art 
pottery," a cabinet-maker's shop, reading and exhibition rooms, etc. In this work 
Professor Woodward was aided by his brother, Ellsworth, who had been secured 
as an assistant after the experiences of the first year had demonstrated that the 
newly opened field promised to yield a rich harvest. When, in 1887, President 
Johnston, of Tulane, was engaged in the organization of the H. Sophie Jfewcomb 
Memorial College, the art department of the new institution was confided to the 
care of the Woodward brothers, who continued to work together, both there and in 
the free drawing classes, until the enlargement and removal of the Memorial Col- 
lege to its present location compelled a division of labor. Professor Ellsworth then 
assumed entire charge of the Xewconib art classes, having as assistant Miss Gertrude 
Eoberts, of Boston, while William remained with Tulane, where he now occupies 
the position of Professor of Drawing and Architecture in the College of Technology 
and the University Department. 

At Newcomb, Professor Ellsworth Woodward has inaugurated and is carrying 
forward with ever growing success, a great work, for which ample facilities are 
afforded by the large and handsome building designed expressly for art purposes. 
The work falls under three heads : The academic and collegiate art studies, which 
enter into the general plan of a liberal education, and in which the object is educa- 
tional, rather than technical; the Normal Art classes, for which the studies are 
graded and planned to extend through a period of four years, finally fitting the 
student to teach art as a profession; and the studio classes, which are conducted 
on a plan similar to those of the other art schools of the country. A noteworthy 
development in this department is its pottery, which originated a few years since, 
and has already become an art industry of richest promise. In this department 
Professor Woodward is using every means to make the work in every sense native 
to the locality. Only Southern clays are used, and experiments are constantly being 
carried on with new specimens brought to the attention of the director. The stu- 
dents are encouraged to select their models from objects about them, and the result 
is that many humble flowers, weeds, insects and members of the great family of 
Crustacea have been pressed into the service of beauty. Specimens of the Newcomb 
pottery have found their way to Northern cities, where they have elicited much 
admiration, both for originality of design and beauty of coloring and finish. 

The Woodwards are natives of Massachusetts, where their early life was spent. 



388 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

They are both graduates of the Rhode Island School of Design. William, after his 
graduation, spent a summer in Julien's art school at Paris. He paints landscapes 
and portraits, both in oils and water-colors, and has recently exhibited a number 
of exquisite fruit pieces. Mr. Woodward is an ex-president of the Artists' Associa- 
tion, president of the Louisiana Art Teachers' Association, and vice-president of 
the Louisiana Chautauqua, Euston, 1898-9. 

Ellsworth's studies at the School of Design were supplemented by a term of 
study in New York and another in Munich, where he was under the instruction of 
Professor Carl Marr. He is a rapid worker and a master of technique, and his an- 
nual vacation is a season of fruitful production, whose results are displayed to the 
public in the studio at the college. 

The following extract from a letter from the artist, George H. Clements, to 
Professor William Woodward, may be taken as an unsolicited expert opinion of the 
brothers and their work : "As the first days of surprises and contrasts have passed, 
I am able to recall the delightful impressions of my recent vacation in Louisiana. 
Among them stands distinctly my visits to you and your brother in your cozy 
workshops, where I was greatly pleased to see such work as one finds in the most 
advanced centers of art. I think Tulane and Sophie Newcomb so handsomely 
equipped in their art departments that their gifted pupils will have nothing to un- 
learn in the future, which is a rare advantage to be found in any but a few well- 
known cities. I was so sincerely pleased with your water-colors, in particular, that 
I wish you might exhibit with us in the Fifty-seventh street gallery. The New 
York Water-Color Club is an association of the most talented specialists in the 
country. It seems to me their exhibitions are equal to the best in Paris, and equal 
to any other I have seen abroad, therefore you will be in excellent company." 

With Newcomb and Tulane to spread abroad in the community a practical 
knowledge of the principles of art, and to furnish a yearly recruited band of finished 
artists, and the Art Association to foster the art sentiment and to supply inspiration 
and incentive by placing before the public examples of the best work of the world, 
it seems permitted to hope that the next casting up of accounts in matters of art 
mav show a large balance on the credit side of the ledger. 



CHAPTER XVI. 

FLOEA OF LOUISIANA. 
By Reginald S. Uocks 

THE geographical position of Louisiana is such that its flora could hardly fail 
to be of extreme interest. Traversed through a large portion of its territory 
by the Mississippi Eiver, it is on the border land of two very distinct floras, 
"the eastern and western," of which this river forms a very natural division line. 
From its position again at the mouth of the Mississippi we find that the seeds of 
many plants which usually live in more northern States are washed down and de- 
posited on its banks, while on the other hand, the winds and currents of the Gulf 
wash to its shores many plants belonging rather to more southern climates. When, 
furthermore, we take into consideration the fact that its climate combines in a 
remarkable degree the two factors of humidity and warmth, which more than any- 
thing else are conducive to a luxuriant vegetation, we can hardly be surprised to find 
its flora exceedingly large and varied. 

The surface and soil of Louisiana can be divided into four distinct divisions, 
each characterized by its own flora. Firstly, there are the cypress swamps, which 
comprise a great many square miles of Louisiana's territory. The flora of this re- 
gion is characterized, of course, by the presence of the cypress Taxodium distichum 
L. ; and it is worth noticing that in these cypress swamps there is usually little or no 
undergrowth of any kind, the ground being often absolutely bare for many miles, 
•'secondly, there are the pine barrens, where, though of course pines are the pre- 
dominating feature, there is an abundant undergrowth and profusion of wild 
Jlowers. In fact, it is in this region that the botanist finds his choicest specimens. 
Thirdly, there are the large open lowland prairies, whose vegetation consists mainly 
i)f rank grasses and sedges, though not unfrequently interspersed with flowers of 
■:he brightest hue, such as Asclepia paupercula and several varieties of the Hibiscus 
family. Fourthly, there are what is called the hummock lands, covered by a variety 
of timber trees, as oaks, magnolias, sweet giims, etc., and with a luxuriant under- 
growth of creepers, shrubs and flowers of many kinds. 



390 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

Probably the earliest investigator of the flora of Louisiana was the historian 
Le Page du Pratz. Over one hundred years ago he made a report upon it to the 
French government and sent home for their inspection three hundred species 
of plants supposed to be of medicinal value. Speaking of the fliora, he wrote that 
"the flowers are so varied and so beautiful that the perplexed collector cannot make 
up lus mind which to take and which to leave behind." He was much interested in 
the so-called Spanish moss, Tillandsia usneoides, which forms such a feature of the 
Louisiana forests. Not imagining it to be a plant, he calls it "an excrescence/' and 
attributes its early name, Barbe Espagnole, to the likeness which the Indians de- 
tected' in it to the beards of the Spaniards. The first book devoted entirely to the 
botany of the State was a "Flora Ludoviciana," published in the year 1803 by a 
French gentleman, C. C. Eobin. To him belongs the honor of having been the 
first to describe very many of the native plants of the State. A few years later this 
book was enlarged and in many ways improved by Mr. Eafinesque. From time to 
time after this we find various scattered notices of the flora of Louisiana, but it was 
not until about the year 1850 that a serious attempt was made to explore the bo- 
tanical resources of the State. In the year 1851 there was published in The New 
Orleans Medical and Surgical Journal a catalogue of all the flowering plants known 
at' that time in the State. This catalogue represented the joint labors for twenty 
years of Professor Eiddell, of New Orleans, Professor Carpenter, also of New Or- 
leans, and Dr. Hale, of Alexandria. It enumerated about sixteen hundred species 
of flowering plants, but omitted the large and important families of the grasses 
and sedges. In the troubled times that followed in the succeeding two decades, not 
only was the study of the flora of the State absolutely neglected, but also the large 
collections which represented the labors of these three gentlemen were in a great . 
measure ruined or lost, so that the work of exploration had almost to be begun 
anew. The most prominent workers in the State since that date have been Pro- 
fessor Featherman, a professor at the Louisiana State University, who about the 
year 1871 sent to the Smithsonian Institution a report upon the botany of the State, 
which, however, was never published; Dr. Joor, lately of Tulane University, who 
died in the year 1892; and the Eev. Father A. B. Langlois, now of St. Martinville, 
La. To the latter gentleman more perhaps than to all the others we owe our pres- 
ent knowledge of the flora of the State. Gifted with the power of the closest 
observation, this indefatigable worker has devoted all his leisure time for many 
years to the study of the botany of the State, with a success that has fallen to the 
lot of few. His name will be always indissolubly associated with the study of botany 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 391 

in Louisiana. He published, in the year 1886, a provisional catalogue, not only of 
the flowering plants, grasses and sedges of the State, but also of the flowerless plants, 
including the ferns, mosses, fungi, etc. 

As a result of the labors of these gentlemen, and perhaps of some few others, 
there are at present known to exist in the State about twenty-two hundred different 
species of phanerogamic plants growing without cultivation, and no doubt this 
number will be increased when the whole State shall have been thoroughly ex- 
plored. 

No part of the flora of any region is of more general interest than its trees, of 
which there are in Louisiana about one hundred and thirty different kinds. Fore- 
most of these, both in its economic importance and in the number of individuals, 
is the Long-leafed Pine, Pinus palustris Miller, known also in Louisiana under the 
names Southern Pine, Yellow Pine, Hard Pine, Heart Pine, and elsewhere by a 
variety of other names. Some idea of the importance of this tree to the State of 
Louisiana may be gathered from the fact that during the year 1892 it was estimated 
that 275,000,000 feet were sawn up in the different mills throughout the State. 
Besides the Yellow Pine, there are three other pines found in more or less abundance 
in different parts of the State. These are the Loblolly Pine, Pinus taeda L. ; the 
Short-leafed Pine, Pinus echinata Miller ; and the Cuban Pine, PinuS heterophylla 
Ell. 

Of hardly less importance than the pine is the Cypress, Taxodium distichum 
L., which forms such a feature of the Louisiana swamps. The curious so-called 
Cypress knees have long been, and still are, an interesting puzzle to botanists. 

The Oak family is well represented throughout the State by fifteen different 
species, prominent among which might be mentioned the Live Oak, Water Oak, Red 
Oak, Spanish Oak, Post Oak, Chestnut Oak, etc. The Live Oaks, especially in the 
vicinity of New Orleans, have long been famous for their size and beauty. 

The Magnolia is represented by five different species, and the Hickory by 
seven, including the well-known Pecan. Of the Sour Gum or Nyssa, known also by 
the name Tupelo, three kinds occur in abundance in the swampy regions. Without 
attempting to give a catalogue of the trees of the State, it is hardly possible to omit 
the names of the Liriodendron, or Tulip tree, the Beech, the Elm, represented by 
five different species; the Ash by four, the Hackberry by two, the Maple by four, 
and the Chestnut by two, while the Sycamore, Sweet Gum, Walnut, Eed Bay, Lin- 
den and Mulberry are all more or less plentiful. Several trees, though not native, 
have become so completely naturalized as to deserve mention. Amongst these are the 



392 STAXDAUD HlSTORr OF NEW ORLEANS. 

Fig tree, the Crape Myrtle, the Paper Mulberry, the Umbrella tree, Melia azederacli 
L., and perhaps even to a certain extent, the Orange tree. 

Of equal value to the trees of any region are the grasses and forage plants oc- 
curring in it, and of these Louisiana has a bountiful share. There are known to 
the writer something over two hundred different kinds of grasses, with habits so 
various that the season is indeed short when some species is not available for pas- 
ture. How large a number of species of grasses two hundred means may be better 
understood when it is stated that in Great Britain, which has been explored botani- 
cally in a way Louisiana will not be for many years to come, there are only one 
hundred and twenty. Amongst grasses particularly characteristic of Louisiana 
may be mentioned the Wild Rice, the magnificent Giant Millet, Chaetochloa magna, 
which frequently attains a height of seven or eight feet, and the various species of 
"plume grass," Erianthus. 

Hardly second in importance numerically to the grasses are the sedges and 
rushes, of which there are about one hundred and seventy kinds occurring in the 
State. Though of little use economically, in which respect they differ greatly from 
their near relatives, the grasses, they form such a feature of the lowlands of Lou- 
isiana that even the most casual observer could hardly fail to be struck by their 
abundance and variety. Cladium effusum, or Saw grass, the giant of the family, 
frequently attains a height of eight or nine feet, and its dark chestnut brown spikes 
are very conspiciious in the prairie swamps around New Orleans. 

Outside of the grass family the order next in importance from an economic 
standpoint is perhaps the Leguminosae, or Bean family ; for to this family belong the 
majority of plants, exclusive of grasses, useful for forage purposes. This family 
is well represented in Louisiana by about one hundred and twenty species. Of 
these, the most important is, perhaps, the well-known Lespedeza striata, or Japan 
Clover, which, though not a native of the State, has become so extensively natural- 
ized that it shares with the Bermuda grass and Crab grass the honor of being the 
most valuable pasture food in this region. Though composed principally of herbs, 
there are some few trees belonging to this order found in the State, among them 
the Red Bud or Judas tree, Cercis canadensis ; the False Acacia or Robinia ; and a 
very handsome tree naturalized from Mexico, Parkinsonia aculeata, now thoroughly 
at home in certain parts of the State. 

The largest order of plants in Louisiana is the Compositae, or Thistle family, 
of which there are over three hundred different species. Though very fejv plants 
of this large order are of much economic importance, it contains so many showy 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 393 

flowers, especially those which hloom in the autumn, that it deserves mor(> than 
passing mention. The Goldenrods, of which we liave in Louisiana about twenty-nine 
different kinds, and the Asters, about the same number, are the two largest represen- 
tatives of this family. To this same family also belongs what, in the writer's opin- 
ion, is the handsomest wild flower in the State, Stokesia cyanea, which, though 
very common in the pine barrens, and of a magnificent purplish blue, a rare color, 
has not so far been honored with a popular name, and is by no means so well known 
as it deserves. 

Of edible berries and wild fruits, Louisiana has a faii; share. It is sufficient, 
perhaps, to mention here the Muscadyne grape, the Blackberry, the Huckleberry, 
the Pawpaw, two or three kinds of Plum, the Persimmon, Hickory and Pecan nuts; 
while on the other hand the poisonous plants are few in number, two only, perhaps, 
being deserving of special notice — the Poison Sumac and the Poison Oak. 

With brilliant flowering trees and shrubs the State is abundantly supplied, 
as anyone can testify who, at the end of February or beginning of March, has seen 
the woods a blaze of color with the bright yellow Jesamine, Gelsemium semper- 
virens, the snow-white Dogwoods, Cornus floridana, and the quaint Daddy 
Graybeard or Fringe tree, Chionanthes virginiea. While, as should be expected 
from the large amount of standing water throughout the State, there is a very 
great abundance of Water Lilies and other water-loving plants. 

In conclusion, it might be said that, though perhaps the flora of Louisiana 
lacks the tropical beauty of that of Florida, or the stupendous grandeur of the for- 
ests of California, yet in the diversity and variety of its plant life it is second prob- 
ably to no State in the Union. 



CHAPTER XVII. 



THE BENCH AND BAK OF NEW ORLEANS. 
By B. R. Forman, Jr. 

IN THE following sketch of the bench and bar of New Orleans, but a brief men- 
tion has been made, on account of the limit of space, of some of the distinguished 

figures. For the same reason many who would be entitled to an extended notice 
in a complete work upon the subject have necessarily been omitted. 

For the preparation of the biographical sketch of Judge Martin, acknowledg- 
ment is made to the admirable life of Judge Martin by Judge W. W. Howe, prefaced 
to Gresham's edition of Martin's history. For the preparation of the other sketches 
numerous authorities have been consulted ; Appleton's Encyclopedia of American 
Biography for some ; the eulogies in the Louisiana Annuals for others, and other 
authorities. 

The quotations from Charles Gayarre relative to many of the subjects of these 
sketches are taken from an article of that author entitled "New Orleans Bench and 
Bar in 1823," published in Harper's Magazine in 1888. 

For much of the information contained in the introductory sketch acknowl- 
edgment is made to an article in the New Orleans Book of 1851, by Mr. Henry J. 
Leovy, of the New Orleans bar, entitled "Louisiana and Her Laws." 

In the early days it was a question whether the laws of Louisiana were the 
laws of France or of Spain. Until 1769, when Don O'Reilly took possession of the 
colony in the name of Spain, the laws of Louisiana were the laws of France. The Fif- 
teenth Article of the charter of the Mississippi Company provided that the "Judges 
established in the aforesaid places shall be held to judge according to the laws and 
ordinances of the Kingdom (of France) ; and to conform themselves to the Pro- 
vosty and Viscounty of Paris." Crozat's charter contained the same provision. 
When O'Reilly took possession, however, he issued a proclamation establishing the 
laws of Spain and giving a synopsis of them in the proclamation itself, because the 
"limited knowledge w^hich the King's new subjects possess of the Spanish laws might 
render a strict observance of them difficult." The question that arose after the 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 395 

cession to the United States was whether the proclamation of O'Eeilly had repealed 
the laws of France. JefPerson seems to have held one opinion and Judge Martin 
another. As both systems of law took their origin from the same source practically, 
the difference was not great. 

It was not until 1828 that the Legislature of Louisiana abolished the Eoman, 
French and Spanish laws previously in existence. As late as 1819 the Legislature 
had ordered the publication of such part of the Spanish Partidas as were still in 
force. 

The people of Louisiana, under the rule of Spain, were governed by the Fuero 
Viego, Fuero Juzco, Partidas, Eecopilaciones, Leyes de las Indias, Autos Accorda- 
dos, and Eoyal Schedules. 

The Civil Code of Louisiana to-day is founded on the Code Napoleon. Many 
of its articles are but translations of that code. There are amendments of the dif- 
ferent Legislatures to different parts of it; the original compilers, Messrs. Brown 
and Moscau Lislet in 1808 and Messrs. Livingston, Derbigny and Lislet in 1825, 
made various changes, yet substantially it is the Code Napoleon still, and it is the 
boast of French and of Louisiana lawyers that that code has never been surpassed in 
any country in the world. 

The original Louisiana Code of 1808 was taken from the projet of the Code 
Napoleon. The Code of 1825, which was revised in 1870 (the Eevised Civil Code 
of 1870 is the present Louisiana Civil Code) was taken from the Code Napoleon 
itself. 

From the earliest time the Eoman Corpus Juris Civilis and its commentators 
were cited in the courts with the Spanish law writers during Spanish times, and 
since the cession to the United States the French commentators on the Code Napo- 
leon and Pothier have been constantly resorted to. 

When it is considered that in addition to being a civilian, which, whatever 
the merits of the controversy between the learned in the civil and in the common 
law with regard to the merits of their respective systems, implies beyond dispute 
an acquaintance with a greater body of law than a common law lawyer has to apply 
himself to, the Louisiana lawyer has to acquaint himself with the Federal jurispru- 
dence followed in the Federal courts, derived from the common law and of a totally 
different system, it is seen that the Louisiana lawyer must needs be learned in the 
law to a degree that is unessential to his brother lawyers in other parts of the coun- 
try. It is this acquaintance with two systems undoubtedly that has broadened the 
minds of the New Orleans lawyers and helped to render so many of them distin- 
guished in proportion to their total number. 



396 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

FEANCOIS XAVIER MARTIN. 

Frangois Xavier Martin, one of the great jurists of the world, was born in 
France at Marseilles, March 17, 1762. Little is known of his parentage or his edu- 
cation. At the age of eighteen he emigrated to the French Colony of Martinique. 
Then he emigrated to Newbern, N. C, and it is said that while here he volunteered 
in the Continental Army in the last years of the war of the American Revolution 
and saw some service. At the close of the Revolutionary war he returned to New- 
burn, taught French, and finally became a printer. Then he published a news- 
paper, and in addition to his printing business and his newspaper, published some 
books, some novels which other people had written, and some law books which he 
wrote himself ; "Martin's Sheriff," "Martin on E.xecutors," and "A Revision of the 
Statutes of North Carolina." The printing and publishing business was now a 
partnership, the firm being Martin and Ogden. 

In 1789, Martin having studied law, was admitted to the bar of North Caro- 
lina, although he seems to have still continued his old business, and, as is not unu- 
sual in country towns in those daj's and at the present, to combine the legal 
profession with other work. 

In 1806 Mr. Martin was elected to the Legislature of North Carolina, in which 
he served one term. 

In 1802 he had published a translation of "Pothier on Obligations," which 
shows that although he had practiced his profession in a State where the common' 
law prevails, he had not neglected the study of the civil law, in which he afterwards 
became so distinguished. 

While in North Carolina, although he had practiced with ability as a lawyer, 
it was as a law-writer that he had made his principal reputation. It was for this 
reason that in 1809 President Madison appointed him to a judgeship in the Terri- 
tory of Mississippi. 

In Mississippi Judge Martin served for about a year, when on March 21, 1810, 
he was transferred to the bench of the Superior Court of the Territory of Orleans, 
which sat in New Orleans. 

In 1812, when the Territory of Orleans was admitted into the Union as the 
State of Louisiana, the territorial courts ceased to exist. Judge Martin was ap- 
poinCed the first Attorney General of Louisiana, and served in that office until Feb- 
ruar}', 1815, when he was appointed one of the judges of the Supreme Court of the 
State. 

Upon this bench he sat for thirty-one years. From 1846, when Judge Matthews 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 397 

died, Judge Martin was Chief Justice. In 1817 he was elected a member of the 
Academy of Marseilles. In 1841, he was given the degree of Doctor of Laws by 
Harvard College. 

Besides the labor of the sessions of the court and his judicial opinions, Judge 
Martin was reporter of the decisions of the Supreme Court, eighteen volumes of the 
reports bearing his name, "Martin, Old Series," and "Martin, New Series," being 
familiar to every Louisiana lawyer and every student of the jurisprudence of Lou- 
isiana. 

In 1827 Judge Martin published his "History of Louisiana," which, although 
it labors under the disadvantage of being written in English and composed in 
French, is an accepted authority of high rank among scholars. No lawyer in Lou- 
isiana can take high rank in his profession without studying the decisions of Judge 
Martin, and no writer upon the history of Louisiana can do competent work with- 
out consulting Martin's History. 

In 1846, under the constitution adopted in that year, a new Supreme Court 
was formed and Judge Martin was thus retired from the bench. 

On the 10th of December, 1846, Judge Martin died, at the age of 84. He left 
a fortune of $400,000. For the last eight years of his life he had been blind. This 
circumstance was urged in the suit to contest his will that was brought by the 
State. It was claimed that a blind man could not make a valid olographic will. Un- 
like Tilden and other lawj'ers who have made their own wills, Judge Martin had 
known how to make his. The will was held good and his brother, Paul B. Martin, 
to whom his estate had been left, came into possession of it. Judge Martin had never 
married. 

There were brilliant advocates in New Orleans in the first part of this century, 
yet the legal reputation of Louisiana, which is as high as that of any other State 
in the Union, though spread abroad by their eloquence, was founded upon the genius 
of Martin. Matthews and Porter and his other confreres were able men, but it 
was Martin who was the court. Never has there sat upon any bench in any country 
in the world a judge whose decisions were more able, more clear, more authoritative. 
There is that brevity in them to which only a master mind in jurisprudence can at- 
tain. More than the decisions of any other judge, the decisions of Martin read like 
the Code. 

JOHN RANDOLPH GRYMES. 

John Randolph Grymes was named after his father, who was a Virginia tory 
in the time of the Revolution, and a soldier of some distinction. He was born in 



398 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

Orange County, Virginia, in 1786, and died in New Orleans on the 4th of Decem- 
ber, 1854. He came to New Orleans not long before the battle of New Orleans, in 
which he served as an aide to General Jackson, and in the dispatches of that General 
to Washington, the name of John Randolph Grimes received complimentary men- 
tion. 

Colonel Grymes was counsel for Jackson in the United States bank case. He 
was also counsel in the Gaines case, and opposed to Daniel Webster. He was 
United States District Attorney, Attorney General, member of the Legislature for 
several terms, and a member of the State Constitutional Convention. 

During his professional career he fought two duels, after the fashion of the 
times, although he was not a particularly quarrelsome man. He was very popular 
with all classes, and while it is said that his learning was not profound, he was un- 
doubtedly one of the ablest advocates of the early bar. 
Mr. Gayarre thus describes Mr. Grymes : 

"John E. Grymes claims to belong to one of the first families of Virginia, and 
of course is not destitute of a coat of arms. He is an elegant, distingue looking man, 
above the middle size, always fashionably well dressed and always systematically 
courteous. He brijigs to the bar some of the etiquette and forms observed in the 
saloons of refined society. He is never boisterous, loud, passionate, and rough in 
his tone and gesticulations. * * * As a lawyer he has a lucid, logical mind, 
and speaks with the richest fluency, never being at a loss or hesitating about a word ; 
but that word, although presenting itself with the utmost ease and confidence, is 
not always the proper one. His style is far from being classical or even gram- 
matical, but it is effective, it is persuasive, and the meaning which it intends to 
convey is understood without effort even by the dullest. His pronunciation denotes 
at once his Virginian origin ; but his voice is musical, and his easy, pleasing flow 
of speech leaves no time and no desire to the hearer to analyze its constructive 
elements. 

"There is nothing of the scholar in Grymes ; his collegiate education has been 
imperfect ; his reading is not extensive as to legal lore or anything else. But there 
in infinite charm in his natural eloquence, and his powerful native intellect knows 
how to make the most skilful use of the materials whicli it gathers at random 
outside of any regular course of study and research. * * * jjg stands among 
the highest in his profession, and exercises great influence over judges and jurors. 
"'He has a decided taste for luxurious living, for horse racing, cock-fighting 
and card gambling. * -1= * Notwithstanding the considerable fees which he 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 399 

annually receives for his services as a very able and popular member of the bar, 
there are few men known to be more dunned than he is. But he possesses privileges 
and immunities to which nobody else would aspire. * * * For instance, as an 
example of the liberties which he takes, if dunned too actively he will give a check 
on any bank of which he bethinks himself at the moment, and the person who 
presents it becomes an object of merriment. It is looked upon as done in fun. 
There is not, of course, any idea of swindling, or of doing any real impropriety. It 
is only one of Grymes' practical jokes. He will pay in the end, as everybody knows, 
with any amount of interest in addition, and without questioning the rate. * * * 
Such was John R. Grymes, the most careless of men about money, coining it by 
the bushel, and squandering it in the same way. But toward the end of his life he 
became more economical, honorably paid all his debts, and left to his family a com- 
petency when he died at a ripe old age." 

ALFRED HENNEN. 

Alfred Hennen, one of the most distinguished lawyers of the first part of 
the Nineteenth Century in Louisiana, was born at Elk Ridge, Maryland, on the 
17th of October, 1786, and died in New Orleans, on the 19th of January, 1870. He 
was graduated from Yale and studied law and came to New Orleans in 1808. 
He was one of the most prominent of the Protestants in New Orleans and one of the 
founders of the first Presbyterian Church in the city. He accumulated the largest 
private library, both of law and of general literature, in the city. Besides being a 
profound lawyer, he was a man of wide culture, a linguist of considerable attain- 
ments, with a strong leaning towards the love of literature. He was professor of 
Constitutional Law for many years at the University of Louisiana. 

Several members of the present bar received their legal education in the 
office of Alfred Hennen or attended his lectures at the Law School. Everybody 
who is now living who remembers him has a kind word for that venerable coun- 
sellor, for many years one of the most distinguished figures at the New Orleans 
bar. He was upwards of eighty when he died and had come to be regarded as the 
Nestor of the profession. 

In his "The New Orleans Bench and Bar in 1823," Charles Gayarre thus 
describes Mr. Hennen: "Hennen is from New England. He is a tall, well- 
formed, massive man, with a handsome benevolent face, glowing with the warm 
tints of a florid complexion, which denotes his Northern origin. He is invariably 
self-possessed, and no provocation can throw him off his guard, in his fortress of cold 



400 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

and passionless reserve. Nothing can niffle his temper, and if the attempt is 
made he turns it off with a good-natured laugh, which blunts the edge of his 
adversary's weapon. He is an erudite, but plain, dry, plodding, practical lawj^er, 
who never aims at any fancy flight of eloquence. He has a large and well furnished 
library which he liberally puts at the disposal of his friends. He is laboriously 
industrious and always comes into court with a long string of authorities, which 
he uses as a lasso to throw around the neck of his opponent. He is not much 
addicted to urge upon the court argumentative deductions from the broad principles 
of jurisprudence, but prefers relying on an overwhelming avalanche of precedents 
and numeroiis decisions gathered from far and wide, in cases which he deems 
similar to his own. His fees amount to a large income, of which he takes thrifty 
care, although he lives according to the exigencies of his social position. He is a 
conspicuous and worthy member of the Presbyterian Church. He is abstemious 
in hi? habits, very fond of exercise on horseback and on foot, and a strict observer 
of the rules and prescriptions of hygiene. Like all members of the legal pro- 
fession from the other States of the Union, he much prefers the common to the 
civil law, the latter being looked upon by them as an abortive creation of the Latin 
mind, which they hold, of course, to be naturally inferior to the Anglo-Saxon 

intellect." 

CHRISTIAN EOSELIUS. 

Christian Boselius, said by some to have been a Swede, by other authorities to 
have been born near Bremen, Germany, 10th of August, 1803, came to New Orleans 
in 1819, at the age of 16, on the bark Jupiter as a "redemptioner," that is, 
he hired his services for a stated period as a consideration for his transportation, 
a common enough arrangement with the emigrants to Louisiana of that day. 
Eoselius was at first a printer, and it is said that he learned French at the case, 
setting up French manuscript. Then he studied law and the French civil law 
became a passion with him. He studied law in the office of A. Davezac, and 
gradually rose into prominence. For a while at first he had to support himself 
by teaching. 

In 1825, while still a printer, he started the first literary journal in Louisiana, 
The Halycon, which had a short-lived existence. 

In 1841 Eoselius was Attorney General of the State. Not long afterwards 
his legal reputation had become so great that he was offered a partnership by 
Daniel Webster, but declined it, as he preferred to live in New Orleans. 

For many vears Christian Eoselius was Dean of the law faculty of the 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 401 

University of Louisiana, where for twenty-three years he was professor of civil law. 

In 1863 he was offered a position as Chief Justice of the Supreme Bench, but 
declined it, as New Orleans had been captured by the Federal army, and was held 
under military law and Koselius refused to serve as a Judge on a bench when he 
would be subject to military interference. 

Besides being a profound civilian Koselius became a very cultivated man in a 
literary sense, and collected a magniticent private library. At his large house 
surrounded by magnificent grounds in Carrollton, which was then just above New 
Orleans, but has since been absorbed into it, for many years he exercised a liberal 
hospitality. In his private life he was very charitable. 

While not a remarkably eloquent speaker Christian Koselius was a profoundly 
learned lawyer, one of the ablest civilians that ever practiced at the New Orleans bar. 
Tradition has handed down the memory of his magnificent voice, of immense 
volume and great carrying power. When he spoke, it is said, it was as if there was 
a lion at the bar. 

Christian Koselius died in New Orleans on the 5th of September, 1873. 

JOHN ARCHIBALD CAMPBELL. 

John Archibald Canijibell was born in Washington, Wilkes county, Georgia, 
on the 24th of June, 1811. His ancestry was of Revolutionary stock. His father 
had been a distinguished lawyer before him. 

Judge Campbell was educated at the University of Georgia, from which he 
was graduated in 1826. In 1829 he was admitted to the bar by a special act of 
the Legislature, dispensing him from attaining his majority, as he was then only 
eighteen years old. 

On the 22d of March, 1853, President Pierce, on account of the eminence to 
which he had attained in his profession, appointed him one of the associate justices 
of the Supreme Court of the United States. Here he served with marked ability 
and distinction until 1861, when at the outbreak of the Civil War, out of sym- 
pathy with the Southern cause, he resigned and went to Richmond as Assistant 
Secretary of War in the Confederacy. 

In 1856 Judge Campbell was one of the Confederate peace commissioners ap- 
pointed to meet Lincoln and Seward. After the war he was held as a prisoner at 
Fort Pulaski by the Federal authorities, but was soon discharged on parole. Then 
he came to New Orleans, where he practiced law with marked success and distinc- 
tion until his death. 



402 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

Judge Campbell will be remembered in history as a distinguished jurist, as 
a statesman, who did as much as any man in either section in the country in 1861 
to endeavor to avert the war, and as a patriot who resigned one of the highest offices 
in the world, of which he had a life tenure, to serve the South. 

JUDAH P. BE>fJAMIN". 

Judah P. Benjamin — Judah Philip Benjamin his full name was — was born 
in 1811 at St. Croi.v, West Indies. His parents were English Jews, and were 
emigrating to America. The British fleet was blockading the entrance to the 
Mississippi river, the second war with Great Britain just having commenced, and not 
being able to make New Orleans, their destined port, they put in at St. Croix, one of 
the islands of the West Indies, and here Judah P. Benjamin was born. 

Part of his boyhood was passed at Wilmington, N. C. In 1825 he entered 
Yale College and remained there three years, finally leaving without a degree. 
Next he studied law in New Orleans in a notary's office, and was admitted to the 
bar on the 11th of December, 1832. 

At first, he met with small success and devoted himself to teaching, mean- 
while keeping up his legal studies by taking notes from the reports which he after- 
ward embodied in the Digest of Louisiana decisions, published by him with Slidell 
in 1834. This was one of the first digests of Louisiana decisions ever published, 
and formed the basis of the digest of Hennen, which has superseded it, and is in 
use in the courts of Louisiana at the present day. 

Benjamin finally succeeded in establishing himself in his profession, and had 
become a member of the firm of Slidell, Benjamin & Conrad, which had a large 
clientele among the planters. In 18-15 he had begun to turn his attention to 
politics and became a member of the Constitutional Convention of that year. 

In 1847 Benjamin was retained in the cases of the Spanish land titles in 
California, and went to Washington on this legal business. Henceforth he had a 
considerable practice, his reputation as a lawyer having become national. 

In 1853 he was elected to the Senate of the United States from Louisiana and 
re-elected, his term continuing until, with the other Southern Senators and Eepre- 
sentatives, he left Washington and his seat in the Senate at the outbreak of the 
Civil War. While serving as Senator he established a great reputation as an orator 
and a statesman among the giants that were in those days. So great was his 
reputation for ability that Northern writers have written of him in his after 
career as "the brains of the Confederacy." 



STANDAED HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 403 

It was while he was in the Senate that his defense of slavery was so zealous 
and aggressive that Senator Wade, of Ohio, wittily referred to him as "a Hebrew 
with Egyptian principles." While there is no recorded reply to the witticism of 
Senator Wade, Benjamin never came off second best in his contests with the states- 
men of the North. Any. one can understand this who reads his magnifi- 
cent farewell address to the Senate. Jefferson Davis' farewell address is cold, 
logical, deliberate. He even asks pardon if in the heat of debate he has un- 
wittingly given offense to anyone or hurt the feelings of anyone. Mississippi has 
called and, as the delegate that Mississippi has sent to represent her in the Senate, 
it is his duty to obey the call. He goes because it is his duty to go. The eloquence is 
the slow and stately eloquence of Brutus. Not so with the fiery Senator from 
Louisiana. He admonishes, upbraids, and attacks them. It is a philippic. Like 
Mark Anthony over Caesar, or Demosthenes accusing the Athenians of subserviency 
to Philip, or Cicero accusing Cataline, or Burke impeaching Warren Hastings, he 
brings his accusation against the statesmen and people of the North and charges 
them with high crimes and misdemeanors, with fanaticism, uncharitableness and 
bad faith. In his peroration he bids the assembled Senate farewell forever in the 
tone of an orator of the ancient days. No one who heard it and no one who reads 
it can ever forget the ringing words of that speech. It is one of the masterpieces 
of modern oratory. 

When the Confederate Government was first formed Benjamin was appointed 
Attorney General. In August, 1861, he was transferred to be Secretary of War 
and then later he was made Secretary of State, remaining in the Confederate Cab- 
inet until the close of the war. 

After the war was over he escaped off the coast of Florida to the Bahamas 
and took passage to England. In effecting his escape his knowledge of French 
gained in Louisiana was of immense service to him, as he was enabled to pass him- 
self off for a Frenchman, and so elude his enemies. 

Arrived in England, the country from which his parents had come, he at 
once entered himself as a student of law, to perfect himself in the knowledge of 
English law. This was on the 13th of January, 1866, and he enrolled himself at 
Lincoln's inn. The following summer he was graduated. For a time, as when 
thirty-four years before, he had begun at the Louisiana bar, he was unsuccessful. 
He had to resort to journalism to support himself. But he persevered, and after 
the appearance of his book on Sales his practice became established. Benjamin 
on Sales is the recognized text-book of English law on that subject. It is pro- 
nounced by competent authorities to be the greatest book on Sales ever written. 



404 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

Benjamin's practice at the English bar grew and increased to an extent that 
was marvelous. In June, 1872, he was created Q. C. In the latter years of his 
practice he only accepted briefs on appeal and appeared only before the House of 
Lords and the privy council. It was said that at one time on his single law docket 
he had one-half of the appealed cases of all Great Britain. 

In 1883 he retired. On the 30th of June, of that year, he was banqueted at 
the Inner Temple and toasted as one of the greatest lawyers that had ever been a 
member of the English bar. Shortly thereafter he went to Paris, where his wife 
and daughter were, and there on the 8th of May, 1884, he died. Without doubt 
Judah P. Benjamin was a great statesman and one of the greatest lawyers that 
ever lived. His portrait in the gallery of the Supreme Court of Louisiana shows 
in the dark black bearded face the stupendous intellect of the man. His work as a 
statesman was for a country that has been conquered; as a lawyer his memory 
will live in a text-book that is now a daily authority in practice and will always be 
one of the classics of the law. 

MOREAU LISLET. 

Moreau Lislet, who was a member of the commission appointed by the Legis- 
lature that framed the Civil Code of Louisiana, is described by Mr. Gayarre as 
follows : 

"Moreau Lislet is a rotund Frenchman past the meridian of life. His eyes 
sparkle with good-natured wit under the large spectacles which bestride his small 
nose. Everything seems soft in him, even his bones. His flesh is tremulous, like 
blanc-mange or jelly, and as yielding under the touch. His hands are diminutive 
and plump. He does not look formidable, does he? No. Well, you had better 
beware of him. He is an artesian well of legal lore — deep, very deep. He is one 
of those two or three jurists who were entrusted by the Legislature with the work 
of adapting the Napoleon code to the wants and circumstances of Louisiana under 
her new institutions. He has no pretensions to oratory. He addresses the court 
or the jury in a sort of conversational, familiar way. He is always in a good 
humor, which is communicative. He is a very great favorite with the judges, tlie 
clerks, the sheriffs, the jurors, the members of the bar — in fact, with everybody. 
He is so kind, so benevolent, so amiable in all his dealings and sayings ! His 
bonhomie is so captivating." 

But Moreau Lislet, botihomie and all, was a great advocate, as Mr. Gayarre 
shows concluding his description of this famous lawyer with "Ho, ho ! beware of 
Moreau Lislet and of his bonhomie!" 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS, 405 

EDWARD LIVINGSTON". 

Edward Livingston, of the distinguished American family of Livingstons, 
was the son of Eobert Livingston, one of the early American statesmen, and was 
born in Clermont, New York, on the 26th of May, 1764. He died at Rhinebeck, 
N. Y., on the 23rd of May, 1836. He was graduated from Princeton in 1781, 
and studied law in Albany, N. Y., with John Lansing. He was admitted to 
the bar in January, 1785, and removed to New York City, where he had as com- 
petitors, Benson, Aaron Burr and Alexander Hamilton, where he held his own 
with these formidable rivals. In 1794 his political career began, in which he 
afterwards attained the highest distinction. He was elected to Congress, to 
the House of Representatives, where he served three terms, till March, 1801. In 
this year, he was appointed United States District Attorney in New York, and 
before the expiration of that year, was elected Mayor of New York City. His 
extreme popularity was demonstrated when he stuck to his post, during the yellow 
fever epidemic in New York in 1803. He took sick of the fever, and it was learned, 
that although his physician had prescribed Madeira wine for him, he had given 
away all the Madeira in his cellar to those who were more in need of it than him- 
self. When this became public, the people of New York sent him all the wine 
that he could use, and crowds daily gathered around his house to learn the con- 
dition of the charitable hearted mayor. 

In 1804 he left New York for New Orleans. His brother Robert had Just 
completed the negotiations for the purchase of Louisiana. He left New York 
because he had run deeply into debt to the United States Government, by reason of 
the defalcation of his business agent, who had embezzled some forty-three thou- 
sand dollars of the Government money. With his characteristic and impulsive 
sense of honor, before it could be discovered exactly how much he was indebted to 
the Government, Livingston confessed judgment in favor of the United States 
for one hundred thousand dollars. 

In New Orleans in 1805, he drew up the Code of Procedure which was adopted 
by the Legislature as a foundation of the Code of Practice of Louisiana. It was 
subsequently iised in making the present Code of Civil Procedure of New York. 

During his early days in New Orleans, he had as a client, John Gravier, who 
gave him as part of his fee, in a litigation in which he employed him, a part of 
the batture St. Marie, out of which grew the famous batture case. The people of 
New Orleans claimed that the batture belonged to them, and Livingston, who was 
about to improve his property was, by the authority of the United States Govern- 



406 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

ment, ejected from it. He promptly brought suit in the court to vindicate his rights, 
and then it was that Jefferson assailed him, in a published pamphlet, although 
when in Congress he had supported Jefferson as against Burr in the vote for the 
Presidency. It was said, in justifieation of Jefferson's conduct, that Jefferson 
was influenced by the slander that Gen. Wilkinson had circulated, that Livingston 
was implicated in Burr's conspiracy, an absurd charge, of which Livingston com- 
pletely cleared himself as soon as it was brought. Livingston replied to Jefferson 
in kind. It was universally admitted that Livingston had very much the best 
of the President in the controversy. Besides that, Livingston won his suit in 
court and got possession again of his land. The charge of complicity in the Burr 
conspiracy brought against him was originated by Gen. Wilkinson, and had only 
the slender foundation, that a private debt which had been reduced to judgment 
against Livingston in New York had been assigned to Aaron Burr. 

During the battle of New Orleans, Livingston was an aide to Gen. Jackson, 
and served him with such ability that Gen. Jackson formed a personal friendship 
for him, which continued through his life, and which was of the utmost service 
to Livingston in his political future, when Jackson was elevated to the Presidency. 
When Jackson left New Orleans he presented Livingston with his portrait painted 
on ivory. 

In 1820 Livingston was a member of the Louisiana Legislature. In 1822 
he was sent to Congress, where he served for three terms. In 1823 he was ap- 
pointed on the Louisiana Code Commission and drew, besides the Eevision of the 
Civil Code, a Criminal Code, which was never adopted by the Legislature, but is 
considered by jurists of the highest rank. 

In 1826 Livingston paid his debt to the Government, which, with interest, 
amounted to over one hundred thousand dollars, by transferring land that he had 
acquired to the United States. 

In 1829 he was elected LTnited States Senator from Louisiana, and in 1823 he 
was Secretary of State in Jackson's Cabinet. It was charged by Jackson's politi- 
cal opponents that Edward Livingston was the President's brains. He is sus- 
pected of being the author of the famous Nullification Proclamation of December, 
1832. In 1833 he was appointed Minister to France, and formed a close friendship 
with Gen. Lafayette. 

On his return from France he retired to his estate at Rhinebeck, New York, 
which had been left him as a legacy by his sister. 

Undoubtedly Edward Livingston was one of the greatest lawyers that ever 




^-^!^>^^c^^-^ /t^i:Ti^y~) 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 407 

lived. His knowledge of law was inexhaustible. His legal works are of the highest 
authority: Judicial Opinions of the Mayor's Court of New York (1803), pub- 
lished in 1803 ; Report of the Plan of the Penal Code of New Orleans (1822) ; 
System of Penal Law for the State of Louisiana (1826) ; System of Penal Law 
for the United States (Washington, 1828) ; and there also has been published 
his complete works on Criminal Jurisprudence (New York, 1873). Livingston is 
thus described by Gayarre : 

"Among the Americans who had come to New Orleans to better their fortune, 
none was so distinguished as Edward Livingston. He was of an illustrious family, 
and before emigrating to the extreme South he had been mayor of the city of New 
York. * * * jjg at once became one of the leading members of the bar, not- 
withstanding his enemies who spread evil reports against him, and his having 
incurred a great deal of unpopularity in consequence of the part he took in the 
famous 'T)atture case," which gave rise to riots in New Orleans, and to an acri- 
monious controversy between Thomas Jefferson and himself, in which he showed 
that he was at least equal if not superior to his great adversary. * * * Con- 
quering prejudices, calumnies, and envy, he grew rapidly as he became better 
known and appreciated, upon the esteem and confidence of his fellow-citizens in 
his newly elected home, and was sent to represent Louisiana in the Senate of the 
United States. His career as such, as Secretary of State under the Presidency 
of General Jackson, and as Minister Plenipotentiary in France is well known. For 
the present I have only to deal with him as a member of the New Orleans bar, 
where he towered up as one of the giants. 

"Edward Livingston was tall and spare in body, and with strong, clear-cut 
features which denoted his Scotch ancestry. The habitual expression of his face 
was meditative and rather austere, but his smile was indicative of the benignity 
of his heart. He was mild in manner, courteous, dignified, and indefatigably 
laborious. * * * His eloquence was of the classical order, and uniformly ele- 
gant. It would in forensic debates, flow at first with the modesty of a gentle stream, 
but by degrees, swelling and rushing like the mighty tide of the ocean, it would 
overflow far and wide and leave to opposition not an inch of ground to stand upon." 

DOMINIQUE SEGHERS. 

One of the most noted of the old French lawyers of New Orleans was Domi- 
nique Seghers. The following description of this old French avone of the ancien 
regime, as Mr. Gayarre describes him, is typical: 



408 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

"Dominique Seghers was a perfect type of the red-tape old French avone of 
the ancient regime. He looked into every case entrusted to his care con amore, 
almost with paternal affection. * * * The very moment a subject of litiga- 
tion was placed in his hands, he doubted not of its being founded in law, and if 
that law was not apparent, he felt convinced that by dint of patient researches he 
would discover in the end that the projected suit could be based on some article of 
the Civil Code, some special statute, some applicable precedent, some decision of 
court, if not on the broad principles of jurisprudence. For him professionally 
there was no right or wrong outside of the text of the law. Everything else was 
vaporous sentimentality, sheer romance. * * * 

"He had to contend against a peculiar and very serious impediment for a luan 
of his profession; it was the extreme dilBculty he had to express himself. In court 
he painfully struggled for words. They stuck in his throat, and when at last they 
came out, it was as if they had forced their way through an obstructed passage. 
* * * No interruptions from court or jury, or from the adverse party, however 
frequently repeated, could put him out of countenance. * * * After a 
while he would start again, in his humorous style, precisely from the point where 
the thread of his discourse had been cut off. * * * 

"His physical appearance would easily have denoted the inward man to a 
physiognomist. There was a great deal of character in his features. They were 
strongly marked — a sharp, long face; a large mouth; a much protruding and big 
nose; gray eyes participating of the elongated olive shape, with furtive and oblique 
glances to detect anything suspicious, from whatever part of the horizon it might 
come; large flat ears that stuck close to the side of his head, and for which no 
approach of a velvet-footed cat would have been noiseless. This gentleman acquired 
by his profession a considerable fortune." 

ETIENNE MAZUEEAU. 

The next of the famous advocates of the olden time, still following Mr. 
Gayarre, is Etienne Mazureau, a native of France, who has emigrated to Louisiana 
in search of a better fortune, and who in a few years has risen to be one of the 
magnates of the New Orleans bar. Of a medium size, compactly built, with flashing 
dark eyes, intensely black hair and a brown complexion, he is a perfect specimen 
of the Southern type as if to the manner and the manor born. He is of an ardent 
temperament, and the sacred fire of the orator glows in his breast. He is an 
adroit and most powerful logician, but on certain occasions his eloquence becomes 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 409 

tempestuous. He delights in all the studies appertaining to his profession, and 
possesses a most profound and extensive knowledge of the civil law, from the twelve 
tables of Eome and the institutes of Justinian to the Napoleon Code. He is also 
thoroughly familiar with the Spanish jurisprudence, which is derived from the same 
source. He is deeply versed in the common law, which, however, when the oppor- 
tunity presents itself it is his special pleasure to ridicule and treat with spiteful 
depreciation. * * * jje is equally great and successful in civil and criminal 
cases. Hence his income is very large; but he has a peculiar knack of getting 
into debt and parting with his money in the most unaccountable manner. He has 
this characteristic in common with many men of splendid abilities, through whose 
pockets silver and gold run as through a sieve much to the mortification of their 
creditors." 

GEORGE EUSTIS. 

One of the most distinguished Judges of New Orleans was Judge Eustis, 
who was a nephew of Governor William Eustis, of Massachusetts. Judge Eustis 
was born in Boston on the 20th of October, 1796. He died in New Orleans on the 
23rd of December, 1858. He was graduated from Harvard in the class of 1815, 
and then became private secretary to his uncle, Gov. Eustis, who was then Min- 
ister of the United States to Holland at The Hague. It was while at The Hague, 
at the United States Legation, that he began the study of law. In 1817 he came 
to New Orleans, where he continued his legal studies, and was admitted to the bar 
in New Orleans in 1822. 

Judge Eustis' public services began with his election to the State Legislature, 
in which he served several terms. He then became Secretary of State, and was 
subsequently appointed one of the Commissioners on the Board of Currency. In 
this office he acquired a very considerable reputation as a financier, on account of 
the reforms he introduced in Louisiana, tending to give to the finances of the 
State a more staple basis. He was next Attorney General of the State, in which 
office he served one term. Then he was a member of the Constitutional Convention 
of 1845. He was appointed to the Bench as Chief Justice, and served until 
1852. On account of the distinction he obtained as a jurist. Harvard, his 
Alma Mater, conferred upon him the degree of LL. D. 

Judge Eustis' sons were both distinguished men : George Eustis, a member 
of Congress and Secretary of the Confederate Legation in France, and James 
Biddell Eustis, who enjoyed a long career of public distinction. 



4IO STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

PIERRE ADOLPH ROST. 

One of the most accomplished civilians who ever sat upon the Bench of 
Louisiana was Mr. Jiistice Pierre Adolph Rost. Judge Rest was born in France 
in 1797, and died in New Orleans on the 6th of September, 1868. He was edu- 
cated at the Lycee ISTapoleon, and at the Ecole Polytechnique in Paris. While 
he was yet a lad he served as a soldier in the defense of Paris when Napoleon was 
in retirement at the Island of Elba, and but for the defeat at Waterloo would have 
been given a commission in the French Army under the Empire. 

In 1816 he came to America and settled in Natchez, Miss., where he studied 
law with Jos. E. Davis. From Natchez he removed to Natchitoches, where he 
practiced law with distinction. In 1826 was elected to the State Senate. In 1830 
he was nominated for Congress, but defeated. The same year he removed to New 
Orleans. In 1838 he made a trip to Europe and on his return was appointed to 
the Supreme Bench, where he served for some time, but resigned to engage in 
the occupation of planting, in which he had extensive interests. In 1846 he was 
again appointed to the Supreme Bench, and served for several years. 

During the war Judge Rost was Commissioner to Spain for the Confederate 
Government, and attained high rank as a diplomatist. After the war he returned 
to New Orleans and resumed the practice of law and devoted himself to caring 
for his large planting interests. 

Judge Rost was an able Judge, a profound civilian, and distinguished for his 
learning in the Commercial Law. As a jurist, he was one of the ablest that ever sat 
upon the Bench in Louisiana. 

THOMAS COURTLAND MANNING. 

Thomas Courtland Manning enjoys the distinction of having been three times 
appointed Judge upon the Supreme Court Bench for the State of Louisiana. He 
was born at Edenton, North Carolina, in 1831. He died in New York City on the 
11th of October, 1887. Judge Manning was graduated from the University of 
North Carolina and admitted to the Bar in North Carolina and practiced in his 
native town of Edenton for some years. 

In 1885 he removed to Alexandria, La., where his marked ability, in a short 
time, brought him a large practice. In 1861 he was a member of the Convention 
in Louisiana which decided upon secession. Immediately after this, the war 
breaking out, he was given the command of Lieutenant in a Louisiana Confederate 
regiment, and was subsequently promoted to be a Lieutenant Colonel upon the 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 411 

staff of Gov. Moore, the War Governor of Louisiana. In ISti;) he was again pro- 
moted to be Adjutant General of Louisiana, with the rank of Brigadier General. 
In 1864 he was appointed Chief Justice of the Supreme Court, and served until 
the end of the war. In 1872 he was offered the nomination for Governor, but 
declined. His political prominence still continued, although he held no public 
oflfice. In 1876 he was vice-president of the National Convention whicli nomi- 
nated Samuel J. Tilden. In 1S77 he was appointed Chief Justice of the Supreme 
Court and served in that capacity until 1880, when the new Constitution of 1879 
went into effect, and a term was put to his oflfice bv the formation of a new court 
under that Constitution. He was apponited, about this time, one of the trustees of 
the Peabody fund. 

In 1880 he was again a Presidential Elector, and in this year was appointed 
to the office of Senator of the United States, but his seat was refused him. In 
1882 he was, for the third time, appointed on the Supreme Bench and served 
until 1886, when he was appointed by President Cleveland United States Minister 
to Mexico. He held this oflfice until his death. 

Judge Manning was one of the ablest Judges that ever sat upon the Supreme 
Court Bench of Louisiana. Not only was he a jurist, but he was a man of culture 
as well. His attainments, as a scholar, and his accomplishments as a man of liie 
world, were recognized by President Cleveland by his appointment to the Mexican 
mission. His popularity as a Judge was greater, and his place in history more 
marked, inasmuch as he was the Chief Justice of the Court which succeeded tlie 
Ludeling Court, which held office during the period of reconstruction, and which 
is held by the people of Louisiana, as all the government at that time, as infamous. 

JAMES BIDDELL EUSTIS. 

James Biddell Eustis was born in New Orleans in 1827. He received a classi- 
cal education and was graduated from the law school of Harvard. He was ad- 
mitted to the Bar in New Orleans in 1856 and practiced in New Orleans. 

During the Civil War he was appointed on the staff of Gen. Magruder as 
Judge Advocate, and subsequently transferred to the staff of Gen. Joseph E. 
Johnston, where he served to tlie end of the war. He was one of the commissioners 
sent to Washington to President Lincoln with regard to Louisiana affairs at the 
close of the war. After the war he resumed his practice in New Orleans and began 
his life as a public man. In 1872 he was elected to the State House of Eepre- 
sentatives. In 1874 to the State Senate. In 1876 he was elected Senator of the 



412 STANDARD HISTORY OF NE^Y ORLEANS. 

United States and served until 1879. He was then appointed professor of Civil 
Law to the University of Louisiana. In 1884 he was elected for a second term to ( n 

the United States Senate and was subsequently appointed Amh^g^AoT to France /TMyyvv; 
by President Cleveland. Senator Eustis is only recently deceased. He was one of 
the ablest of the Southern statesmen and was a man of culture, and an accom- 
plished writer. His writings show literary ability in a marked degree. 

EDWIN THOMAS MERRICK. 

One of the oldest and most distinguished of the practitioners at the bar of 
New Orleans in the early days, who survived until almost the present day, was 
Edwin Thomas Merrick, who, under the Constitution of 1852, was Chief Justice 
of the State. Judge Merrick was born in Massachusetts in 1810. Having received 
his early legal education and training in a common law State, in his long practice 
at the bar in Louisiana and on the Bench he was able to add to the profound 
knowledge of the civil law to which he had attained the broader point of view 
derived from his common law learning. In the United States Court in New Orleans 
he was distinguished for his eminence in the equity practice. 

When Judge Merrick first came to Louisiana he settled in the Felicianas, 
where he practiced with distinction until elected Chief Justice in 1855. After 
his term of office, he practiced in New Orleans with much distinction until his 
death at the age of eighty-seven in 1897. 

HENRY CARLETON MILLER. 
Henry Carleton Miller, one of the Justices of the Supreme Court of Louisiana, 
was born in Covington, St. Tammany parish, Louisiana, in 1828, and died in 
New Orleans on the 4th of March, 1899. His father was S. W. Miller, a member 
of the Bar, of some distinction, who was one of the first reporters of the Supreme 
Court of Louisiana. Judge Miller was educated at private schools in New Orleans, 
and when he was a young man entered into commercial life, not having the means, 
on account of his father's death, to begin, at once, his legal career, in which he 
afterwards was so distinguished. He succeeded, however, by his own efforts, in 
obtaining the legal education necessary to admittance to the Bar and passed his 
examination before the Supreme Court. Once at the Bar he soon displayed the 
ability that so distinguished him throughout his professional career, and at the 
outbreak of the Civil War he was United States District Attorney, and had at- 
tained such prominence in his profession as to be considered a rival of the Honor- 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 413 

able Thomas J. Semmes, who, for many years, was the leader of the Bar in New 
Orleans. After the war, Mr. lliller formed a co-partnership for the practice of law, 
with E. W. Huntington, and later was a member of the firm of Lee, Finney & 
Bradford, which was the successor of the firm of Benjamin & Bradford, and 
composed of Judah P. Benjamin, of whom an extended notice has been given 
here, and of E. A. Bradford, who, just prior to the war, had been nominated to 
the Supreme Court of the United States. During his practice, Mr. Miller, among 
other important cases, in which he was engaged, gained distinction in the PremiuiA 
Bond case — the Consolidated Bond case, and as attorney of the Board of Liquida- 
tion. He was dean of the faculty of the Tulane Law School for many years, lec- 
turing on Admiralty and International Law. In 1894, he was appointed to the 
Supreme Bench, to succeed the Honorable Charles Parlange. In 1896, he was re- 
appointed for the full term of twelve years. Had Judge Miller not been appointed 
to the Supreme Bench, it was acknowledged that he would have been recognized 
as the leader of the Bar upon the death of the Honorable Thomas J. Semmes. 
On the death of both of these distinguished lawyers, there has been found no 
lawyer in New Orleans sufficiently above his fellows to deserve the position of 
leader. As a lawj-er, Judge Miller, was painstaking, logical and profound, and 
was one of the most thorough lawyers who ever argued a case in the Louisiana 
courts. He was acknowledged to have been one of ihe ablest Judges ever appointed 
to the Bench. 

THOMAS JENKINS SEMMES. 

Thomas Jenkins Semmes, one of the greatest Louisiana lawyers, was born in 
Georgetown, District of Columbia, December 16, 1824. He was educated at George- 
town College, where he was graduated in 1842, and then studied law and went to 
the Law School at Harvard, where he graduated in law in 1845. He practiced 
law for a number of years in Washington, and in 1850 removed to New Orleans. 
He was appointed United States District Attorney by President Buchanan, and 
attained such prominence in his profession, he was elected Attorney General of 
the State before he was thirty years of age. He was a member of the Confederate 
Senate from Louisiana, and made the report of the committee that de- 
vised the motto of the seal of the Confederacy. After the war, he 
resumed his practice in New Orleans, holding, until the end of his life, 
the position of leader of the Bar. He was twice professor at the Law School of 
Tulane Universitj' — first, professor of Civil Law, and later, professor of Common 
Law, which position he held at the time of his death. His lectures to the law 



414 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

classes have never been surpassed in learning or brilliancy. His arguments before 
the courts always attracted a crowd, and he was listened to by the judges and the 
lawyers with the utmost attention. His oratory was of the old school, but sur- 
charged with profound learning and of a range that has rarely been equaled. It 
was when he had a case that was seemingly difficult that his ability was the most 
strongly called forth. He took absolute delight in presenting what seemed to be 
an untenable proposition and in demonstrating, with his remarkable logic and 
eloquence, that sound reason required that that proposition should be held. He 
was president, for a term, of the American Bar Association. Many of his ad- 
dresses have been printed — notably, "Codification the Natural Eesult of the 
Evolution of Law," delivered before the American Bar Association. Mr. Semmes 
was a profound civilian, and although learned in the common law, of which he 
was professor at the Law School, preferred the Civil Law as the superior system. 
He was fond of arguing that all the improvements in the Common Law have been 
derived from a Civil Law source. 

Mr. Semmes accumulated a large fortune in his practice, which he employed 
liberally in charity. His character was as kindly as his learning was profound. 
His demeanor, both in the court room and out, was always of the utmost courtesy 
of a gentleman of the old school. Without doubt, he was the most distinguished 
figure of the Louisiana Bar during the period from the close of the war to the 
present time. He died in New Orleans on the 23rd of June, 1899. 

PEESENT BENCH AND BAR. 

The present Judges in New Orleans are : 

Of the Supreme Court — Chief Justice Francis T. Nicholls, Lynn B. Watkins, 
Joseph A. Breaux, Newton C. Blanchard, Frank A. Monroe. 

Of the Court of Appeal — Judges R. N. Ogden, Horace L. Dufour, I. D. Moore. 

Of the Civil District Court— Judges N. H. Eightor, T. C. W. Ellis, Fred D. 
King, and George H. Theard, and John St. Paul. 

Of the City Courts — Judges R. H. Downing, P. J. Patorno, Wynne Rogers, 
and Thomas F. Maher. 

Of the Criminal Court — Judges James C. Moise and Joshua G. Baker. 

Of the City Criminal Courts — Judges Thomas M. Gill, Jr., and A. M. Ancion. 

The present Bar of New Orleans has, in its numbers, many distinguished 
lawyers, who would bear comparison with the famous advocates of the past days. 
It is considered more in accordance with traditional propriety not to mention any 
of the living members of the Bar. 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 415 

CAUSE CELEBRES. 

The famous cases arising in Louisiana have been numerous, on account of 
the quantity of litigation which the city has seen, and the number of distinguislied 
lawyers who have practiced at the New Orleans Bar. There may be mentioned 
the case for contempt against Gen. Andrew Jackson, in which Judge Dominick 
Hall, of the United States Court, fined him one thousand dollars; the famous 
batture case of Edward Livingston, in which he got into a controversy with Presi- 
dent Thomas Jefferson, and they printed pamphlets against each other, a con- 
troversy in which Livingston was acknowledged to have gotten considerably the 
better of his distinguished opponent; the McDonogh will case, in which was in- 
volved the large bequests of John McDonogh to the public schools in New Orleans 
and Baltimore; the Martin will case, which has been referred to under the notice 
of Judge Martin; and the Gaines case, perhaps the most celebrated case in the 
United States, which was brought by more lawyers, before more courts, and in- 
volved more property, and attracted more notoriety, and was more romantic than 
any other case, in any court in the world, of which there is record. An excellent 
resume of the litigation as it finally took shape, is found in the 131 U. S. Reports, 
page 192, summarized by the reporter of the Supreme Court of the United States, 
the title of the case being. New Orleans vs. Gaines' Administrator. 

The Louisiana Law Association, now the Louisiana Bar Association, was in- 
corporated in 1847 by John R. Grimes as president, and Alfred Hennen as vice- 
president, Thomas AUen Clark as secretary and treasurer, and Pierre Soule, 
Charles Watts, Christian Roselius, Richard H. Wilde, Edward Rawle, John Win- 
throp and William W. King, as the committee on membership. 

In 1899 the association was reorganized and its name changed to the Louisiana 
Bar Association, at the same time the extensive addition to the association's 
library was begun, which has raised the number of volumes to some twelve thou- 
sand volumes. The State library in the Tulane Hall is also a law library of con- 
siderable value. 

LAW WRITERS. 

On account of the peculiar system of Civil Law in Louisiana, differing from 
that of the sister States, and the consequent limitations put upon the themes to 
which a law writer in Louisiana can appeal, the number of authors upon legal 
subjects has been less than it otherwise would have been. The Digest of Benjamin 
and Slidell, referred to under the notice of Judah P. Benjamin, may be mentioned, 
and the Criminal Code that was drawn by Edward Livingston, although it was 



4i6 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

never adopted, is considered by lawyers to be of the highest rank. David Hennen, 
the son of Alfred Hennen, compiled the first of the Digests which are now in use, 
which was the model for the subsequent Digests, which were compiled by Charles 
Louque, of the New Orleans Bar, and Jas. F. Taylor, of the Minden Bar. The 
edition of the Civil Code now commonly used was edited by Judge Albert Voor- 
hies. Mr. E. D. Saunders has published a book on Taxation, and Mr. Henry 
Denis one on Pledges. Mr. Solomon Wolff has edited an edition of the Revised 
Statutes, and Mr. Henry L. Garland is the editor of the last edition of the Code 
of Practice. Mr. Robert H. Marr compiled an admirable index of the statutes. 
Mr. Edwin T. Merrick has gotten out the first volume of a new edition of the Code, 
which will undoubtedly supersede all other editions. 

Since the year 1847 there has been a law department attached to the Univer- 
sity of Louisiana, in which the most distinguished members of the Bar and Judges 
have been professors. The present faculty is: Henry Denis, Professor of Civil 
Law and Lecturer on the Land Laws of the United States; Thomas C. W. Ellis, 
Professor of Admiralty and International Law; Frank Adair Monroe, Professor 
of Commercial Law and the Law of Corporations ; Harry Hinckley Hall, Dean and 
Professor of Criminal Law, the Law of Evidence and of Practice under the Code 
of Practice of Louisiana; and Eugene D. Saunders, Professor of Constitutional 
Law, Common Law and Equity. 

SUPREME COURT GALLERY. 
In the room of the Supreme Court there are hung on the walls, from floor 
to ceiling, portraits, in oil, of the distinguished judges and members of the Bar 
of New Orleans who have passed away. There are busts o'f Judge Martin, Pierre 
Soule, Judge Marshall and Edward Livingston, and the portraits of all the celebri- 
ties — Roselius, Hennen, Judge Rost, Grymes, Slidell — all the famous judges and 
advocates of former times. 



CHAPTER XVIII. 



PUBLIC BUILDINGS AND CHARITIES. 
By a. G. Duhno. 

PERHAPS the most interesting of the public buildings of New Orleans is the old 
Cabildo building, on Chartres street, adjoining the Saint Louis Cathedral. Like 
its neighbor, the sacred edifice, the Cabildo was built by Don Almonaster y Roxas, 
the contract for this and the sister building on the other side of the church having 
been secured at the same time with that for the cathedral itself. It was called the 
Cabildo from the fact that it was here that the Governing Council, called by the 
Spanish the cabildo, held its sessions. This body was instituted by O'Reilly to re- 
place the Superior Council of the French administration, though with greatly 
diminished powers. It consisted of ten members, besides the governor, who pre- 
sided at its meetings, and an escribano, or clerk. Four of the members were 
elected on the first of each year by the whole cabildo, including the members who 
were about to retire. Two of these filled the office of alcaldes ordinarios, or common 
judges, each holding his daily court in the town hall, and, for causes involving not 
over $20, an evening court for one hour at his own house, where he rendered un- 
written decisions. A third elective officer was the sindico-procurado-general, or 
attorney-general-syndic, the official advocate of the people in the deliberations of the 
cabildo; and the fourth, the mayor-domode proprios or municipal treasurer. The 
other six members were styled regidors, or administrators — literally rulers, and 
acquired their seats in the cabildo by purchase. They were the alfarez real an hon- 
orary office, without official functions except in case of the death or absence of one 
of the alcaldes; the alcalde mayor provincial, a magistrate whose jurisdiction ex- 
tended beyond the city limits ; the alguazil mayors a civil and criminal sherifE ; the 
depositario-general, keeper and dispenser of the government stores ; the recibidor de 
penas de camara, receiver of fines and penalties; and a sixth, to whom no official 
functions were assigned. The cabildo held its sessions every Friday, though the 



41 8 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

governor liad power to convene it at any time. When he did not attend one of the 
ordinary Alcaldes presided and immediately after adjournment two of the Regidors 
went to his house to inform him of what had been done. The ordinary Alcaldes had 
the first seats in the Cabildo, immediately after the governor, and below them sat the 
other members in the following order: the alfarez real, alcalde mayor provincial, 
alguazil mayor, depositario-general, recibidor de penas de camara, sindieo-procurado- 
general, and clerk. 

The old Cabildo has passed through many vicissitudes, and witnessed many 
changes. It was within its hall that the transfer of Louisiana from Spain to 
France took place, and here a few weeks later, Laussat, the French Colonial Prefect, 
delivered up the keys of the city, so recently surrendered to him by Governor Sal- 
cedo, to Commissioners Wilkinson and Claiborne, and turned over the Territory of 
Louisiana to the United States. When Lafayette visited New Orleans in 1835, as 
the city's guest, the Cabildo was fitted up as his residence during his stay, and the 
Democrats, in their contest for the mayoralty in 1858, turned it into a fortress. 
With the removal of the city offices to the new City Hall on St. Charles street, the 
glory of the old Spanish Cabildo departed. Its historic hall is now used by the 
Supreme Court of the State, while the lower floor serves as a magistrate's court 
and temporary jail. But it is found illy adapted to even these purposes, and there 
is a question as to what disposition shall finally be made of it. Some iconoclastic in- 
dividuals have suggested tearing it down, but the proposal brought out a storm of 
protest from citizens who are interested in the preservation of the few remaining 
monuments of the past, and it is not probable that it will ever be carried out. The 
Historical Society have taken the matter up, and it is proposed by them to thor- 
oughly renovate and restore the picturesque old building, and convert it into a 
museum for the reception of "pictures, statuary, old furniture, old books, minia- 
tures, silver and gold works, parchments, velvets and brocades, arms and musical 
instruments," everything, in short, that recalls the past of the city. This project 
meets with the Avarm approval and support of Charles Dudley Warner, who takes a 
deep interest in the history of New Orleans, and who, during a recent visit, made an 
eloquent appeal in its behalf through the columns of one of the daily papers. It is 
proposed to obtain possession of the building in time to have it in readiness for 
opening on the centennial of the cession of Louisiana to the United States, and to 
celebrate its inauguration as a museum with religious and military ceremonies simi- 
lar to those that accompanied the great event of December 20th, 1803. 

Lowenstein, in his History of the Saint Louis Cathedral, says that at the time of 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 419 

the acceptance of his proposal to rebuild the parish church, Don Almonaster also 

secured the contract for, and built the buildings on each side of the Cathedral, at 

about $5,000 apiece ; the one on the left intended for a presbytery, * * * the 

6ne on the right built for a town hall and jail, in which the cabildo held its sessions." 

From a passage in the petition addressed by the Wardens of the Cathedral in 

1843, to Judge Maurian, of the Parish Court, praying for relief and protection from 

the usurping pretensions of Bishop Blanc, who claimed the right of appointing a 

curate to succeed the deceased Father Moni, it would appear that the presbytery, 

whenever begun, was not completed until after 1805. The passage reads as follows : 

When, in 1805, the first Church Wardens elected by the Catholics took possession 
of the property and commenced the administration of the affairs of the Church of St. 
Louis, the real estate belonging to it consisted in a space of ground situated on the left 
side of the church, and comprised between Chartres, St. Anne, Royal and the continuation 
of Orleans street. Said space of ground was at that time covered with small buildings 
of brick and wood, of little or no value, and yielding but a small revenue. The large 
building, which is in part opposite the Place d'Armes, had only been commenced, and in 
the imperfect condition in which it then was, being only raised to the first arches, was 
used by being temporarily covered with boards by the person to whom it had been rented, 
and produced only a small annual rent. The large building fronting on Place d'Armes 
has been finished and completed by your petitioners according to its original plan, and 
distributed in such a manner as to be conveniently occupied at first by private individ- 
uals, and afterwards by some courts of justice in this city. When the public desired that 
all the courts sitting in New Orleans should be held in the same building, your petitioners, 
both with a view to conform to the public exigency, and to derive a certain annual 
revenue from the property, caused important additions and alterations to be made to 
and in said building, so as to afford convenient halls for the session of different courts, 
and for the clerks and sheriffs thereof. 

This passage renders it certain that the Cabildo's twin building was erected, 
not by Don Almonaster, nor, as has been asserted, by the United States Government 
in 1813, but by the Wardens of the Cathedral, at some period subsequent to 1805. 
Though of similar appearance to the Cabildo, its columns, wrought iron balconies, 
entrance, etc., will not bear rigid comparison with those of the older building. Its 
pediment is a flat plaster space relieved only by a medallion, while that of the 
Cabildo is ornamented with the American eagle and piles of cannon balls, which no 
doubt replaced some similar emblem of Spanish dominion. In 1850, probably about 
the time of the repairing of the Cathedral, the low flat roofs of the two buildings 
were ill-advisedly surmounted by French mansards, which it is to be hoped will dis- 
appear under the restoring hands of the architects employed by the Historical 
Society. 

THE NEW ORIE.iNS MINT. 

An act of Congress passed in 1835 to become effective in July, 1838, authorized 
the establishment of three branch mints, one to be located at Charleston, S. C, 



420 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

one at Dahlonega, Ga., and one at New Orleans. Work was begun on the New 
Orleans building in 1836, and it was completed in 1838, the work of coining be- 
ginning in the following year. The building is the largest mint building in the 
United States, the cost of erection having been $182,000, and the capacity of th*e 
plant being about $5,000,000 per month. The structure is of fire brick, granite, and 
iron, very strong and fire-proof. The supports, ceiling and beams are all of cast 
iron, the flooring throughout of stone, on which plank is fixed. Outside it is of 
brick, covered with cement, and painted a reddish brown. It occupies the site of the 
old fort St. Charles, at the foot of Esplanade avenue and Barracks street. 

Up to 1853 there had been expended on this establishment, including the 
cost of construction, the putting in of machinery, and pay of employes, $778,- 
630.78. The imports of specie for the four years, 1846-47 to 1850-51, inclusive, 
were as follows: 1846-47, $6,630,050; 1847-48, $1,845,808; 1848-49, $2,501,250; 
1849-50, $3,792,662; 1850-51, $7,937,119. During the year ending July 31, 1851, 
the gold deposits amounted to $8,285,637.14, and the silver deposits to $822,085.25. 
The gold coinage for the same year was $8,994,000, and the silver coinage, $1,- 
050,500. 

In 1861 the mint was abandoned by those in charge, and did not resume opera- 
tions under the auspices of the United States Government until 1878. Immediately 
after the abandonment of the mint, citizens went through the building as they 
chose, taking away such tools as they found. Between January 26 and May 31, 1861, 
the State of Louisiana had possession of the mint, and during that period coined 
in double eagles, $195,000, the Confederate Government coining during the same 
period, $59,820 in double eagles. In February and March of the same year the 
State of Louisiana coined 1,240,000 silver half dollars, and the Confederacy coined 
in April and May, 962,633 half dollars, making a total by the two governments of 
$1,101,316.50. All of this coinage was done with the regular dies of the United 
States supplied late in 1860 for governmental use during the following year. 

Thirty-two pairs of dies of 1861, more or less complete and of all denomina- 
tions, of United States coins, were found at the mint by the agent of the United 
States Mint Bureau in January, 1865, and destroyed by him on the 15th of that 
month. The following items of information are from Dr. W. F. Bonzano, melter 
and refiner of the mint, during the period above referred to : 

"The branch mint at New Orleans, with all its contents, was 'taken in trust' 
by secession convention in December, 1860, through a committee of the convention, 
at the head of which was the president of the convention, ex-Governor A. Mouton. 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 421 

The committee called at the mint, ascertained the amount of bullion in the hands 
of the treasurer, melter and refiner, and coiner, and required an especial bond for 
same from each of these officers. A rough settlement was made, and all dies of 18U0 
were defaced in the presence of all the officers, except Mr. Guirot. By order of the 
superintendent, coinage was immediately resumed with the new dies of 1861, and 
continued until the 31st of May, 1861, when a final settlement was made and all 
bullion transferred to Mr. A. J. Guirot, who had in the meantime been appointed 
Assistant Treasurer of the Confederate States; at the same time all the United 
States dies, of whatever description, after careful examination and recognized 
agreement with the coiner's die account, were, with the consent of the coiner, defaced 
by the foreman, Mr. John F. Brown, with the assistance of a workman, Mr. Eichard 
Stevenson. 

"Under the auspices of the superintendent, treasurer and coiner, designs for 
a Confederate coin were made, and that for half dollars offered by the coiner, ac- 
cepted, and was executed by an engraver of New Orleans, who produced a die of 
such high relief as rendered it impracticable for use in a coinage press. From this 
die four pieces were struck by successive blows of a screw press. The four pieces 
differed from the United States standard only in the legend. With the exception 
of these four pieces, no coins of any kind, different from the United States stand- 
ard, were ever made at the New Orleans branch mint during the interval from May 
31, 1861, to the early part of 1879. 

"Another mark in the mint's life was the alleged burning, in June, 1893, of 
$25,000 in United States paper currency, in bills of various denominations and 
character, which were deposited in a large tin box in the steel vault connected with 
the cashier's office, then in charge of Mr. James M. Bowling, who was cashier, 
appointed by Dr. A. W. Smythe, recent director of the mint, under Harrison's ad- 
ministration. There was some mystery and doubt as to the manner in which this 
money caught fire, and suspicion falling on Mr. Dowling, he was arrested on a 
charge of embezzlement, and bound over to await the action of the Federal grand 
jury; was indicted, tried and prosecuted vigorously and ably by the United States 
District Attorney, Frank B. Earhart, and was acquitted. 

"The theory of the defense being, that the wires connected with the electric 
globe or bulb lighting the vault became overcharged with electricity, causing the 
bursting of the bulb, which was made of very thin glass, and scattering about the 
heated glass and carbon, and that the currency was ignited by these fragments, 
electrical experts testified that such ignition was possible. Mr. Dowling was 



422 



STANDARD HISTORY OP NEW ORLEANS. 



indicted for embezzlement, a government witness, expert in such matters, testify- 
ing that a minute microscopic examination of the ashes of the burnt money, dis- 
closed a sum of original bills amounting to only $1,185, Dowling alleging $35,000 
as being in the box." 

The method of working the metal is as follows: Bullion is received by the 
superintendent's weigh clerk in many different forms and conditions, such as 
bricks, bars, dust, washings, old jewelry, plate, spoons, etc., which are called, and 
treated as deposits. No smaller value than $100 in either gold or silver is received, 
and since November 2d, 1893, the purchase of silver has been discontinued. The 
depositor, on delivering his metal to the weigh clerk, receives a certificate of de- 
posit, showing the gross weight of the metal deposited, but he is not paid therefor 
until the metal has been carried through many processes of refining, assaying, 
etc., to ascertain its exact value, which he is paid, less the mint charges. This 
system prevents fraud upon the government in the shape of deposits of gilded 
bricks, plated iron dust, and other simulations of gold, since an attempted fraud is 
certain of discovery, and the would-be cheat never calls for payment. 

In this connection it may be of interest to note that gold has the following 
degrees of fineness: 

Carat. 

10 
11 
12 
13 
14 
15 
16 
17 
18 
19 
20 
21 
22 
23 
• 24 
21.6 

One carat is equal to one pennyweight, or the one-twentieth part of an ounce 
Troy — the only weight used in any department of the mint. All the scales are of 
very delicate construction and are examined, weights adjusted, etc., several times 
a week by im cxjicrt, wliifh insures exact weighing and (lie i)est possible conditions 
of llic instruments. (Jold is weighed to the oiic-lumdredtli part of an .nince, and 
silver to the cnn'-twciilicth part. 





Value 




Fineness. 


per Ounce. 
Troy. 




416.66 


1 8.61 




458.33 


9.47 




500 


10.33 




541.66 


11.19 




593.33 


12.26 


American Jewelry. 


625 


12.91 




666.66 


13.78 


Better American Jewelry. 


708.33 


14.64 




750 


15.50 


French Jewelry. 


791.66 


16.36 




833.33 


17.22 




875 


18.08 




916.66 


18.94 


English Sovereign. 


958.33 


19.81 




1000 


20.67 




900 


18.60 


United States Coins. 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 



423 



The following tables show the amount of coinage at the New Orleans mint 
from the time of its establishment in 1838 down to June 30, 1898, it being under- 
stood that operations here were suspended from 1861 to 1879, since which time it 
has been in continuous operation : 





Double 
eagles. 


Eagles. 


Gold. 

Halt 

eagles. 


Quarter 
eagles. 


Dollars. 


Silver. 
Dollars. 


1838 


. $2,820,000 

6,300,000 

3,800,000 

1,420,000 

65,000 

160,000 

45,000 

600,000 

705,000 

182,000 

132,000 

100,000 

46,500 




$152,000 
41,750 
82,000 

505,375 
1,823,000 

205,000 

290,000 
60,000 

205,000 

230,000 
55,500 
50,000 
65,000 

50.000 

550,000 

83,000 


$44,452 
65,500 
18,450 
49,500 

920,005 

165,000 
310,000 

210,000 
370,000 
350,000 

382,500 

52,750 
85.000 


$215,000 

14,000 

290,000 

140,000 

290,000 

65,000 




1839 






1840 






1841... 
1842 


?25,000 
274,000 

1,751,620 

1,187,000 
475,000 
817,800 

5,715,000 
358,500 
239,000 
575,000 

2,630,000 
180,000 
510,000 
525,000 
180,000 
145,000 
55,000 
200,000 
23,000 
111,000 




1843 




1844 




1845 




1846..., 

1847 


$59,000 


1848 




1849.. . 




1850..., 
1851 


40,000 


1852 




1853.... 
1854 




1855 




1856 




1857 . 




1858 . 




1859.... 
I860.... 
1861t... 


360,000 
515.000 


1879.... 
1880.... 
1881.... 
]SS? 


15,000 

92,000 

83,500 

108,200 

8,000 


2,887.000 
5,305,000 
5,708,000 
6,090,000 


1883.... 
1884 




8,725,000 
9,730,000 


188S ... 




9,185,000 


1886 




10,710,000 


1887.. 




11,550,000 


1888.... 
1889.. . 


213,350 


12,150.000 
11,875,000 


1890 




10,701.000 


1891 




7,954,529 


1892.... 
1893.... 
1894.... 
1895.... 
1896 


286,880 

170,000 

1,075,000 

980,000 


2.744.000 
300,000 

1,723,000 
450,000 

4,900,000 


1897.... 
1898*... 


425,000 


4,004,009 
1,100,000 








Total. 
tNo 


16,375,500 
coinage from 


19,433,850 
1862 to 1878. 


4,447,625 
inclusive. 


3.023,157 1,004,000 
*Six months only. 


128.765.523 



424 



STAXDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 



Silver. Total Coinage. 

Half Quarter Half 

dollars. dollars. Dimes. dimes. Gold. 



Silver. Total Value. 



1838.. 
1839 . . 
1840.. 
1841.. 
1842.. 
1843.. 
1844.. 
1845.. 
1846.. 
1847.. 
1848.. 
1849.. 
1850.. 
1851.. 
1852.. 
1853.. 
1854.. 
1855.. 
1856.. 
1857.. 
1858.. 
1859.. 
I860.. 
1861t. 
1879.. 
1880.. 
1881.. 
1882.. 
1883.. 
1884.. 
1885.. 
1886.. 
1887.. 
1888.. 
1889.. 
1890.. 
1891.. 
1892.. 
1893.. 
1894.. 
1895.. 
1896.. 
1897.. 
1898*. 



$81,488 

427,550 

200.500 

478,500 

1.134,000 

1,002,500 

1,047,000 

1,152,000 

1,292,000 

1,590,000 

1,155,000 

1,228,000 

201,000 

72,000 

664,000 

2,620,000 

1,844,000 

1,329,000 

409,000 

3,647,000 

1,417,000 

645,000 

165,000 



195,000 
694,500 
1,069,000 
883,000 
462,000 
316,000 



1106.300 
113.000 
192,250 
242.000 
185,000 



92,000 



103,000 

22,000 

24,000 

333,000 

371,000 

44,000 

242,000 

295,000 

130,000 

65,000 

97,000 



17,000 
660,000 
849,000 
713,000 
704,000 
371,000 
353,000 



$40,243 
124,327 
117,500 
200,750 
202,000 
15,000 

23,000 



30,000 
51,000 
40,000 
43,000 

iio;ooo 

177,000 

118,000 

154,000 

29,000 

48,000 

4,000 



454,000 
384,170 
176,000 
72,000 
44,000 
61,000 
■66.600 



$54,827 
46,750 
40,750 
17,500 

11,000 



30,000 
7,000 
34,500 
43,000 
13,000 

•".-.^ooo 

78,000 
30,000 
55,000 
69,000 
83,000 
28,000 
$53,000 



$44,452 

217,500 

85,200 

405,500 

3,177,000 

3,010,000 

680,000 

1,272,800 

6,085,000 

358,500 

454,000 

3,619,000 

9,795,000 

4,470,000 

2,220,000 

1,274,500 

450,500 

292,750 

805,000 

905,000 

205,000 

243,'000 

100,000 

61.500 

92,000 

83,500 

108.200 

8,000 



213,350 



336,880 

720,000 

1,158,000 

980,000 

425.000 



$40,243 

260,642 

698,100 

555,000 

890.250 

1,391.000 

1,198,500 

1,070,000 

1,211.000 

1,384,000 

1,620,000 

1,192,000 

1,456,500 

327,600 

152.000 

1,225.000 

3,246,000 

1,918,000 

1,744,000 

927,000 

3,889,000 

1,918,000 

1,314,000 

165,000 

2,887,000 

5,305,000 

5,708,000 

6,090,000 

8,725,000 

9,730,000 

9,185,000 

10,710,000 

11,550,000 

12,150,000 

11,875,000 

10,701,000 

8,425,529 

3,983,170 

2,019,500 

3,577,000 

2,081,000 

5,794,000 

4,740,300 

1,100,000 



$40,243 

305,095 

915,600 

640.200 

1,295,750 

4,568,000 

4,208,500 

1,750,000 

2,483,800 

7,469,0u0 

1,978,500 

1,646,000 

5.075,500 

10,122,600 

4,622,000 

3,445,000 

4,520,500 

2,368,500 

2,036,750 

1,732,000 

4,794,000 

2.123.000 

1,557,000 

265,000 

2.948.500 

5.397,000 

5.791,500 

6,198,200 

8,733,000 

9,730,000 

9,185,000 

10,710,000 

11,550,000 

12,363,350 

11,875,000 

10,701,000 

8,425,529 

4,320,050 

2,739,500 

4,735,000 

3.061,000 

5,794.000 

5,165,300 

1,100,000 



Total. 27,421,038 6,324,250 2,784,590 812,327 44,356,132 166,129,335 210,485,467 
tNo coinage from 1862 to 1878, inclusive. *Six months only. 

The above totals include three-cent pieces to the amount of J21,600 minted in 1S51, and 
three dollar pieces to the amount of $72,000 minted in 1854. 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 425 

P'or purposes of comparison it may be stated that at the Philadelpliia mint 
there were coined from the time of its organization in 1793 to June 30, 1898, a total 
of $1,303,635,491.42 in all kinds of coin; at the Charlotte, N. C, mint, from 
its establishment in 1838 to its suspension in 18G1, a total of $5,059,188; at the 
Dahlonega, Ga., mint, from its organization in 1838 to its suspension in 1861, a 
total of $6,106,569; at the San Francisco mint from the time of its establish- 
ment in 1854 down to June 30, 1898, a total of $1,143,994,428.80; at the Carson 
City, Nev., mint from its organization in 1870 down to June 30, 1898, a total 
of $49,274,434.30; and, as given above, at the New Orleans mint, $210,485,467.60, 
making a grand total at all the mints in the United States down to June 30, 1898, 
of $2,718,555,579.12. 

During the fiscal year ending June 30, 1899, there were coined at the New 
Orleans mint the following amounts: In standard silver dollars, $10,540,000; in 
halves, $627,000; in quarters, $707,000. In checking up the several accounts or 
amounts of bullion, subsidiary coin and other forms of money, the year's balance 
sheets closed without the variation of a cent. 

Following are the lists of the several officers of the mint since its establish- 
ment : 

Superintendents— David Bradford, 1837-1839; Joseph N. Kennedy, 1840-49; 
11. McAlpine, 1850-52 ; Charles Bienvenu, 1853-57 ; Logan McKnight, 1858 ; Will- 
iam A. Elmore, 1859-61, resigning January 30; from April 18, 1861, to May, 
1862, "mint of the Confederate States;" M. F. Bonzano, on May 16, 1862, or- 
dered to return to New Orleans to take charge of the mint, and in 1874 was assayer 
in charge; Michael Halm, July, 1878, to January, 1879 ; Henry S. Foote, December, 
1879, to June, 1880; Martin V. Davis, 1880-82; A. W. Smyth, 1882-85; Gabriel 
Montahue, 1885-89 ; A. W. Smyth, 1889-93 ; Overton Cade, 1893-98 ; C. W. Bothby, 
1898. 

Assayers— Dr. William P. Hart, 1837-52; H. Millspaugh, 1853-61 ; Dr. Joseph 
Albrecht, 1878-83; Dr. B. F. Tatlor, 1883-84; W. C. Wilson, 1884-85; F. F. Claus- 
sen, 1885-93; E. A. Schroeder, 1893-94; A. M. Delavallade, 1894-96; F. F. Claus- 
sen, 1896-97; Dr. W. M. Lynch, 1897. 

Melters and Eefiners— James Maxwell, 1837-38; John L. Riddell, 1839-48; 
M. F. Bonzano, 1849-61 and 1878-83 ; F. F. Claussen, 1883-85 ; L. Magruder, 1885- 
.91 ; Dr. J. Cecil Lagare, 1891-93; Lewis Guion, 1893 to March 1, 1899; H. Dudley 
Coleman, March 1, 1899. 

Coiners— Eufus Tyler, 1837-38; Philo B. Tyler, 1839-47; John Brooks, 1848- 



426 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

50; A. Devall, 1851-53; A. J. Guirot, 1854-57; Dr. B. F. Taylor, 1858-Gl; Dr. M. 
F. Bonzano, 1878-79; Martin V. Davis, 1879-80; Jacob Helfrich, 1880-81; F. K. 
Jones, 1881-85; General Allen Thomas, 1885-90; A. R. Burkdell, 1890-93; H. 
Gibbs Morgan, 1893 to March 1, 1899; Mayer Cahen, March 1, 1899. 

Philo B. Tyler, mentioned above as coiner from 1839 to 1847, was the in- 
ventor of the Tyler Cotton Press and of the converting machine for coin. John L. 
Eiddell, melter and refiner from 1839 to 1848, was the inventor of the binocular 
microscope and of the rotary ingot mold. The first gold dollar coined at this mint 
was on June 11, 1849, at 6 P. M. 

The total coinage for the New Orleans mint for the calendar year 1898 was 
$5,770,000, and for 1899, $14,078,000; eagles (gold), $370,470; standard silver 
dollars, $12,290,000; half dollars, $862,000; quarters, $601,000; and dimes, 
$265,000. 

POSTOFFICE. 

A postoffice was established in New Orleans soon after the acquisition of the 
Territory of Louisiana by the United States, with Blaise Cenas as postmaster, 
his commission being dated October 1, 1803. On October 9, 1804, Postmaster 
Cenas made public the following announcement : "The mails for the future will 
arrive at New Orleans on Monday at 5 P. M., and will start every Tuesday at 7 A. 
M., closing at 6 A. M. on the day of departure." On February 22, 1805, the post- 
master removed his office to the residence of Dr. Zerbau, on Royal street. The 
mail via Fort Stoddart started for the first time on Saturday, September 21, 1805, 
and returned to New Orleans for the first time on the following Thursday, Sep- 
tember 26. In November, 1807, the postmaster, B. Cenas, gave public notice that 
the mail via Fort Adams would in the future arrive every Saturday at 10 A. M., 
and would be closed every Monday at 11 o'clock, and that he would deliver oa 
Sunday between 11 A. M. and 1 P. M. letters received by that day's mail, "but not 
at other times on that day, and to no other person whatever." 

Thomas B. Johnston succeeded B. Cenas as postmaster, his commission being 
dated April 1, 1810. In August, 1810, the postoffice was removed to Custom House 
street, between Royal and Chartres streets, to "the house lately occupied by Tully 
Robinson, attorney-at-law." In September, 1810, the mails began to arrive and 
depart more frequently, those via Fort Stoddart arriving every Saturday and de- 
parting the same day ; those via Fort Adams arriving every Tuesday and departing 
every Friday, and those by way of the Balize boats arriving every Friday and 
departing every Sunday. By May 1, 1811, the mails began to make such fast time as 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 427 

xo attract special attention, and to be something to boast of. From Washington 
they came through in twenty days; from Baltimore, in twenty-one days, and from 
Philadelphia, in twenty-three days. 

In 1853 or 1853 the postoffice was removed to the United States District Court 
room between Canal and Custom House streets, and in 1860 into the Custom House 
building, where it still remains. Two stations were established in 1882, one in 
Algiers, the other in Carrollton, and in 1890 four other stations were added, aU 
being called sub-stations. On October 1, 1895, the sub-station at Algiers was 
made a full station, and denominated Station A; that at Carrollton was con- 
verted into Station B; Station C was established at 3314 Magazine street; Station 
D on Dauphine street, between Louisa and Piety; and on January 1, 1896, Station 
E was established on Euterpe street, near Dryades. The special delivery system was 
put into operation in 1895, and the collection carts, September 1, 1899. 

The following statements for the year ending June 30, 1886, and for the year 
ending December 31, 1898, will serve to show the increase in the business of the 
postoffice for the last thirteen years : 

For the first year named the total receipts were $264,890.14, and the total ex- 
penditures, $119,355.96, outside of the money order department, the receipts of 
which amounted to $4,018,277.57, while the total amount paid out on money orders 
was $2,391,906, and remittances to New York, $1,613,235.04. The number of 
carriers employed was sixty-four. The total number of pieces of mail matter 
delivered was 11,596,263, and the number collected was 8,705,454. 

For the second year named the gross receipts in the cashier's division were 
$437,588.44, and the total expenditures, $201,414.46, while the total money order 
business amounted to $1,985,000.90. The total number of pieces of mail matter 
handled was 97,669,037, and the total business for the year amounted to $5,- 
379,158. 

Following is a list of the postmasters at New Orleans since Louisiana was 
ceded to the United States, together with the dates of their appointment, fur- 
nished upon request by Joseph L. Bristow, Fourth Assistant Postmaster-General: 

Bloise Cenas, October 1, 1804. William McQueen, July 27, 1839. 

Thomas B. Johnson, April 1, 1810. Gabriel Montamat, September 9, 1840. 

George Croghan, November 5, 1824. William Debuys, July 10, 1841. 

Antoine Dupuy, March 27, 1826. John B. Dawson, April 18, 1843. 

David C. Kerr, April 23, 1829. Alexander G. Penn, December 19, 1843. 

William H. Kerr, June 6, 1829. Michael Musson, April 18, 1819. 



428 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

William G. Kendall, April 7, 1853. Charles W. Ringgold, March 1, 1873. 

Eobert M. Adams, April 14, 1855. John M. G. Parker, April 6, 1875. 

Arthur S. Nevitt, May 3, 1855. Algernon S. Badger, July 19, 1878. 

Robert E. McHatton, March 23, 1857. William L. McMillen, February 19, 1879. 

Samuel F. Marks, February 10, 1858. Washington B. Merchant, March 2, 1883. 

John L. Riddell, August 16, 1860. Samuel H. Buck, July 23, 1885. 

John M. G. Parker, February 19, 1863. George W. Nott, May 19, 1887. 

Eobert W. Taliaferro, March 20, 1865. Stephen M. Eaton, August 13, 1890. 

Walter M. Smallwood, July 30, 1868. Frank A. Daniels, May 9, 1894. 

Charles W. Lowell, April 5, 1869. John R. G. Pitkin, September 17, 1898. 
B. P. Blanchard, December 2, 1870. 



THE CUSTOM HOUSE. 

Some time in the forties the First Municipality, as the district between Canal 
street and Esplanade avenue was then called, offered the United States Government 
its choice of several squares to be conveyed to it in fee simple provided that a custom 
house adequate to the demands of the growing commerce of the city should be 
erected thereon. The proposition was accepted November 32, 1847, and the Secre- 
tary of the Treasury selected "Custom House square" as the most eligible of 
those offered. This square, which is bounded by Canal, Custom House, Decatur 
and Peters streets, is the site where formerly stood Fort St. Louis of the colonial 
days. At that time it fronted directly upon the river, but the constant "making" 
of the bank upon this side has interposed a stretch of "batture" ground between 
the site and the stream from which four new blocks have been cut. These, having 
been sold to private individuals, a number of large stores and business houses now 
occupy the place where formerly ships lay at anchor. The old Custom House, 
which was torn down to make room for the new structure, was, according to the 
first directory of the city, published in 1822, "a spacious, plain brick building, 
with a coating of white plaster, situated on the levee, where, besides the offices 
connected with the customs, are the United States District Court room, and offices 
of the United States Clerk, Marshal and Land" (commissioner, probably). 

The corner-stone of the new building was laid by Henry Clay in 1847, and 
on October 23d, 1848, work was begun, the plan of A. T. Wood having been adopted. 
This plan called for a large granite building in the Egyptian style, to cost $800,000. 
It was proposed to construct in the center of the edifice a large hall to be devoted 
to the business of the customs, the remainder of the building to be used as a 
general bonded warehouse. In furtherance of this plan it was determined to make 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 429 

the building very strong and thoroughly fire-proof. The walls of the vaulted rooms 
were made of great thickness, and only iron and brick were used in the construc- 
tion of the floors, there being perhaps less wood used in the whole structure than 
in any building of its size in the world. The nature of the soil upon which this 
enormous mass of brick and stone was to be superimposed rendered it necessary 
that the greatest care be taken with the foundations. The huge cypress logs which 
formed their base were laid at the depth of 17 feet, and it being foreseen that there 
would still be a gradual subsidence of the massive structure, the walls were bound 
together by strong iron bands, in order to insure its settling evenly. These bands 
remained in place over thirty years, but notwithstanding all the precautions, the 
walls sunk at one corner fully two feet, and it was found necessary to substitute 
an iron cornice for the stone one contemplated by the original plan. The work 
was carried on with greater or less expedition, according to the means at disposal, 
until the beginning of the Civil War, when, for a time, it was entirely suspended. 
It was resumed soon after the close of the war, and continued at intervals up to 
November 1st, 1884, when, the appropriations being discontinued, the work ceased. 
Up to the date mentioned above, the total cost had been $4,212,368.50, and it is 
estimated that nearly a million more will be required to bring it to completion. 

The building, which is constructed of Quincy (Mass.) granite, is 81 feet 
high, with a frontage on Canal street of 340 feet, and a depth of 297 and 309 feet, 
respectively, on Decatur and Peters streets. Entering by the great door on Canal 
street, and ascending to the principal floor, the visitor finds himself in a wide 
vestibule roofed with thick glass skylights, which are supported by iron columns. 
From this he passes into a hall extending around the whole building, and giving 
access to all the offices. In the center of the building, and encircled by this cor- 
ridor is the famous "Marble Hall," one of the finest rooms in the world, and 
perhaps the very finest room devoted to business. While not so large as St. George's 
Hall of Liverpool, it surpasses it in point of material, only marble and iron en- 
tering into its construction. This room is a parallelogram, measuring 128 feet 
in length by 84 in breadth, with a height of fifty-four feet from floor to glass dome 
or roof. An iron frame painted white and gold forms the setting for the great 
plates of heavy ground glass, which are ornamented with an elegant Grecian border 
in blue. Fourteen lofty columns are so placed as to give the central part of the 
room a space of 45x65 feet, for the use of the general public, the officers and clerks 
being accommodated outside. The columns are of the Corinthian order, with 
Attic bases, the lower portion of the shafts plain and polished, the capitals varied 



430 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

to allow of designs indicative of the purpose to which the room is dedicated. At 
the top of each is a basso-relievo of Juno and another of Mercury, together with 
designs of cotton and tobacco plants. These are so arranged that each faces its 
opposite on every column, and by looking at four capitals from any position, all 
the designs are comprehended at a glance. Each one of these beautiful fluted 
shafts of pure white marble is said to have cost $8,000. The floor is of black and 
white marble tiles, each one two feet square, laid in a pattern, with border of black 
extending from column to column. Sixteen plates of glass one inch thick, cast on 
a hammered surface and ground smooth to break the rays of light, are set in the 
floor to give light to the room below. Each plate is the center of a star, hand- 
somely inlaid with black marble. At one end of the room is a life size basso- 
relievo of Bienville, the only monument of the founder the city possesses, and one 
of Jackson, the two separated by the coat of arms of Louisiana, the pelican feeding 
her young. The hall is heated by steam, the steam coils being suspended in the 
floor from the arches, and shielded by hexagon pedestals with marble tops. 

At the white marble counters around the hall sit the officers of the customs. 
Here vessels from all parts of the world are entered and cleared, duties collected, 
and all business transacted relating to the commerce of New Orleans. 

On the left of the main entrance are the U. S. Courts, the Marshal's office, 
and that of the Clerk; and at the end of the right-hand corrider, the Sub-Treasury 
office. 

The other offices on the second floor are the Land Office, the Surveyor Gen- 
eral's Office, and the Signal Service Station. General Butler, when he took pos- 
session of the city in 1862, established his headquarters in the Custom House, and 
occupied the suite of rooms on the Decatur side as his office. The upper portion of 
the building, then in an unfinished condition, was used as a military prison, and 
in the room beneath the Sub-Treasury office, at the foot of the dark staircase, 
Mumford, the man who was hung for tearing down the United States flag from the 
mint, was confined while awaiting his trial. 

On the ground floor, the Decatur street side of the building is occupied by 
the postoffice. The corridor of this office is 247 feet long. On the ground floor are 
also the Appraiser's store, the office of the Inspector of Boilers and Steamboats, and 
other offices. 

THE CITY H.\LL. 

The City Hall, situated six blocks above Canal street, opposite Lafayette 
square, was built in 1850 by Gallier. The model selected was the celebrated Temple 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 431 

of Minerva of the Athenian Acropolis. The front of the building is of white 
marble, and is adorned with a noble portico of Ionic columns, upon the frieze of 
w hich is a bas-relief of Justice, flanked on either hand by figures bearing emblems 
of the commerce of the Mississippi Valley. A flight of granite steps leads to the 
pavement of the portico, where a wide doorway gives access to a hall, paved with 
black and white marble, and extending the whole length of the edifice. On either 
side are the various offices of the City Government. On the left, near the entrance, 
is the Mayor's parlor and office, in the first of which hang portraits of Washing- 
ton, Jackson, and several of the former Mayors. On the right is the library, a large 
apartment containing an extensive collection of books, which are free to all who 
desire to read. The room is ornamented by a number of busts, among them that 
of Samuel J. Peters, the founder of the library, and under whose administration 
the City Hall was planned and built. Mr. Peters was, indeed, one of the most 
remarkable men who has at any time taken part in the public and commercial 
affairs of the city. Coming as a young man from Canada, his birthplace, he 
began his career as clerk in a store, but his ability rapidly advanced him to the 
position of head of the largest wholesale grocery in the South. Mercantile affairs, 
however, did not afford sufficient scope for his intellectual activity, and he soon 
began to interest himself in municipal matters. As member of the Council of 
the Second Municipality he took the lead in every measure of importance, becoming 
in time the autocrat of its destinies, which he controlled with admirable vigor and 
ability. He organized the police on a new plan, created a fire department, intro- 
duced a system of public schools modeled upon the best New England system, 
besides establishing the library already alluded to, building the City Hall, raising 
the credit of the Municipality, and accomplishing a number of other improve- 
ments. In addition to all these public services which were rendered without re- 
muneration, Mr. Peters was president of a large and flourishing bank, director 
in many other corporations, and for a short time Collector of Customs for the 
Federal Government. Yet at his death, he left barely enough property to afford 
his children a good education, while his partner, who was unknown beyond the 
commercial circle in which he moved, who never performed any public service. 
or promoted any public enterprise, left a princely estate. 

Some historic interest attaches to the City Hall in connection with events 
of the war. Several regiments received their colors from its granite steps in the 
exciting days of 1861, and it was here that Admiral Bailey came on that eventful 
April day in 1862 to demand the surrender of the city. When Hex makes his 



432 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

annual entrance on the day preceding Mardi Gras, it is his custom to pay a visit: 
to the Mayor in his parlor, where he is presented with the keys of the city. 

TULANE HALL. 

This building, formerly the Mechanic's Institute, was erected to serve as an 
institute and library. The original building was destroyed by fire shortly before the 
war, but was replaced within a year or so. The present edifice has an historic 
interest from the use to which it was put after the war and during the reconstruc- 
tion period. Upon the formation of a State Government under the protection of 
the Union forces, it was made the State Capitol, and continued to serve in this 
capacity until 1866, when the famous "July Eiots" occurred. It was in its as- 
sembly hall that the members of the old convention of 1864, who had met without 
the authority of either the former president or the Governor of the State, for the 
purpose of capturing the control of the State, then, with the exception of the Gov- 
ernorship, in the possession of the Democrats, entrenched themselves against the 
Sheriff of the parish and his posse of policemen, who had been ordered to disperse 
them. It was this hall, too, which, in 1872, the U. S. Marshal and his company 
of Federal soldiers, acting under the "midnight order" of Judge Durell, of the 
U. S. Circuit Court, seized and held against the members of the Democratic Leg- 
islature, in order to prevent the counting of the election returns ; an action -^hich, 
with its resulting complications, had the effect of fastening upon the State a Gov- 
ernor not of the people's choice, who was maintained in his seat by United States 
bayonets. 

This building is now the property of the Tulane University, and the home of 
the State Library. Its "hall"' is used as a lecture-room, and as an assembly room 
for the dances and entertainments given by the students of the University during 
the winter. 

WASHINGTON ARTILLERY HALL. 

The Washington Artillery Armory stands on St. Charles street, near the 
corner of Girod. The second floor is divided into two immense rooms, each 81x170 
feet, and was formerly known as "E.xposition Hall." The hall proper, fronting 
on St. Charles street, is handsomely frescoed, and embellished with a stately 
colonnade of fluted columns in white and gold on either side. On the night of 
Mardi Gras the ball of his Majesty Rex is held in this hall, the rear room being 
transformed into a throne room. The double apartment thrown into one gives 
commodious accommodation to fairs, bazaars, and exhibitions requiring space. The 
front hall is also used as a concert room, and for the annual balls of various societies.. 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 433 

THE COTTON EXCHANGE. 

In 1871 the cotton merchants of New Orleans formed among themselves an 
association for the purpose of regulating the cotton trade of the city by means of 
systematic rules for sampling, purchasing and delivering, as well as for the ad- 
justment of disputes by arbitration. The original membership of one hundred 
rapidly swelled to three times that number, and the usefulness of the organization 
was so clearly demonstrated, that it was determined to erect a more commodious 
building for its accommodation than the one first selected. A site was chosen at 
the corner of Carondelet and Gravier streets, and under the superintendence of 
Mr. Thomas D. Miller the present elegant structure was put up. The material 
used is a cream-colored stone, and the style is that of the Italian Eenaissance with 
elaborate ornamentation of bas-relief and carving. Wolters, of Louisville, fur- 
nished the plan, and the building was delivered to the association, complete in 
every detail, at a cost of $380,000 including the ground. 

The Exchange room proper is situated on the ground floor, and extends from 
Carondelet street back to Varieties alley, a distance of 100 feet, with a width of 
fifty feet. The Eenaissance style prevails throughout the interior, which affords a 
fine illustration of the school of Lienard. The ceiling and walls are lavishly 
embellished with frescos in gold, crimson, violet and other rare shades. Above 
the Carondelet street entrance are three medallions in gold, and back of these, 
surrounding an ornate centerpiece, are four paintings, representing De Soto's first 
view of the Mississippi; South Pass and the jetties, with steamers passing; La 
Salle taking possession of Louisiana, and a cotton-field, with cotton ready for 
picking, all of which are bordered with medallions of exquisite tracery. On the 
walls are panels of grifiins' heads with borders of intricate design, and a profusion 
of fruit and flowers, wreaths and festoons, rich friezes, in which gold predominates. 
The ceiling is supported by four double columns of perfect proportion, resting on 
pedestals, and adorned with rosettes of a rich pattern. Near the Varieties alley 
entrance is an ornamental fountain, from the basin of which rises a bronze Triton, 
holding a conch shell to his lips. 

Around the walls are set slabs of slate of extraordinary size, quarried ex- 
pressly for the purpose, upon, which which are noted the market quotations and the 
movements of cotton. A recess separated from the main room by an ornamental 
screen, is fitted up in handsome style as a counting room for the officers of the 
institution. 

The building is four stories high, and an elevator near the rear transports 



434 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

visitors to the upper story, wliere a stairway of easy ascent leads to the roof. This 
is enclosed by a handsome iron railing, so that parties can walk about without 
fear of falling, and from it can be obtained such a view of the city and its environs 
as can hardly be had from any other accessible building. In clear weather Lake 
Ponchartrain can be distinctly seen, and the windings of the Mississippi traced for 
miles above and below the city. On this roof are hung the bells which strike the 
hours, half hours and quarters. 

THE SUGAR EXCHANGE. 

The Sugar Exchange Hall proper is of magnificent proportions, being 110x60 
feet, with a height of 54 feet from floor to skyligTit. It is lighted on three sides 
by immense plate glass windows, 13 feet wide and 24 feet high, and from above 
by the skylight already alluded to, which is 23 feet square. The wing building 
is 120x33 feet, and is two stories high. On the first floor are a public vestibule, 
a telegraph office, offices of the Exchange, board room, lavatory and closets. On 
the second floor, a library 12x19, a reading room and museum 77x20, two com- 
mittee roms, lavatory, etc. The ventilation is through the cornice of the skylight, 
and the acoustics are perfect. The entrances to the hall are covered by porches, 
and a Schillinger pavement is laid on three sides and in the yard at the rear. A 
small triangular islet, set aside by the council as a public park, under charge of 
commissioners appointed from the members of the Sugar Exchange, is planted 
with trees and ornamental shrubs, the surface sodded, walks laid, and the whole 
surrounded with a high dressed curb, with a Schillinger banquette on Bienville 
street. 

THE PRODUCE EXCHANGE. 

Until the year 1883 the merchants of New Orleans wore without any building 
specially devoted to the purposes of a Produce Exchange. In that year the dealers 
in Western produce came together and determined upon the purchase of the old St. 
James Hotel, on Magazine street, near Natchez, in the rear of which they have 
caused to be constructed a spacious and well-lighted hall, where, at all hours of the 
day the produce merchants congregate for business. 

LIBRARIES. 

According to tradition the first public library of New Orleans was established 
about 1801, but no reliable data concerning it is obtainable. The New Orleans 
Library Society was incorporated in 1805, with an unlimited capital, the shares 
being $25. The mayor and recorder of the city, with the treasurer of the territory 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 435 

and three other gentlemen, were appointed as commissioners to take subscriptions, 
and as soon as fifty shares should be disposed of the subscribers were to meet for 
the purpose of electing seven of their number as trustees, said trustees to remain 
in office until the third Monday of January, 1806, when their successors, who would 
have been elected on the previous Monday, were to assume control. In March, 1816, 
a supplementary act was passed providing for the sale of forfeited stock, no sale 
being valid unless the amount realized should suffice to pay the arrearages on the 
shares sold. This does not indicate a very prosperous state of affairs for the society. 
The same act authorized an annual lottery to be held for ten successive years for 
the benefit of the institution. The capital stock of the lottery was not to exceed 
$2,000, and the directors were allowed to retain not more than twenty per cent of 
that amount. The ultimate fate of the society is involved in obscurity, but it is 
probable that it died of inanition. 

Eight years seem to have elapsed before another attempt was made to estab- 
lish a public library. Finally, April 10, 1824, upon petition of a number of 
prominent gentlemen, the Touro Free Library Society of New Orleans was incor- 
porated. It was called for Judah Touro, the philanthropic merchant who gave 
away over $400,000 in charity, and who is credited with the intention of erecting 
a building for it. There is no record of the building having been constructed, but 
the library is said to have existed for six years. 

The State Library was established under an act of the Legislature approved 
March 12, 1838, beginning its existence with about 3,000 volumes, which increased 
within a short time to 6,000. It was designed for the use of citizens, strangers 
and members of the Legislature — chiefly for the latter. With the transfer of the 
State capital to Baton Rouge, the library was also removed to that city. In 1861 
it contained 50,028 volumes, including duplicates and State publications. Many of 
these were of great value. During the war the State House was burned, greatly 
to the loss of the library, the remnant of which was removed to the City Hall of 
New Orleans. In 1864 the librarian, Mr. J. B. Carrigan, reported the number of 
volumes to be 24,120, which he recommended should be removed to the Tulane 
University building, corner Tulane avenue and University place, which recommen- 
dation was adopted and acted upon. In February, 1896, it was again removed to 
its present quarters in Tulane Hall, on University place, near Canal. The library 
at present contains something over 20,000 volumes, among which is a collection of 
works in French — about 5,000 in number — relating to the history of the State, 
many of them of great value. 



436 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

A private library, known as the "Commercial Library," appears to have come 
into being about 1838, and to have endured until 1842, when B. F. French, a 
public-spirited citizen, bought it and threw it open as a free library. In 1846 it 
occupied two rooms in the Merchants' Exchange on Royal street, and numbered 
about 7,500 volumes. This, too, lived about six years. 

The Young Men's Free Library Association, instituted about 1842, and opened 
at the corner of Custom House and Exchange place, contained a well-selected collec- 
tion of 2,000 volumes. It seems to have vanished, leaving "not a rack behind." 

The Lyceum, or Public School Library, was inaugurated in 1845, through 
the efforts of Mr. Shaw, superintendent of the public schools; Samuel J. Peters, 
and others, as an adjunct of the public schools of the second municipality. It 
numbered at first some 3,000 volumes, and by 1848 had increased to 7,500. A 
monthly subscription of 25 cents entitled the pupils of the public schools to the 
benefits of this library, while a fee of $10 made the subscriber a life member, 
without further charge. In 1850 the library was placed in the still unfinished 
City Hall, and soon afterward became the property of the city. 

The Fisk Library was founded in 1849 by Mr. Alvarez Fisk, who in order to 
carry out the wishes of his deceased brother, for the establishment of a library 
which should be free to all, bought the old "Commercial Library" from Mr. French, 
and offered the entire collection, then consisting of 6,000 volumes, to the city, with 
"a building on Custom House street for their reception." A singular apathy 
seemed to prevail in the community with regard to the handsome gift ; no adequate 
provision was made by the city council or the public for its acceptance, although 
it still continued to increase under the generous zeal of its custodian, Mr. French. 
Finally the use of it was granted to the Mechanics' Institute, and subsequently to 
the Louisiana University, and to its successor, Tulane, the city continuing prac- 
tically without an entirely free public library until January, 1897, when the doors 
of the present "Fisk Free and Public Library" were thrown open. 

This library has been formed by the consolidation of the Lyceum Library — 
the volumes of which circulated only among life-members and teachers of the 
public schools — and the Fisk Library, which was almost exclusively a reference 
library. In February, 1895, the city council took under consideration the subject 
of providing a building for the reception of these two libraries. The court build- 
ing on Camp street, opposite Lafayette square, having been determined upon, the 
two libraries were given over to the control of the city in 1896, the newly appointed 
library board meeting for the first time in December of that year. Mr. William 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 437 

Beer, librarian of the Howard Memorial Library, who had been active in urging 
forward the movement of consolidation, was appointed librarian, and under his 
energetic and sagacious management the new institution was rapidly organized and 
put upon a working basis. 

The fund for the organization, equipment, and support of this library for 
1897 was $17,000, including interest and unexpended balance from the Fisk en- 
dowment of $2,000, the rental of stores on the ground floor of the library building, 
and an annual appropriation by the city council. For this first year this appro- 
priation was $1,500; for the second year $7,000, for $1898, $48,500. The annual 
appropriation will doubtless increase as the library becomes more and more ap- 
preciated. 

About 28,000 volumes were received from the two libraries, each contributing 
an equal number. Of fiction only 250 volumes were available, and as this class 
of literature is always and everywhere in demand, nearly 8,000 volumes were 
immediately added, including a considerable number of volumes of French fiction, 
and about 800 books for children. From the day of opening the circulation of 
books has been very large, indicating the crying need for a free circulating library. 
The conditions governing the drawing of books bring them within the reach of 
all classes of people. 

The number of cardholders is 10,200, which does not include children who 
draw on the cards of their parents. The average monthly circulation is 6,800 
volumes for home use, and 500 for library use, and the number of cards issued 
monthly is 400. The highest circulation for one day is 504, and the lowest, 110. 
The staff consists of the librarian, six assistants, one boy and two porters. Nearly 
one-third of the issue is to children under fifteen years of age. 

The library is on the second floor of the building in ^^'hat was formerly known 
as St. Patrick's Hall, the dimensions of the floor space being 80x100 feet. Ad- 
joining the large room on the southeast side, and opening into it by a wide double 
door, is a room of 1,200 square feet reserved as a reading room for ladies and 
children; and at tlie west end, is tlio room occupied by the board of education. 
The large room is well lighted by large windows on the north side, and smaller ones 
on the other sides. At night electricity is used for lighting at a cost of $72 for 112 
lamps. 

This library has on file nearly 300 of the best current periodicals, — American, 
English, French. German and Italian publications being represented. Thirty 
daily papers from different sections of the country are also taken, as well as one from 



438 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

each of the great cities of London, Paris and Berlin. It is the intention of the 
library to circulate most of its books and bound periodicals, and those over two 
months old are allowed to be taken out. Valuable works may also be drawn by 
making a deposit. 

As soon as funds are available it is the design of the directors to convert the 
large gallery of the main room into a special study room for teachers and pupils, 
and to make generous loans of books to schools. The facilities of the library will 
also be rendered more accessible to the public by the establishment of three delivery 
stations in different portions of the city. And thus in every way possible the 
library will become more and more influential as an educational factor in the city's 
life. 

The Howard Memorial Library, at the corner of Camp street and Howard 
avenue, was erected in 1888 at the expense of Miss Annie T. Howard, now Mrs. 
Walker Parrott, at a cost of $115,000. It was presented on the day of its opening 
to a board of trustees consisting of the most prominent men of the city, with a sum 
of money which has grown to $200,000, and which is invested for the maintenance 
and increase of the library. The original 8,000 volumes have also (1899) swelled 
to 40,000 books and pamphlets, and the library has become an exceedingly valuable 
institution to the citizens of New Orleans, and to all who have occasion to visit 
it, and avail themselves of its advantages. All departments of learning are repre- 
sented, and in many languages. Encyclopedias, dictionaries, works on religion, 
and philosophy, sociology, political economy, law, naval and military science, edu- 
cation, customs and fork-lore. Works on the history and development of the 
Anglo-Saxon, Teutonic and Eastern languages, as well as on history of the early 
French, and on the sciences, including mathematics and chemistry, medicine and 
agriculture. Literature in all its phases is well represented, including general and 
local history. 

In the basement are sets of New Orleans papers in occasional years to 1873, and 
regularly from that date to the present time, w'ith numerous governmental publi- 
cations. The library is one of the congressional depositories, and has a fine collection 
of publications of the Smithsonian Institute, and a large number of the publications 
of the different departments of the United States Government. 

The building, which is unique in appearance, is of rough brown stone, and 
was designed by Richardson, the celebrated architect, being the last plan he ever 
drew. The interior is beautifully finished in polished hardwoods, and is divided 
into numerous alcoves for the reception of books, an alcove being devoted to every 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 439 

branch of learning, and a large cirenlar reading room abundantly lighted by broad 
windows. Mr. Frank T. Howard, brother of Mrs. Parrott, has de\oted much time 
and attention to the enlargement and perfecting of the library, which reflects great 
credit upon its managers. 

The Howard Memorial Hall is the gift to the city of Mr. Frank T. Howard. 
It was erected in 1889 from a design by Sully, as a depository of objects of historic 
interest, and relics of the Civil War. It is of red brick, and is finished on the inside 
in the same manner as the library, with the addition of a number of glass cases ar- 
ranged about the walls, and filled with documents, swords, pistols, muskets, and other 
relics of the "late unpleasantness." Battle flags adorn the ceiling, and beneath their 
dingy folds Confederate veterans often assemble to fight their battles over, and to dis- 
cuss the affairs of their various camps. The Hall is imder the management of a 
board of governors, composed of five members from each of the four camps of 
veterans forming the Louisiana Historical Association, and five from the board of 
directors of the Howard Memorial Library. 

The Memorial Hall adjoins the Library on the north side, and is entered 
from Camp street. It was dedicated January 8, 1891, and transferred by Mr. 
Howard to the Louisiana Historical Association. The original cost of the building 
was about $4:0,000, which lias recently been increased by the addition of an orna- 
mental portico to the Camp street front. 

On September 19, 1899, an interesting ceremony took place at this entrance. 
The occasion was the presentation of an historic gun, formerly belonging to 
the Fifth company of the Washington Artillery to the Louisiana Historical 
Association. The gun was called the "Lady Slocomb," in honor of the wife of 
Captain Cuthbert Slocomb, who commanded the Fifth at the time of the surrender, 
April 4th, 1865. It was in use at Spanish Fort at that time, and lay buried in the 
earth until 1890, when it was resurrected by surviving members of the company. 
It was presented to the Association by Colonel J. A. Chalaron, the last remaining 
offieer of the company. Colonel Edward Palfrey, president of the Association, 
introduced Rev. A. Gordon Bakewell, Chaplain of the Artillery, who offered the 
opening prayer. The gun, an eight-inch columbiad, was unveiled by order of E. P. 
Cottraux, commander of Camp No. 15, U. C. V., the veterans who unveiled it being 
under command of Corporal Charles W. Fox, who commanded the gun in action. 
Colonel Chalaron delivered the presentation address, Colonel Palfrey the address 
of welcome and Rev. B. M. Palmer, the oration of the occasion. 



440 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

HOSPITAI,S. 

The Charity Hospital takes precedence over all the charities of Xew 
Orleans, both in point of age and in the munificence of its far-reaching benefits. 
Its original dates back to the very early years of the colony, and was the gift of a 
humble sailor, Jean Louis by name, who, having acquired by some fortunate com- 
mercial transactions what for one in his station was a competency, bequeathed his 
whole estate for the foiinding of a hospital. The precise date of this bequest 
cannot be fixed, but it must have been many years anterior to 1737, at which time 
Bienville mentions it in one of his reports to the home government as having been 
already applied to the designated purpose. The sum M'as not large, — only 12,000 
livres, — about $2,500 — but it sufficed for the purchase of a house "situated upon a 
vast location at one of the extreme limits of the city," and for the necessary 
repairs and furnishings, leaving even a small balance, which was held in reserve for 
future needs. This humble precursor of the splendid institution which has grown 
up in the course of something over a hundred and seventy years, was known as the 
"Hospice des Pauvres," and stood on the west side of Eampart street, on the square 
bounded by St. Peter and Toulouse, as Miro says, "upon a portion of the grounds 
allotted to the city's fortifications." The situation was far from favorable, the 
ground being low and marshy, and therefore insalubrious, but this did not prevent 
it from becoming an important factor in the municipal economy of that early day, 
when the city's population hardly numbered 5,000 souls. The fallacious induce- 
ments to immigrants held out by Law's Mississippi or East India Company 
brought over scores of penniless adventurers who were infallibly destined to 
become a charge upon public charity, and who doubtless swelled the list of patients 
in the hospital to a number quite out of proportion to the legitimate population. 
The hospital withstood the hurricane of 1778, which brought such desolation 
to the colonists, but a similar visitation in 1779 converted it into a heap of ruins, 
leaving only the kitchen and storehouse standing. In the universal distress nobody 
was able to offer any assistance to the unfortunate patients so summarily dis- 
charged from the shelter of their wards, and Governor Miro describes them as 
"wandering through the city in quest of succor and shelter," and "hourly exposed to 
perish upon the very streets, or in some obscure by-corner." 

The frequent and lengthy conferences between the Governor and the Cabildo 
resulted in nothing, and matters were at a desperate pass when Don Almonaster y 
Eoxas, the good genius of the city at this period, stepped forward with ofllers of 
relief. His proposition was to rebuild the hospital at his own expense, and to 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 441 

appropriate a yearly revenue for its support. Strange to say,, this generous 
proposal, instead of being gratefully accepted, was met with much carping and 
criticism on the part of certain members of the Cabildo who had never been able 
to reconcile themselves to the Spanish domination. Don Almonaster was not in 
the least deterred, however, by the adverse comments of his opponents. Having 
secured the king's approval of his enterprise, he set about the work in 1782, and in 
1784 the new institution, called in honor of the King of Spain, the "New Charity 
Hospital of St. Charles,"' was completed. It stood upon the site of its predecessor, 
"a commodious, substantial edifice, built of brick and mortar, surrounded by 
suitable dependencies, and provided with a chapel." At the time of Charles' death, 
in 1785, this chapel was the only house of worship standing in the city, and it 
was here that the Eequiem Mass, and other religious ceremonies in his honor, were 
performed. 

So far Almonaster had carried out his purposes and faithfully fulfilled his 
promises, and his hospital was doing good work. But a change of administration 
now occurred. Miro, who had stood his advocate and friend through all the 
opposition raised against his project, was succeeded by Baron do Carondelet, a 
stranger to the colony, who knew not its "Joseph." Quick to take advantage of 
the new state of affairs, his opponents now set on foot a struggle for supremacy 
in the management of the hospital which resulted in the total dispossession of the 
founder of the controlling power he had heretofore exercised. Almonaster, however, 
who had by this time entered the Cabildo as Regidor Perpetuo (Life Councilman), 
wasted no time in seeking redress at the hands of the provincial government. He 
wrote to his King, making a full statement of all his grievances, and when, on a 
certain day in October, 1793, the members of the Cabildo assembled in their "Salas 
Capitulares," he had a nice little surprise for them in the shape of an address 
from "their Lordships, the Governor and Intendant of the Province," enclosing a 
Real Cedilla, making known the fact that the Eoyal Supreme Council of the Indies 
approved of the founding in the city by the Regidor Perpetuo, of the "New Charity 
Hospital of St. Charles," and declaring Don Almonaster to be the "founder, patron, 
and endowcr" of that institution. The Council, having heard these documents read, 
kissed them and placed them upon their heads, "as is done with a letter from the 
King, our lord and natural master," and pledged themselves henceforth to recog- 
nize Don Almonaster as directed. This submissive attitude, however, was not 
altogether sincere, and many ways were found to hamper and annoy the generous 
Don in the prosecution of his charitable work. Not only was his demand to be 



442 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

installed as Patron of the Hospital complied with tardily and with an ill grace, and 
his appointment of a physician rejected, but he was subjected to pecuniary loss 
from unjust lawsuits brought against liim in the course of his purchase of grounds 
facing the Place d' Amies for the parochial church, now the Cathedral, and the 
Government house he was about to build, and no redress was granted him, when 
in open audience he had applied to the Governor. He went again to the King, 
who again interposed in behalf of his faithful servant, and Alnionaster, no doubt, 
felt himself fully recompensed for all the indignities he had suffered when he 
was able, in November, 1796, to present to the Cabildo two royal "Cedulas," or let- 
ters patent, the first of which ordered that the physician appointed by him be put 
in possession of his office with a monthly salary of $30, and that henceforth no 
confirmation of appointments made by him should be required, it being only neces- 
sary that notification be sent to the Governor with a statement of the circumstances 
prompting the action ; and furthermore, that the said Don Almonaster should be re- 
lieved from the obligation of accounting for his administrative acts in said hospital. 
The second conferred personal prerogatives which were no doubt dearer to the 
recipient than even this autocratic power. He was authorized to occupy the most 
prominent seat in his church, second only to that of the royal vice-patron of the 
province, and to receive the peace embrace (la paz) during the celebration of mass. 
It was also ordered that whatever he might undertake, or whatever might occur, 
he should be treated with distinction, greeted with solicitious regard, and given 
aid and support, and the Governor of the Province of Louisiana, the Intendant 
of the Eoyal Exchequer, the judges and justices of the above mentioned province, 
were strictly commanded to comply with the royal decree, without contravening it. 

Don Almonaster did not long enjoy the honors accorded by the "Royal De- 
cree," On the 26th of April, 1798, he was transferred to another sphere to which 
the authority of the King of Spain did not extend, but he still continued to be 
"treated with distinction" in the city for which he had done so much. He was in- 
terred in a vault beneath the floor of his own church, where a large marble slab 
in front of the altar of the Sacred Heart, and of Saint Francis of Assisi still 
preserves the memory of his honors and of the deeds of which they were the reward. 
For many years, as the sun went down on Saturday evening, the bells were tolled, 
and before the altar prayers were offered for the repose of the soul of Don 
Almonaster-y-Eoxas. This custom is, for some reason, no longer observed. 

In 1803 occurred the transfer of Louisiana to the United States and with this 
event the hospital passed from the jurisdiction of contending Cabildos and Gov- 



STAXDAIW HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 443 

eninrii into that of praeticiil, matter-of-fact mayors and counoilincn, wlio seem 
to have heen able to "get on" more harmoniously. Xothing worthy of note ai)pears 
to have taken place during- the first two years of the new regime, but in 18Uj the 
struggle for control again broke out in a new form. The widow of Almonaster, who 
had become Mrs. Castillon by a second marriage, assumed as tutri.x; of her minor 
daughter, Micaela, the title of Patroness of the hospital, with all the privileges and 
authority which had belonged to her former husband. Intrcncliing heself behind 
the alleged immunity conferred by the title, she resisted any interference in iier 
nianageiiient, — or rather, mismanagement, — and all attempts to reform the abuses 
of authority on the part of the director and subordinates of the institution. 
Through her attorney she threatened to foreclose and sell at auction the property 
of the hospital, if the least infringement were attempted upon her exclusive 
right and privileges, by any one, no matter how high his position, or what his 
authority in the community. In justification of her attitude she cited the article 
in the constitution of the hospital, as originally submitted to the King, and 
approved by him. The men with whom she had to deal, however, stood in no 
awe of the King of Spain, and were perhaps rather glad to have the opportunity 
of demonstrating the fact by ordering an inquiry into the jirovisions of that 
Eoyal Charter upon which all these extravagant pretensions were based. The 
investigation, which was conducted by Mr. Peter Pedesclaux, notary public, and 
former clerk of the Cabildo, developed some surprising facts. It appeared that the 
lady, so far from having formerly exercised sole control in the affairs of the 
hospital, had always been obliged to allow the Governor of the province a share 
in its management ; and furthermore that Don Almonaster had left no instructions 
which could in any manner justify her actual pretensions to the direct possession 
of the patronage. Her name was not mentioned among those recommended 
by him for this office in the event of his dying without issue, these rights being 
conferred upon his sister's children, and preference being given to those of the 
male sex. Failing these, they devolved upon the colonel commanding the militia 
forces of the city, who was also made the patron's representative in case of his 
illness or absence from the city. It was also alleged that during her widowhood 
Madame de Almonaster had made no pretense of controlling the affairs of the 
hospital in any other capacity than that of tutrix to her minor daughter, an office 
which, it was claimed, she had forfeited by her second marriage. The Governor 
was therefore requested to assume the authority over The hospital formerly exercised 
by the Spanish rulers, and to have the title of patron conferred upon the colonel 



444 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

of militia. "But who in the name of Mars was this colonel of militia?" demands 
Dr. Castellanos, from whose interesting address before the Alumni Association 
of the Charity Hospital, April, 1897, this account is condensed; "or 
with what propriet}^ could a military personage be made to assume charge of a 
civil hospital in time of peace, and under a form of government so totally different 
from the preceding ?" Four years of contention and indecision passed and found the 
vexed question no nearer to a solution than at the beginning of the controversy, 
when suddenly Fate intervened. On the night of September 23rd, 1809, the 
Charity Hospital of St. Charles went up in the flames of a great conflagration. 
Rescued from the burning building by the strenuous efforts of Mayor Mather, the 
unfortunate patients were temporarily quartered on the upper gallery of the 
City Hall, whence they were, within twenty-four hours, transferred to the planta- 
tion of Mr. Jourdan, below the city, one-half the residence being surrendered 
to them in consideration of a monthly rental of $125. Here they fared but badly, 
being without bedsteads and blankets, and at times lacking the barest necessities 
of life. Xor was their condition improved when, after six months, Mrs. Jourdan 
wishing to resume possession of her entire house, they were again removed to the 
La Vergne residence. But still the contest went on, Mrs. Castillon relinquishing 
none of her claims to the patronage of the hospital, pitiable wreck though it was, 
and while clinging to them with one hand, holding out the other for the "sub- 
sidies" which she alleged the city had formerly allotted to the institution. The 
matter was carried before the Legislature, but before a decision could be reached 
the researches, which were still being pur.sued among the original documents relating 
to the hospital, brought to light a circumstance of a startling, and almost scandalous 
character. A comparison of the original inventory of property belonging to the 
hospital with a second one drawn at a later date showed that the first list had been 
tampered with, that there were no longer any slaves attached to its service, that its 
property was rented at exceedingly low prices, and was for the most part in a decay- 
ing condition, although the Almonaster estate was actually indebted to it to the 
amount of $6,344, a sum more than sufficient to cover the cost of repairs and reno- 
vation. This revelation created much excitement. It was proposed by the city 
authorities to sell the rentals and other possessions of the hospital at public 
auction, and altogether such a pother was kept up about the matter, that the 
lady patroness, seeing little hope of ever again enjoying peaceable possession of 
her assumed prerogatives and the honor and distinction flowing from them, 
finally offered to relinquish to "a public corporate body" all rights in the hospital, in 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 445 

consideration of being put in possession of the property situated in the basement of 
her actual residence, which she proposed to redeem for the sum of $18,000. This 
was subsequently increased to $20,000, and on the 9th of March, 1811, Mrs. 
Castillon and her curatrix formally relinquished "all the rights and privileges 
previously conferred by his Catholic Majesty upon Don Andres Almonaster y Eoxas, 
with reversion to his heirs, direct or collateral." 

On the 23d of April of the same year the Legislature passed a special act providing 
for a thorough organization and administration of the Charity Hospital, making 
the Governor of the State ex-officio president with power to appoint six administra- 
tors, the city council appointing three of its own members for the same purpose. 
The act was not welcomed by the council, which for reasons of its own, connected 
apparently with the maladministration of the sum of $20,000 received from the 
former patroness, passed a resolution opposing the measure, and it was only in 
Xovember upon an order from the superior court directing the president and 
members to appear and show cause why a writ of mandamus should not be issued 
against them to enforce compliance with the act, that they appointed the three 
members as required. No agreement between the administrators and council 
could be arrived at, however, with regard to the settlement of accounts, or even as to 
the site upon which the hospital should be rebuilt, and after more than a year of 
inharmonious jangling, the board resolved to petition the Legislature for an 
authorization to abandon all their control over the institution in favor of the City 
Council of New Orleans. This abandonment was finally effected in 1814, and the 
council at once entered upon negotiations for the purchase from the city of the 
square bounded by Canal, Common, Dryades and Baronne streets, and in 1815 
the "Hospice des Pauvres" of Jean Louis, the sailor, entered upon the third stage of 
its evolution as the New Orleans Charity Hospital. 

In 1830 the square and building were purchased by the State for the Univer- 
sity, and the hospital was removed to its present location on the square bounded 
by Common, Gravier, Freret and Howard streets, one of the largest squares in the 
city, measuring 450 feet on Common and Gravier streets, and 420 on the side 
streets, and containing about four and a half acres. The central building alone was 
erected at that time, but from this the hospital has branched out in every direction 
until it not only covers the entire square, but has outgrown its limits. A wing 
was added on the left, then another on the right; then came rooms on the Howard 
street side for the employees, kitchen, laundry, etc., the engineer's department on 
Gravier street, the lying-in hospital at the corner of Gravier and Freret. In 1881 



446 STAXDAUD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

outdoor clinics were established, in 1884 a separate building was opened for 
women and children, and one for the pathological department. The ambulance 
service was added in 1885, a new building being erected for it opposite the hospital, 
on Tulane avenue. In 1890 two new operating rooms were added to the old 
amphitheatre, and in 1891 a new building for clinics for women and children was 
erected on Tulane and Locust, and another for men on Tulane and 
Howard. The most recent addition is the Milliken Memorial Hospital for Chil- 
dren, built by Mrs. Deborah Milliken, as a monument to her deceased husband. 
This building, which is separated from the hospital by Locust street, cost about 
$100,000, and ranks among the most complete hospitals for children in the 
United States. 

The following table shows the number of admissions, discharges and deaths 
from 1832 to 1893 : 



i 

>• 


a 
c 
'3 
S 


B 

■a 

<: 


■a 
a; 
to 

a 

a 

5 


i 

5 


< 


1832 


309 


2,170 


1,703 


568 


1866. 


1833 


169 


3,851 


2,617 


1114 


1867. 


1834 


262 


5,841 


4,745 


1052 


1868. 


1835 


265 


6,205 


4,999 


1226 


1869. 


1836 


222 


4,754 


4,163 


585 


1870. 


1837 


228 


6,103 


4,640 


1420 


1871. 


1838 


271 


4,687 


3,890 


683 


1872. 


1839 


239 


4,833 


3,611 


955 


1873. 


1840 


267 


5,041 


4,370 


619 


1874. 


1841 


314 


4,380 


3,093 


1156 


1875. 


1842 




4.404 


3,516 


761 


1876. 


1843 




5,013 


3,672 


1041 


1877. 


1844 




5.846 


5,059 


713 


1878. 


1845 


383 


6,136 


5,446 


563 


1879. 


1846 


401 


8,044 


7,074 


855 


1880. 


1847 


427 


11.890 


9,369 


2037 


1881. 


1848 


829 


11.945 


10.010 


1897 


1882. 


1849 


609 


15.558 


12,133 


2745 


1883. 


1850 


719 


18,476 


15,989 


1884 


1884, 


1851 




18.420 


16,777 


1871 


1885. 


1852 




18.035 


15,057 


2098 


1886. 


1853 




13,759 


10,733 


3164 


1887, 


1854 




13,192 


9,976 


2702 


1888 


1855 




2,192 


9,701 


2391 


1889 


1856 




9,432 


8,601 


974 


1890 


1857 




8,897 


7,914 


1017 


1891 


1858 


572 


11,137 


8,993 


2290 


1892 


1859 


644 


12,7/5 


11,257 


1321 


1893 


1860 


730 


14,000 


12,257 


1390 


1894 


1861 


891 


8,665 


7.918 


798 


1895 


1862 




6,016 


5.532 


719 


1896 


1863 


418 


5,043 


4.202 


688 


1897 


1864 


373 


4,861 


3,999 


812 


1898 


1865 


423 


6,466 


5,580 


669 





M 




-a 




a 




0) 








bc 














S 


.a 


•d 


<u 


TS 


M 


.S 


a 


< 


O 


Q 


640 


9,329 


8,108 


1122 


738 


8,612 


7,260 


1438 


637 


4,981 


4,365 


490 


660 


6.177 


5,327 


783 


717 


7,837 


6,764 


Ills 


672 


6,671 


5,730 


891 


700 


5,541 


4.846 


825 


570 


5,090 


4,124 


993 


543 


5,231 


4,360 


860 


554 


4,945 


4,121 


753 


525 


5,690 


4,780 


742 


693 


6,002 


5,290 


805 


600 


5,878 


4,615 


1120 


604 


5.248 


4,390 


693 


643 


5.527 


4.140 


658 


534 


5,843 


4.351 


825 


559 


6,980 


5,375 


805 


668 


8,152 


7,134 


1013 


620 


7,280 


6,245 


985 


647 


6,143 


5,212 


1005 


550 


5,807 


4,764 


960 


639 


5,360 


4,336 


941 


722 


5,389 


4,590 


870 


651 


5,794 


4,928 


920 


642 


6,083 


5,015 


1023 


686 


6,706 


5,634 


1028 


713 


7,735 


6,573 


1135 


786 


8,330 


7,073 


1184 


780 


9.064 


7,927 


1143 


712 


9.812 


8.485 


1423 


868 


8,816 


7,518 


1142 


651 


7,281 


6.447 


1051 


669 


7,734 


6,599 


1117 



Grand total of Admissions 514,931 

Grand total of Discharges 431.120 

Grand total of Deaths 75.357 

Mortality 14 per cent 

Since 183-1, the hospital has been under the charge of the Sisters of Charity. 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 447 

The United States Marine Hospital was established in 180'2, but no building 
was then erected. The President was authorized by Congress to appoint a 
"director," and Dr. William Barnwell was appointed under the title of "physician 
and surgeon," with instructions to purchase in Philadelphia the necessary medical 
supplies for the equipment of a hospital. In the absence of a suitable building 
the sick were cared for in the Charity Hospital, an arrangement which continued 
until 1837, when the sum of $70,000 was appropriated by Congress for the con- 
struction of a hospital. The site chosen was near the river, just above the line 
dividing Orleans and Jefferson Parishes, and consisted of a square of ground 
350.X350 feet. The building was of brick, 150x78 feet, and three stories in 
height. When completed by the additions ordered in 184i and 1847 it had cost 
$130,000. In 185.5 it was determined to build a new hospital, and a plot of 
ground containing aboiit five acres and located about a mile from the river in the 
rear of the city was purchased at a cbst of $12,000. A fire-proof, iron structure was 
begun, consisting of a main building three stories in height, and two wings of two 
stories. After an expenditure of over half a million dollars, the authorities dis- 
covered what the townspeople had known from the beginning,— to-wit, that the 
distance from the river and the swampy nature of the ground made the location 
entirely unsuitable as a location for a hospital of any kind, and particularly for sick 
sailors. Work was therefore discontinued, and the imfinished (building and 
grounds were finally sold for $25,000, after having served for some years as a 
colored orphan asylum under the auspices of the Freedmen's Bureau. 

In 1882 Congress authorized the construction of a new hospital, for which 
was purchased, at a cost of $35,000, a plot of twenty-two acres of batture land on 
Tehoupitoulas street, between Henry Clay avenue and State street, which had 
formerly been cultivated as an orange plantation. The buildings consist of three 
wooden one-story pavilion wards, with a capacity for 100 patients, an executive 
building, a house for the surgeon, the old plantation house and cabins, a lodge 
house, and a stable. In 1896 an electric plant was constructed for the lighting of 
the premises, and also a steam laundry. Congress has recently appropriated $5,000 
for the erection of a new amphitheatre. 

The Howard Association of New Orleans deserves commemoration, and 
though they had no permanent hospital, their work among the indigent sick 
in times of epidemic connects them naturally with the subject of hospitals. This 
association dates its actual existence from the epidemic of 1837, though it was 
not legally incorporated as a chartered institution until 1843. Among the most 



448 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

active promoters of the organization were Farquhar Matthews, its first president; 
Yirgil Boiilmont, its secretary; Thomas W. Morgan, J. W. Andrews, G. Henseheidt, 
J. P. Breedlove and F. W. Leslie. The charter was to extend over twenty-five years, 
at the end of which period, unless renewed, the funds and property in possession 
of the association were to revert to the Charity Hospital. As an illustration of 
the good work accomplished by the organization it may be stated that during 
the epidemic of 1853 over $150,000 were disbursed, and 11.000 sick and destitute 
persons relieved. In 18G5 the charter was renewed, and during the epidemic of 
that year 5,000 persons were cared for at an expenditure of $78,000. 

The Touro Infirmary owes its origin to the generosity of Judah Touro, who 
left a bequest of $40,000 for the endowment of an almshouse in New Orleans. The 
Touro Infirmary Society was incorporated in 1854, and a hospital was established 
in a small building at the corner of Levee and Gaiennie streets, which formed a part 
of the property bequeathed. The institution "was found too small for the growing 
demands made upon it, and in 1881, a consolidation having been effected between 
the Infirmary Society and the Hebrew Benevolent Association, a lot of ground 
was purchased on Prytania street above Louisiana avenue, and the three large 
buildings were ready for occupation by January, 1882. In 1899 Julius Weis 
donated to the Infirmary the generous sum of $25,000 for the purpose of erecting 
a new building on the grounds designed for the aged and infirm. A Ladies' Sewing 
Society greatly aids the institution, which is now one of the finest and best equipped 
in the city. 

The Southern Hospital Association was established in 186G, for the purpose 
of providing artificial limbs for Southerh soldiers maimed during the war, and 
otherwise caring for them until they were able to maintain themselves. Up to 
1868, 800 soldiers had been relieved by this institution, and others had been assisted 
in obtaining situations as teachers, or as managers of farms. The resources con- 
sisted entirely of individual contributions, and of the proceeds of fairs held by the 
women of New Orleans and Mobile for its benefit. In 1868 the sum had reached 
the figure of $80,000, of which $25,000 remained in hand. The hospital was 
situated at No. 319 Carondelet ^Yalk, and contained at the time mentioned, forty- 
seven inmates. As the war receded the necessity for such an institution gradually 
diminished, and at length it ceased to exist. 

The New Orleans Sanitarium and Training School for Nurses was established 
about fourteen years ago, principally through the efforts of women of the city. 
The original purpose of the organization was to afford a school in which women 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 449 

coiild receive the training necessary to enable them to adopt the calling of nurse 
as a profession. In order to afford the proper facilities for instruction, a Women's 
and Children's hospital was founded in connection with the school, both insti- 
tutions being located on St. Joseph street, near Carondelet. In 1893 the woiuen who 
had hitherto conducted them surrendered the twin institutions to a corporation 
composed of about tliirtj' of the prominent physicians of the city, and with the 
change of management the name was changed to the one it now bears. It is, in 
fact, a private hospital for both sexes, and a model school for a limited number of 
nurses, the management being thus able to select only the best of the applicants. In 
1894 the institution was removed to its present quarters. No. 731 Carondelet street, 
to a building provided with modern improvements and furnishings. It is now one 
of the best training schools in the United States, possessing the prime quality of 
selectness, together with the age and experience attaching to it as a pioneer 
institution. 

The New Orleans Polyclinic owes its existence to a small number of ear- 
nest men, who, realizing the need for an institution of the kind, formed a corpora- 
tion in 1887, with Dr. J. H. Bemiss as president. The organization provided itself 
witli a home at the corner of Canal and Lil^erty streets, which it occupied until 
1895, when the present modern building at the corner of Tulane avenue and South 
Liberty was erected by the members without external aid. In every way adapted 
for the purposes to which it was destined, this building is at once an ornament to the 
city, and an example of the enterprise of medical men. 

The session of the Polyclinic lasts more than half the year, and is attended 
by medical students from all parts of the country. It enjoys all the advantages 
afforded by the Eye, Ear, Nose and Throat Hospital, and has, by act of Legislature, 
full use of the wards and outdoor clinics of the Charity Hospital, besides which 
free consultations are given every afternoon at the Polyclinic itself for the benefit 
of the poor. The faculty numbers eleven professors and about twenty assistants, all 
representatives of the profession in New Orleans and the South. 

The Eye, Ear, Nose and Throat Hospital is one of the noblest charities in 
New Orleans. It was instituted in 1889 for the benefit of patients too poor to 
pay for the services of a physician. It is under the management of a board 
of trustees, consisting of thirty-three members, three of whom are ex-officio, as 
belonging to the city government. The doors of this hospital were first thrown open 
on Dec. 5, 1889, at South Rampart street. In 1892 the building and ground at 
No. 203 North Eampart street were purchased, and the hospital removed to that 



450 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

place. During the first year of its existence 4,816 persons were treated; there were 
627 operations, and 3S,01G consultations. 

In 1894, when the discovery of Dr. Koch's serum for the treatment of diph- 
theria was announced, a committee was appointed consisting of Dr. De Eoaldes, 
surgeon-in-chief, James T. Haj-den, and Julius Weis, with power to deal with the 
question of securing serum for the purpose of experiment. A sufficient sum of 
money was obtained, and on January 15, 1895, it was reported that every claim 
made for the anti-toxine had been sustained. 

From the date of its establishment up to November 30, 1899, there have been 
treated, iu the ej'e department, 23,062; ear, nose and throat department, 26,896; 
dermatological department, 365; dental department, 724; total, 51,047, an average 
of 4,641 per year. The white persons treated numbered 35,882; colored, 15,165. 
The entire number of consultations to the same date was 345,304. 

The Hotel Dieu, originally called Maison de Sante, was opened in the year 
1852, by four Sisters of Charity of St. Vincent de Paul from St. Joseph's, Em- 
metsburg, Maryland, Sister Teresa Sherridan being Superioress. The Maison de 
Sante, the nucleus of the present well known Hotel Dieu, occupied the premises 
of Dr. Warren Stone, whose friendship for the Sisters, and support of their estab- 
lishment, ceased only with his noble life. For some years the institution was 
carried on in its original location. Slowly but surely the humane work gained 
prominence, until it became evident that in justice to its many patrons, a more 
commodious building must be provided. Then was the project for the erection 
of the present Hotel Dieu formed and carried into effect. 

In 1858 the Sisters transferred their jjatients from the old Maison de Sante 
to the present Hotel Dieu, as it was determined that the institution should hence- 
forth be styled. Since that date, the good work has steadily continued to enlarge 
its opportunities of service to sufl'ering humanity. From time to time needful addi- 
tions have been made, until to-day it holds an honorable place among institutions 
of like character, not only of the South but of the United States. 

Among the late movements of special interest made by the Sisters in charge 
are the surgical operating rooms, in which are afforded facilities for realizing 
the crowning success of this grand era of surgery — asepsis. 

The institution is happy and proud to have connected with its noble work 
men whose names are foremost among the medical and surgical lights of the 
South. Prominently interwoven with its progressive development are the names 
of Dr. P. C. Boyer, Dr. A. B. Miles, Dr. F. Parham, Dr. D. Jamison, Dr. D. Raynaud, 
Drs. E. and H. S. Lewis. 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 451 

The training school for nurses is connected with the Hotel Dieu, which, in its 
lecture course, class-work, and practical advantages, ranks favorably with the promi- 
nent training schools of the country. The course covers three years, and the staff 
of instructors includes sixteen of the most eminent and scientific members of the 
New Orleans medical faculty. Dr. H. S. Lewis is at present (1900) house 
surgeon. 

ASYLUMS, CONVENTS, HOMES FOR THE INDIGENT. 

The first orphan asylum of New Orleans, and indeed of the State, owed its 
existence to Julian Poydras, already alluded to as author of the first epic poem 
of Louisiana. In 1816 this charitable man gave a large lot and a house on Poydras 
street for the purpose of establishing an asylum for orphan girls, with the proviso 
that by the consent of the board, "any female child may be admitted" though not an 
orphan. The Legislature appropriated $4,000 for its benefit, and it was opened the 
same year with 14 orphans. By 1821 the number had increased to 41, and a new 
house had been built at 153 Poydras street, which is described as a neat "frame 
building with a large garden." By a clause of the constitution the society is to 
"provide a house for the reception of indigent female orphans and widows, which 
shall be enlarged according to the income of the society." 

The asylum has since been removed to Upper Magazine street, corner of Peters 
avenue, where it is installed in a large, four-story building surrounded by ample 
grounds. It is managed by a board of directresses, and is supported by the income 
from the property devised for that purpose by the founder. 

The Poydras Male Orphan Asylum, at the corner of St. Charles avenue and 
Dufossat street, was also endowed and founded by Mr. Poydras. 

The Protestant Society for the Eelief of Destitute Orphan Boys was organized 
at a meeting held in the Presbyterian Church March 28, 1824. At this meeting a 
committee was appointed to solicit subscriptions for the establishment of a home 
for destitute boys, one of their number being charged with the task of requesting 
aid from the city council. Up to 1841 the institution was sustained by contributions 
from the community, but was without a permanent endowment. xMmut this time 
the dormitory, library and fine schoolhouse were destroyed by fire, and an appeal 
was made to the public for aid. John McDonogh donated $100,000 to the society, 
which was thus enabled to build the present large, substantial house on St. Charles 
avenue, between Dufossat and Bellecastle streets. The asylum is now sustained 
by the income derived from the rentals of its property. 



452 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

St. Mary's Orphan Asylum (Catholic), at the corner of Chartres and Mazant 
streets, was established in 1835. It is governed by a board of gentlemen, but tlie 
internal management is in the hands of the Sisters of Charity. The only condition 
of admission is that of orphanage. It is supported in part by private contributions, 
and in part by the income derived from property acquired either by donation or 
purchase. 

St. Vincent's Home for Boys, established by the Society of St. Vincent de 
Paul, 1836, is for the maintenance of half orphan boys. Its resources are derived 
from the State, from donations, from work, and from contributions from the 
society. There is also a St. Vincent Asylum for half-orphan girls on Cam- 
bronne street, corner of Third. 

The New Orleans Female Orphan Asylum (Catholic) dates from 1843. It 
was incorporated under the management of a band of Sisters of Charity, for the 
purpose of "receiving, harboring, nursing, raising, maintaining and educating des- 
titute female orphans under the age of fifteen," who were to be entirely under the 
control of the Sisters until they had attained their majority, or were married. 
Since the establishment of the St. Elizabeth House of Industry, in 1855, it lias 
become the rule to transfer the inmates of this asylum at the age of twelve to the 
latter institution, where they are taught needle-work, housewifery, and given a 
good education. The asylum owns property to the amount of about $40,000, but 
is assisted by appropriations from the State and from the city. 

The Protestant Orphans' Home, corner of Constance and Seventh streets, was 
called into existence by the necessity of supplying a home for the children orphaned 
by the epidemic of 1853. It received its first aid from the Howard Association, 
which sent fifty-six orphans left to its care, each with a dower of $100, and gave an 
additional $2,000, making $7,600 in all. Orphans of both sexes are admitted, as well 
as half-orphans whose surviving parent is incapable of caring for them. Its 
support comes from the State, the city, private subscriptions, and membership 
dues. 

St. Joseph's German Bo3-s' and Girls' Orphan Asylum (Catholic), also estab- 
lished in 1853, is supported by the State and city, and receipts from St. Joseph's 
Cemetery. It is situated at No. 2044 Laurel street. 

The St. Elizabeth House of Industry, already mentioned as having been 
founded in 1855, admits girls between twelve and thirteen, who are permitted to 
remain until they are eighteen. This institution is self-supporting, deriving a 
good income from the needle-work, fine washing and other industries practiced by the 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 453 

inmates, which is supplemented b}- that arising from property valued at many 
thousands of dollars. 

St. Vincent's Infant Asylum, established in 1862, serves as the foundling 
asylum of the city. It is strictly for infants, who, at the age of seven, are trans- 
ferred, the girls to the Camp Street Orphan Asylum, the boys, to some other 
institution. This asylum, which is one of the most interesting, as well as de- 
serving, in the city, is located on Magazine street, at the corner of Race. The 
building is a commodious brick edifice, and its nurseries, halls, and dormitories are 
models of neatness. It is supported by the State and city, and by private donations. 

The Episcopal Home, situated at the corner of Jackson avenue and St. Thomas 
street, is an asylum for girls under the care of the Sisterhood of the Protestant 
Episcopal Church, and a well managed institution. 

Other asylums for children in the city are : 

Saint Alphonsus' Orphan Asylum (Catholic), Fourth, corner St. Patrick. 

Orphan Girls' Asylum, Immaculate Conception (Catholic), 871 North Ram- 
part street. 

Asylum of the Societe Frangaise de Bienfaisance, Saint Ann, near Roman. 

Mount Carmel Female Orphan Asylum (Catholic), 53 Piety street. 

Saint Isidore's Institute (Farm School), North Peters, corner Reynes. 

Asile de la Ste. Famille (for colored children). 

Providence Asylum for Female Colored Children, Hospital, corner North 
Tonti. 

There are also a House of Refuge for boys, established by the city authorities 
in 1848, and one for girls, established in 1853, as reformatories for boys and girls 
not over fifteen years of age. 

As early as 1839 an institution for the reclamation of fallen women was 
established by the Sisters of Charity under the management of a Lady Superior 
and a corps of twenty assistants. In 1868, at which time its inmates numbered 
130, the Sisters of Charity retired, and the house was taken in charge by the Sisters 
of the Good Shepherd. The buildings, at the corner of Bienville and Broad 
streets, are of brick, and very extensive, comprising dormitories, working-rooms, 
chapel, etc. It is divided into two departments, one for girls who are placed there 
by their parents, and the other for those committed by the city magistrates. In 
addition to the household duties performed by the inmates they are employed in 
various kinds of needle-work, and in laundry work for private families, hotels and 
steamboats. 



454 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

CONVENTS. 

The French Ursulines, established at Paris in 1611 by Marie Lhnillier, was the 
lirst religious commiinity to find a footing in New Orleans. Tliis order originated 
in Brescia, Italy, in 1537, having been founded by Angela de' Merici, chiefly with 
the view of devoting itself to the education of young girls. As early as 1724 Bien- 
ville realized the necessity of providing some sort of educational advantages 
for the girls of the colony. He consulted Father Beaiibois, the superior of the 
Jesuit missionaries, who had recently arrived from France, and who suggested the 
Ursulines of Rouen as likely to be able to supply religious teachers. Application 
was immediately made, and in September, 1726, an arrangement was concluded 
with Marie Frangoise Tranchepain, known as Sister Augustine, and Marie Anne le 
Boulanger, known as Sister Angelique, by which they agreed, with the assistance 
of Mother Catherine Bruscoli, of St. Amand, and four other nuns of their order, 
to take charge of the education of the young girls of the colony, and to nurse the 
sick in the military hospital. According to the contract they were to reside per- 
manently in the colon}', whither they were to be transported with four servants at 
the cost of the company, a gratuity of 500 livres being paid to them before depart- 
ure. They sailed from Port I'Orient in the ship Gironde, February, 22, 1727, 
and according to tradition had a most adventurous voyage. Not only were they 
beset by terrific storms, but they were chased by corsairs, and at one time, says 
the legend, all the ladies were driven "to assume male attire and man the ship to save 
her from pirates." In the Caribbean Sea they again encountered fearful winds; 
they were stranded on Dauphin Island, losing nearly all the ship's cargo, and 
only reached the shores of Louisiana in July. At the Balize they were transferred to 
pirogues for the journey up the river, which consumed fifteen days, the voyagers 
going ashore at night for such rest as the mosquitoes would permit. 

At last, when their friends had given them up for lost they gained the scene 
of their future labors, the little village of New Orleans, which at this time pre- 
sented "no better aspect than that of a vast sink or sewer," fenced in by sharp 
stakes and surrounded by a broad ditch. 

According to some accounts, Bienville gave up his own residence, a flat-roofed, 
two-story building, with many windows, covered with linen instead of glass, which 
stood in the midst of a "deep forest," on the square now bounded by Customhouse, 
Bienville, Decatur and Chartres streets, — to the use of the nuns, but others, with 
more probability, say that the military hospital, which was then situated at the corner 
of Chartres ami Bienville, was placed at their disposal, and tliat they resided there 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 455 

until their own dwelling was made ready for them. A tract of land with a frontage 
of eight acres on the Mississippi, and a depth of forty acres, was conceded to the 
hospital as a plantation to supply the wants of the nuns, and to afford them a 
suflficient remuneration for their services to the sick, and soon after their arrival 
the foundations of a nunnery were laid on the lowest square of the city, on Conde 
(now Chartres) street, between Barracks and Hospital, and a military hospital was 
built near it. The edifice was completed by the latter part of 1730, and was imme- 
diately taken possession of by the nuns, who continued to reside there until 
1824, when they removed to their present more spacious and delightful retreat on 
the banks of the river below the city. Up to the time of the construction of the 
new convent the old one was the largest house in Louisiana. In 1831, the State 
House having been destroyed, the old convent was taken possession of by the Legis- 
lature as an assembly room, continuing to serve in that capacity until 1834, when 

« 
the legislative body removed to the building formerly occupied by the Charity- 
Hospital. The convent, which is the oldest building in the city, is now used as the 
residence of the Archbishop. 

The new Convent of the Ursulines, on North Peters street, near Poland, con- 
sists of a number of buildings connected with each other, with a chapel at the 
lower end. The main building, a long, white structure facing the river, is a con- 
spicuous landmark to persons approaching the city by steamboat. It is surrounded 
by a grove of magnificent oaks and pecan trees, and large gardens, and continues 
to enjoy the patronage of the Creoles, for whose benefit it was established, as a 
school for their daughters. The order is a cloistered one, and some of the nuns 
who reside there have never been outside the convent walls since their entrance upon 
the religious life. 

The Discalced Carmelites (Descalzos, or barefoots) have but four convents 
in the United States, and one of these is located in New Orleans, on Barracks 
street, between Burgundy and Rampart. This, it will be remembered, is the 
Eeformed Order of the Carmelites, established by Saint Teresa, at Avila, Spain, for 
the purpose of reviving the austere rules prescribed by its founder, Albert, Patriarch 
of Jerusalem (1209). These rules, which had been relaxed by Pope Eugenius IV., 
in 1431, enjoined "strict seclusion, solitude, the plainest dress, the most ascetic 
diet." Teresa did not wish that the sisters should be entirely "shoeless " "A 
barefoot," she said, "makes a poor beast of burden." They were allowed to wear 
sandals made of rope, but were "to be confined to the cloister strictly, to eat no meat, 
to sleep on straw, to fast on reduced allowance from September to Easter; they 



456 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

were to do needle-work for the benefit of the poor, and they were to live on alms, 
without regular endowment." ''With all this," says Froude, "she had been careful 
of their health, imposing no greater hardships than those borne without complaint 
by the ordinary Spanish peasants. The dress was to be of thick undyed woolen 
cloth, with no ornament but cleanliness. Dirt, which most saints regarded as a 
sign of holiness, Teresa always detested. The number of sisters was to be thirteen ; 
more, she thought, could not live together consistently with discipline." When 
Teresa, with the consent of the Provincial of Avila, removed from the Carmelite 
Convent of the Incarnation to the little Convent of San Josef, 
which she had secretly founded, the only luggage she took 
with her was "a straw mattress, a patched woolen gown, a whip and a hair-cloth 
shirt," and this slender outfit sums up the personal belongings of those who to-day 
observe her rule. '"Their dress," says a writer, speaking of the convent in Xew 
Orleans, '"is of the coarsest brown serge; they wear no linen, and their under- 
garments are also of serge, even their pocket handkerchiefs being of brown cloth. 
Square pieces of hempen cloth are tied with bits of rope upon the feet and ankles, 
and sandals of knotted cord are worn upon the feet. * * * The Carmelite 
fasts from the 14th of September (the E.xaltation of the Holy Cross) until Easter 
of each year. * * * She sleeps in a bare little cell containing a table, a 
chair, and two low benches, upon which are laid two planks. These planks, covered 
with straw, form her resting place, and her only covering is a sheet of serge. In 
the early dawn she rises from this poor bed, and in the still chapel begins her 
prayers. The morning until 11 o'clock is spent in meditation, prayer and work. 
* * * Xot by so much as a sup of water does she break her fast until 11 o'clock, 
and then the little band of brown-robed women meet for the midday meal. They 
never eat meat ; the order forbids it, and they sit at a low, narrow table, eating from 
the coarsest yellow plates, and with an iron spoon and fork. The food is generally 
rice, beans, other vegetables, and soup made without meat. Everything is cooked 
in the plainest way, and lard is not used except when they are too poor to buy 
oil. This meal is plentiful, and each person eats what is put upon her plate, particu- 
larly of those things she does not like. * * * During this long season of fast, eight 
hours a day are spent in repeating the services of the church — the Carmelite nuns re- 
peating the same service daily that the priests do, and, like the priests, receiving com- 
munion every Sunday morning." Self-flagellation is also practiced, as by the 
founder, Saint Teresa. 

The Carmelites have been established in New Orleans only about twenty years. 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 457 

The sisters all bear such names as Mary, Dolorosa, etc., which arc given thoni 
when they take the final vows. Many of them were young and gifted, with beautiful 
faces and many accomplishments, and all were women of wealth when they gave up 
the world to find happiness and the peace that passeth understanding in the re- 
ligious life. 

The Convent of Perpetual Adoration, Marais, between Mandeville and Spain, 
shelters another order which has but recently appeared in this country. Eeaders of 
Victor Hugo's masterpiece, "Les Miserables," will recall the description of the con- 
vent at No. G2 Petite Eue Picpus, in which was performed what they call "the repar- 
ation." "The Eeparation," says Hugo, "is prayer for all sins, for all faults, for all 
disorders, for all violations, for all iniquities, for all the crimes which are committed 
upon the earth. During twelve consecutive hours, from four o'clock in the afternoon 
till four o'clock in the morning, or from four o'clock in the morning till four o'clock 
in the afternoon, the sister who performs the reparation remains on her knees upon 
the stone before the Holy Sacrament, her hands clasped, and a rope around her neck. 
When fatigue becomes insupportable, she prostrates herself, her face against the 
marble and her arms crossed ; this is all her relief. In this attitude, she prays for all 
the guilty in the universe. * * * As this act is performed before a post on the 
top of which a taper is burning, they say indiscriminately, to perform the reparation 
or to be at the post. The nuns even prefer, from humility, this latter expression, 
which involves an idea of punishment and abasement. The performance of the 
reparation is a process in which the whole soul is absorbed. The sister at the post 
would not turn were a thunderbolt to fall behind her. iloreover, there is always a 
nun on her knees before the Holy Sacrament. They remain for an hour. They are 
relieved like soldiers standing sentry. That is the Perpetual Adoration." 

This order was originally cloistered, but the adverse legislation in France, 
where it has been domiciled since 1653, by which it has been stripped of all means 
of maintenance, has compelled the sisters to engage in some vocation that will yield 
a revenue. They have accordingly added the vow of St. Joseph to their other vows, 
and have become a teaching order, with the privilege of leaving the convent, and of 
traveling from place to place, as do the sisters of St. Joseph. 

The Convent of Sisters of the Holy Family has quite an interesting history. 
It dates back to the early forties, to 18-12, to be exact — at which time three young 
colored women of means and education, agreed among themselves to embrace the 
religious life, and to devote themselves to charitable works among their own people, 
to help the helpless, to care for the old and infirm, to counsel and befriend the young. 



45 8 STANDARD HISTORY OP NEW ORLEANS. 

and especially the young and unprotected girls of their own race, to teach the cate- 
chism, and to prepare young and old for the sacrament of the communion. Tlieir 
number was recruited by a fourth young woman of good family and education, and 
Juliette, the eldest of the four was selected for Mother Superior. Their first estab- 
lishment was a humble little house in an obscure neighborhood near Bayou St. John. 
During the war they suffered many hardships and discouragements, and its close 
threw upon their care a large numljer of the poor and sick, but they struggled 
through, and even found means to establish a school, to open two branch houses in 
the country, and to assume charge of an orphan asylum. 

In 1881 prosperity began to smile upon them, and they were able to purchase 
the site of the old Orleans street ball-room, and to build thereon a neat and siibstan- 
tial house of brick. At that time the adjoining ground, where formerly stood the 
old Orleans theater, was occiTpied by a circus, whose music and uproar broke in upon 
their prayers and vigils with peculiarly discordant effect, and the flames w'hich at 
last rid them of the nuisance no doubt seemed to them Heaven-sent. Immediately 
Mother Jiiliette conceived the idea of purchasing the ground, and so securing future 
indemnity from obnoxious neighbors. She had no money, but she had faith to be- 
live that it would be provided, and so it was. The ground was bought, and a timely 
bequest from a benevolent man of her own race, who, in dying, divided his wealth 
impartially among white and black, Protestant and Catholic, objects of charity, en- 
abled the sisters to build a chapel where the annoying circus had stood. The be- 
nevolent colored man was Thomy Lafon, and in proper recognition of his philan- 
thropy the Legislature of the State ordered that his bust be carved and erected in 
some public place, the only man of African race who has been so honored in 
Louisiana. 

Many relics of the old ball-room are preserved within the convent walls. The 
dancing floor maj' still be seen, made of three thicknesses of cypress boards, and re- 
puted to be the best dancing floor in the world. There is also the balcony w^here, in 
the intervals of the dance, the gentlemen led their fair partners for a promenade, 
and beneath it a section of the banquette where belligerent beaux awaited the ap- 
pearance of the successful rivals who had alienated from them the favor of the ladies 
of their choice. 

The community consists of forty-nine sisters who follow the rule of St. Augus- 
tine. They serve a novitiate of two years and six months, and during ten years their 
vows are renewed annually. After that time they are considered as perpetual. 
Orphans are received from every State in the Union, as well as from South America, 
Central America and Mexico. Their pay pupils also come from all quarters. 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 459 

St. Henry's Convent, on Constance street, between Milan and Berlin, is the 
home of the Sisters of Christian Charity. This order was founded in 1849, by Pau- 
line Mallinckredt, in Paderborn, Westphalia. The special work of the sisterhood 
was the Christian education of youth and the care of the blind. Many branches of 
the order were founded in Germany, Denmark, Austria, and other countries of 
Europe between 1849 and 1873. In this last named year the decree of Prince Bis- 
marck was issued expelling certain religious orders from Germany, and among them 
the Sisters of Christian Charity. By invitation of the Archbishop of the diocese, 
the foundress, with forty or fifty of her nuns came to liew Orleans, where they were 
warmly welcomed and placed in charge of the parochial school of St. Henry's 
Church on Berlin street. The humble house which first sheltered them has given place 
to a handsome convent, and another has been founded within the twenty-six years 
that have elapsed since their landing. On the 21st of August, 1899, the sisters cele- 
brated in a quiet manner the golden jubilee of the founding of their order. 

The other convents of New Orleans are : 

Convent de Ste. Famille — 173 Hospital street. 

Convent of Mt. Carmel — Olivier, corner of Eliza (Algiers). 

Convent of the Benedictine Nuns — 630 Dauphin street, between St. Ferdinand 
and Press. 

Convent of tlie Good Shepherd — Bienville, between North Dolhonde and 
Broad. 

Convent of the Redemptorists — Constance, between St. Andrew and Josephine. 

Convent of the Sacred Heart — 96 Dumaine. 

Convent of the Sisters of Notre Dame — Laurel, between St. Andrew and 
Josephine. 

Mt. Carmel Convent — 200 Hospital street. 

St. Alphonsus Convent of Mercy — St. Andrew, between Constance and Maga- 
zine. 

St. Joseph's Convent — St. Philip, corner North Galves. 

HOMES FOR THE INDIGENT. 

Conspicuous among the charities of New Orleans is the handsome three-story 
brick building at the corner of Prytania street and St. Mary, familiar to all as St. 
Anna's Asylum. This institution, designed as a retreat for poor gentlewomen, was 
projected by Dr. W. N. Mercer, who offered to give $30,000 toward its establishment 
and maintenance upon condition that an equal amount be raised from other 



460 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

sources, and that it be called by the name of his only daughter. These conditions 
being complied with, the house was built, and in 1850, the Widows' Home, as it is 
most freqiiently called, stood ready for its destined inmates. The home is man- 
aged by a board of twenty directresses,* including its officers, there being also a real 
estate committee of seven men. Its resources are derived from dues, subscriptions, 
donations, and the proceeds of the industry of the inmates. In 1867 the State 
donated to its fund the sum of $3,500, and its total receipts for the year were 
$4,800. It can acconimodate 100 persons. 

The Widows' Home, on Laharpe street, between Johnson and Prieur, is 
a Catholic institution established in 1851. Although called a "Widows' Home," 
both children and old men are admitted, and at one time, some thirty years since, 
there were in the house forty-seven women, twenty-five aged and infirm men, and 
twenty-four children. It is managed by a committee of women who style them- 
selves "Ladies of Providence." Being without endowment, its support comes from 
the city and State, supplemented by work done by the inmates, and by private 
charity. It is nevertheless constantly in debt, it being impossible to accommodate 
the expenditures to a budget of such uncertain proportions. 

The Home for Jewish Widows and Orphans was founded by the 
association for the Eelief of Jewish Widows and Orphans, a society incorpo- 
rated March 14, 1855. The corner stone of the first building erected by the society 
was laid August 7 of the same year, and the edifice, which stood at the corner of 
Jackson avenue and Chippewa street, was dedicated January 8th, 1856. This build- 
ing, a three-story structure, 86x41 feet, served until 1887, when, more room being re- 
quired, a location was selected at the corner of St. Charles and Peters avenues, and 
a new home was built, three stories high in front, and two stories and a basement 
in the rear. The cost of ground, building and furniture was $100,000. 

Since 1885 the home has been devoted exclusively to children, the widows being 
accommodated at the Touro Infirmary, though still supported by the association. 
Manual training for both boys and girls has been recently introduced, the girls 
being taught all varieties of needlework and housekeeping, the boys carpentery and 
other trades. The institution is supported by membership fees from 787 members, 
and the interest on a permanent fund ; the trust fund and the reserve fund together 
amounting to $65,569.35, and the total net assets of the association amounting to 
$180,339.35, besides a small farm of 40 acres in Rapides Parish, the gift of Mrs. 
F. Sohmalinsky, of Alexandria, La. 

The total expense of conducting the institution for the year ending March 4, 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 461 

1899, was $36,934.19. Applicants are admitted from the day of birth, if neces- 
sary, up to any age, according to conditions and circumstances, and remain as long 
as is required in each case. They come from all the Gulf States, and from Ten- 
nessee and Arkansas. 

The Fink Asylum is the beneficent gift of Mr. Jolm David Fink, a native 
of the little town of Winnenden, Kingdom of Wurtemburg. Mr. Fink was born in 
1785, and came to this country in childhood. New Orleans became his home, and 
here he spent his long life, dying in 1855, nearly seventy years old. He had never 
married, and in his will, after setting aside a fair proportion of his estate to a sister 
and other relatives and friends, and making provision for his slaves, whom he also 
liberated, he willed as follows: 

"It is my wish and desire, and I do hereby declare the same to be my will, that 
after the payment of my just debts and the several legacies herein above mentioned, 
that the proceeds of the whole of my estate, property, rights and credits, be applied 
to the erection, maintenance and support of a suitable asylum in this city to be used 
solely as an asylum for Protestant widows and orphans, to be called the Fink 
Asylum." 

The heirs at law made an attempt the following year to have this clause of 
the will declared null and void, but the Supreme Court of the State de- 
creed that the charity created was to be legally administered by the city corporation 
of New Orleans. Acting under this decree, the Common Council in 1860 appointed 
the first Board of Commissioners, and ordained "that when the capital from all 
sources shall amount to the sum of $200,000, then the Board of Commissioners, 
under the direction of the Common Council, shall purchase a site, and erect upon 
it the buildings and establish, furnish and organize the Fink Asylum." In 1874, 
after disposing of all the real estate, etc., willed by the donor, the commissioners 
found themselves in possession of $215,349, and there was appointed a Board of 
Commissioners or Directors, to supervise the erection of the asylum and to attend 
to all affairs pertaining to it. These commissioners were representative men from 
all the leading Protestant churches of the city. In 1875 a square of ground bounded 
by Camp, Amelia, Chestnut and Antonine streets, was purchased, with the buildings 
thereon, at a cost of $10,000. At present this property, with the improvements, is 
worth $50,000, and the funds hold premium bonds the market value of which is 
$272,767, while the magnificent sum of $135,600 has been expended for the main- 
tenance of Jhe institution with its more than seventy regular inmates. 

The Little Sisters of the Poor, an order founded by Abbe le Pailleur, at St. 



462 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

Malo, in 1840, have an asylum for the aged and infirm at the corner of Johnson and 
Laharpe streets. The asylum has no revenue save from charity and bequests, yet 
with these uncertain means the sisters have been able to erect extensive buildings 
occupying nearly a square of ground. The rules of the order forbid all luxury, and 
the plain little chapel which forms the center of the group of buildings, boasts no 
organ, or decorations of either painting or sculpture. The asylum is divided into 
two departments, male and female, and the only condition of admittance is that 
one is poor, old and helpless. The Little Sisters gather up daily, from the markets 
and restaurants, the surplus of the well-to-do, which would otherwise he thrown 
away, and thus manage to feed their houseful of helpless dependents. 

The Home for Homeless Women was established in 1888, since which time 
it has given shelter to many hundreds of needy and friendless women. For tlie 
year ending 1898 there were admitted 123 adults and 34 children. The Home is 
located on Polymnia street, between St. Charles avenue and Carondelet street. 

The Home for Homeless Men was instituted about 1896 for the purpose of 
giving men out of employment, but willing to work, an opportunity to earn food 
and shelter until steady work can be procured. The principal industry is the sale 
of wood and coal, the wood being sawed and split by the inmates, some of whom 
canvass for orders and collect outstanding accounts. There is also a printing estab- 
lishment on the premises conducted by practical printers, where various styles of 
cards, circulars, etc., are made to order. The institution is now self-supporting, 
and is doing much good. 

It is situated at the corner of Chippewa and Toledano streets 

Other homes for the indigent are : ; 

Home for Aged and Destitute Women, Magnolia, corner Lafayette. 

Home for the Aged and Infirm (city charity), Annunciation and Calliope. 

Hospital de la Ste. Famille (for old colored people), 49 Saint Bernard avenue. 

House of Eefuge (destitute colored girls), Annunciation. 

Widows' Home, 352 Esplanade avenue. -; 

Shakespeare Alms House, North Eampart and Arabella. 



CHAPTER XIX. 



THE AMUSEMENTS OF NEW OELEANS. 
By B. E. Forman, Jr. 

THE principal and most characteristic amusement in New Orleans is the Carnival, 
which will be treated under another head. The next most important and 
unique amusement is the French Opera. Then there are the theaters and 
racing and other sports. There is very little driving in New Orleans, although there 
is more than there used to be. Hunting and fishing has always been extensive. 

The pleasure-loving character of the people, which takes its origin partly from 
their inherited tendencies from the French, which has leavened even that part of 
the population which is of English descent, and partly from the location of the city 
in the South, finds its vent principally in the Carnival, which is the most extensive 
and magnificent in all the world and in all history, and in the Creole cooking, which, 
both in private families and in the public restaurants, is absolutely unsurpassed. 

SIGHT-SEEING. 

One of the amusements which strangers always indulge in when they come 
to New Orleans, and in which residents of the city could follow them in as to 
many things, with no small degree of pleasure, on account of the number of curious 
things to be seen, is the amusement of sight-seeing. Most people are eager to see 
the sights of the old Creole quarter as the oldest and most historical part of the 
city; but the American quarter also is well worth seeing, and can bear comparison 
with any of the other cities of the country. In attempting to see the sights of 
New Orleans one usually starts from Canal street and goes down Eoyal or Char- 
tres towards Jackson square. Along Eoyal street may be noticed in the fi.rst block 
at old No. 18, what used to be the famous gambling saloon, now Miller's Billiard 
Saloon. On Customhouse street, the first street from Canal, a few doors from Eoyal 
street, is the house where the celebrated Lopez, in 1851, organized his filibustering 
expedition against Cuba. A little further down, near St. Louis street, old No. 110, 
imbedded in the banquette on either side of a huge stone gateway, are two cannon 



464 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

buried so deep in the earth as scarcely to be noticed by the ordinary passer-by on 
the street. Here were, in the old days, the Spanish barracks, and here were also 
quartered the soldiers of his most Catholic Majesty during the Spanish Colonial 
days. Opposite the old commanderia is the Hotel Eoyal, now the St. Louis Hotel, 
at one time the State House, one of the places of the most historical interest in 
New Orleans. Here the negroes were sold at auction, in slave days, at an exchange 
which was located in the biiilding. Here was where the Radical authorities were 
besieged at the termination of the reconstruction days by the citizens, who formed 
themselves into an army of revolutionists to oppose them and had trained artil- 
lery upon the building. On Eoyal street are several second-hand stores which sell 
antiques, many of them very valuable and genuine, although some of them spurious 
— notably the beds in which Lafayette slept when he came to New Orleans, where 
he once passed a night, of which four are exhibited — beautifully carved four 
posters, with prices ranging from two to three hundred dollars on account of the 
historical interest. 

On Eoyal, at the corner of Hospital, is the famous "Haunted House," the 
decorations of which are remarkable ; carved doors, carvings on the inside, bronzed 
imitation of an elaborate sort of the ancien regime. This is a house that is de- 
scribed by Mr. Cable in his Strange True Stories of Louisiana, as belonging to 
a lady who so maltreated her slaves that she was mobbed by the citizens whose 
moral sense was outraged by her wicked behavior. Tiirning into Chartres and 
coming down again. towards Canal, at the corner of Ursulines, stands the old Ursu- 
lines Convent. It is now the Archbishop's palace. Still coming down Chartres, at 
the corner of St. Ann is the Jackson Square, the Plaza des Armas, under the 
Spanish, Place d'Armes under the French, where the Louisiana patriots were 
executed by Don O'Eeilly when he took possession in the name of the Spanish 
Government, and where General Jackson triumphed after the Battle of New Or- 
leans. Jackson Statue is in the centre, by Clark Mills, a duplicate of the statue 
in Washington. On either side of the square are the Pontalba buildings, named 
for Madame Pontalba, a daughter of Don Almonaster y Roxas, one of the early 
celebrities of New Orleans, who founded the Cathedral and the Charity Hos- 
pital, and who lies buried in the Cathedral at the right of the altar, with the 
inscription over his grave of his name and titles. Chevalier of the Royal 
and Military Order of St. Louis, etc In the railings of the galleries of the 
Pontalba buildings, are to be noticed tlie monogram, "A. P.," Ahnonaster-Pontalba. 
Facing the s(iuare stands the ('athcilral St. Louis, tlie oldest clunvli in New 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 465 

Orleans, and one of the buildings of the most historical interest in the city. On 
either side, stand what are now the Court House buildings — the building now oc- 
cupied by the Civil District Court on the north side, originally the presbytery 
building for the occupation of the priests, and on the south side, the building now 
occupied by the Supreme Court, which in ancient days was the Cabildo or City 
Hall. On the gallery of this building the officials stood when the territory was trans- 
ferred from Spain to France and from France to the United States. Upon the 
entablature near the roof, are cannon and cannon balls of ancient design with 
the American Eagle inserted after the cession to the United States, where in turn 
were the emblems successively of his most Christian majesty and his most Catholic 
majesty the Kings of Spain and France. Coming down Chartres street, opposite 
the Supreme Court building, at the corner of St. Peter, is what is now a barroom, 
which is one of the most ancient buildings in the city, originally the oldest hotel 
west of the Alleghany Mountains. On Chartres, at the corner of St. Louis, is an 
old building with a cupola, which was built for the occupation of Napoleon, by an 
enthusiastic admirer of his in New Orleans, who had planned an expedition to 
rescue the Emperor from St. Helena, and built the house for his occupation, upon 
his anticipated arrival in New Orleans. But the Emperor died before the expedi- 
tion set out. Between St. Louis and Canal streets, on Chartres, are the New Orleans 
bird stores, which are very curious, filled with all sorts of birds and alligators and 
snakes, tropical birds from Central and South America, and curious animals, 
such as fanciers collect. 

There have been outlined above a very small number of the things that are to 
be seen in the exploration of New Orleans. In the ancient city the sights are 
inexhaustible. There are fan light transoms of the old regime and ancient archi- 
tecture — Spanish and French — with the dormer windows, batten shutters, and 
court yards and Spanish water jars of the most romantic description. 

A stranger should not omit a visit to the chapel of St. Roch, which is an 
absolutely mediaeval institution, and to the Lugger Landing at the Picayune Tier 
at the head of Hospital street, with the Luggers with their red lateen sails, rocking 
at the moorings, and the lugger men squatting on the decks, a scene that the artists 
love to paint. The luggers come from the oyster beds of the South, and are laden 
with oysters. They have all sorts of queer names, too — San Remo, Three Brothers, 
The Admiral Techetof, The Josephine. It is one of the most picturesque sights 
in the city. 



466 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

OPERA AND THEATERS. 

The beginning of the theatrical business in New Orleans dates back to 1791, 
when a company of French comedians was brought over and played in the city. 
According to the chronicles, this is the first theatrical engagement of any company 
in New Orleans. 

The first theater in New Orleans was erected in 1808, the Theatre St. Philippe 
on St. Phillipe street. The building was afterwards turned into the Washington 
Ball Room. The St. Phillipe street school-house is now upon the same location. 
It was at this theater that Noah M. Ludlow, one of the celebrated of the early 
managers, first produced an English play, opening his season in 1807 with Tobin's 
comedy, "The Honeymoon." 

The newspapers of 1810 make mention of a theater on St. Peter street, but 
very little is known of it, and the writers of the history of New Orleans upon that 
period make no mention of it. 

The famous theater of the old days was the "Orleans Theater," at the corner 
of Royal and Orleans streets. In 1868 it was foirnt and there is now only left a 
wing of it, which shows some of the ancient architecture. This wing is now the 
colored convent. 

In the early days, it was in this theater that the opera was introduced in New 
Orleans, which was the first opera in America. The citizens at that time were, 
as now, enthusiastic with regard to music, and the operatic performances were 
elaborate and from a large repertoire : Rosini, Meyerbeer, Auber, Mozart and otiier 
great composers were held in New Orleans long before the other cities of the country 
had obtained that degree of civilization. The audiences were fashionable, and so 
great was the love of the public for operas that the performances extended to a 
length which now seems extraordinary, the operas beginning at half past 6 and con- 
tinuing some times until 12 o'clock. 

The first building upon the site of this theater was erected in 1813 by a 
joint stock company. This was burnt in 1816 and the Orleans Theater, bearing 
that name, was built in 1818 by John Davis, who had become the sole proprietor of 
the first theater. The cost was one hundred and eighty thousand dollars. The 
architecture of the lower story is described as Roman Doric, although not pure, 
and the upper story is Corinthian composite. The finish inside was elaborate. 
There was a large j)it or parquette and loges grilles, and all the accessories of a com- 
plete opera house. In 1819 the Orleans Theater was opened by the second dramatic 
company that was ever imported to America from France. The first has already 
been mentioned as having played in New Orleans in 1791. 



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STANDAED HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 467 

Connected with the Orleans Theater and forming p&rt of it, was the Orleans 
Ball Eoom. Sometimes they boarded over the floor of the parquette and threw the 
whole into one dancing floor. The ball-rooms were built in 1817. It was here that 
the famous Quadroon Balls were given that figure so largely in the Romances of 
New Orleans and in the tales of the travelers who visited the city in the early days. 

It seems strange that the theater and ball-room, in the changes of time, should 
have been transformed into a convent. No one now looking at its wide old fagade 
of rusty brown, without adornment, and seeing the colored religcuscs pass- 
ing in and out the heavy door, would suppose that here used to be the most famous 
theater of ante-bellum days, and the ball-room where quadroon balls were given 
that are to be read of in the guide-books and the romances of Mr. Cable. 

On Camp, near Poydras, where the Moresque building used to be, wa-s the 
American Theater. It was burnt on the 20th of July, 1848, and then rebuilt and 
reopened on the 5th of December, 1842. There was another American Theater on 
Camp street — the "Old Camp," as it was affectionately called by the public and by 
the actors who played in it. It was erected in 1823-1824 by James A. Caldwell, 
Esq., who is famous as one of the most prominent of the New Orleans managers of 
the day. 

The Gaiety Theater, which was, at one time, named the Varieties, was on 
Gravier street, behind the Cotton Exchange. Varieties Alley takes its name from 
the old theater. 

The Bijou Theater, which was afterwards Werlein Hall, stood at the corner of 
Baronne and Perdido streets. 

The old St. Charles Theater — "Old Drury" — was perhaps the most famous of 
all of the New Orleans theaters. It was ereoted by Noah M. Ludlow and Sol Smith. 
They built it in sixty days as a toiir de force, in their rivalry with James M. Cald- 
well, who was the successful theatrical manager of the day and against whom they 
had entered into competition. The old St. Charles has been recently burnt and has 
not been rebuilt. For many years it was as famous as the St. Charles Hotel. It 
was the largest theater in town, one of the oldest, and the theater where the most 
famous actors and companies played. Here all the actors of celebrity in America 
played as long as the old house stood — Keene, Macready, Ellen Tree, Charlotte 
Cushman, Joseph Jefferson, Junius Brutus Booth, John Wilkes Booth, Edwin 
Booth, Buckstone, Fanny Ellsler, etc. 

In the annals of the St. Charles are many anecdotes of the famous players who 
played there ; the story of Joe Jefferson's being fined when he was a young man for 



468 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

disorderly conduct in his dressing room, and Mr. George VandcrhofT, who used to 
he very famous in tlie old days of Hamlet and as Claude Lorraine in the Lady of 
Lyons. When Mr. VanderholT was performing the latter part he was interrupted, 
as he was carrying Pauline up stage when the lady had fainted in the play, by 
an unmannerly man in the audience who shouted out to him, "Kiss her !" So 
great was the chivalry of the audience in those days that the offender was bodily 
taken up by the audience and passed from hand to hand and incontinently ejected 
from the house. In his "Leaves From the Actor's Notebook," where he records the 
anecdote, Mr. VanderhotI remarks that the next lines of the play were, "There ! 
We are strangers now." They were received by the audience with cheers and laugh- 
ter. 

Then there are stories of the daring of John Wilkes Booth, who, when the city 
was occupied by General Butler, during the war, would cross from the St. Charles 
Theater to the bar across the way, yelling out cheers for the Confederacy and hal- 
loaing for the Bonny Blue Flag, a proceeding which was, in those days, considered 
a feat as much as a man's life was worth. 

The Academy of Music, close adjoining the St. Charles Theater, was for many 
years a favorite play-house in New Orleans. While a small theater, the companies 
that played there were good, and until in its later days, when music hall attrac- 
tions were brought there, the audiences were refined. It was at the Academy of 
Music that the farewell production of Bidwell's Stock Company was given. They 
played Victor Durand and the house was packed from pit to gallery, and the com- 
pany, which was one of the best stock companies that ever played in New Orleans, 
or any other city, was given an enthusiastic farewell. It must be remembered that 
all of the notable actors played in that splendid company. It was from the stage 
of the Academy of Music, during the civil war, the actor Harry McCarthy first 
sang "The Bonny Blue Flag," which became one of the national songs of the Con- 
federacy. 

The Grand Opera House, which was at first the Varieties Theater, is still owned 
by the Varieties Association. It is celebrated for one of the most magnificent en- 
trances in America. With Messrs. Klaw & Erlanger's new Tulane and Crescent 
Theaters, it is one of the three theaters in New Orleans. 

The French Opera House was erected in 1860 and designed by Gallier, one of 
the celebrated architects of the time. It is situated on Bourbon street, at the corner 
of Toulouse, and while the exterior is not particularly prepossessing, except with 
regard to its size, it is equipped in every respect as an opera house should be, with 



STANDAR/J If/STOny OF NEW ORLEANS. 4C9 

a parquette, loges, secondes, troisidnnes, quatriemes, loges grilles, baignoires grilles, 
dress circle and boxes and foyer, all decorated to a high degree and of the most 
magnificent kind. Here the fashionable gather on opera nights and grand opera is 
given as elaborately as in Paris. The artists are singers of high price and great 
merit, and there are trained choruses and ballets. The companies are capable of 
performing opera boufCe, as well as grand opera. The choru.ses are carefully trained, 
consisting of a number of people who make a livelihood by singing in the choruses, 
and who are singers of a marked degree of ability. In the audiences, besides the 
fashionable, tliere are some who are genuinely musical. Among the population of 
New Orleans are many people who are musical by habit and by inheritance. For 
many years the opera has been established in New Orleans, and before that it existed 
in France, whence the ancestors of many of the opera choruses come. Both grand 
opera and opera bouffe existed in New Orleans long before it was established in any 
other city of America. The opera is one of the features which distinguishes the 
city and of whicli it i.s jtroud. It would render it remarkable among American 
cities even if it had no other unique feature. 

LOTTERY. 

During the reconstruction days, Mr. Charles Howard and Mr. John A. Morris, 
the latter of whom came to New Orleans from the North, established the Louisiana 
State Lottery, whicIi for nimiy years had a i-enown throughout the country. It was, 
perhaps, the largest lottery that ever existed in the United States. The profits were 
enormous and the proprietors amassed immense wealth, becoming multi-millionaires 
and being known as lottery kings. 

Through its wealth and through the corruption which existed in Louisiana 
politics during the early reconstruction days, the lottery company secured from 
the Legislature a charter which gave it a monopoly and the prestige of being the 
State Lottery, and rendered its position, for a time, impregnable. The prizes were 
large, tickets were sold throughout the country and throughout the world. Besides 
the grand drawings, for the poor people who could not afford the price of the tick- 
ets to the grand drawings, the company established daily drawings, at which tickets 
were spld for small sums, thus adding to their clientele the poorest classes of people, 
as well as those who were better to do, who could better afford the indulgence. Thi' 
political influence of the lottery was great, and necessarily so, inasmuch as to secure 
its monopoly it was necessary for it to control every Legislature. It was this, to- 
gether with the reassertion of the moral sense of the people, which was shocked by 



470 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

the bad repute to which Louisiana was brought in other parts of the country where 
lotteries had been abolished and were prohibited, that finally brought the lottery 
to an end. A vigorous campaign was started against the renewal of its charter, 
and in spite of the most strenuous efforts on the part of the lottery people in the 
campaign in which Governor Foster was first elected, the lottery was destroyed 
and no longer has an existence in Louisiana. It is said that at the last Legislature 
at which the charter of the company was considered, as much as one hundred 
thousand dollars was offered and paid for the votes of the members of the Legisla- 
ture in favor of the company. It is to the credit of the people of Louisiana that, 
in spite of its immense wealth and its unscrupulous use of it, and its entrenched 
political position, the lottery was finally destroyed. While the Honduras lottery, 
which has succeeded the Louisiana lottery, still exists, and its tickets as well as the 
tickets of other petty foreign lottery companies, in violation of the law, are still sold 
in New Orleans, compared to what the business once was, the lottery business in New 
Orleans is now a mere bagatelle. 

When the history of New Orleans, during the existence of the lottery, comes 
to be written, the extent to which the evil spread will be found to have been enor- 
mous. Immense numbers of people patronized it in all positions and in all walks 
of life. It spread even to the domestic servants, whom, it was said, filched the mar- 
ket money from their employers to invest in the daily drawings. Business men 
regularly every month set apart a portion of their profits to invest in lottery tickets. 
Clerks on small salaries took one or more tickets as regularly as pay-day came 
around. The anxiety of the lottery ticket holder at the time of the drawings, the 
scenes at the policy shops, where the tickets were sold, the stories of the fortunes 
that were drawn in prizes and the fortunes that were expected during weary years 
and never drawn, would form a fit theme for the writer of fiction. 

GAMBLING. 

In the early days New Orleans was regarded as an El Dorado by the gamblers, 
who flocked to the city from all parts of the country and of the world. It was partly 
on account of the cosmopolitan character of the people, who were French and Span- 
ish, with an admixture of foreigners from other parts of the country, and partly 
because gambling was more universal in the early days all over the world than it 
is now. The moral sense of civilized countries has been developed to an extent that 
has diminished the practice to a considerable extent, although it is not entirely 
suppressed. The early Creoles were very fond of gambling, and the Americans who 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 471 

cnmc to this city were not far behind. It is related of an old Creole planter that 
he named two streets that were laid out in his plantation, which became part of the 
city, "Craps" and "Bagatelle," on account of the two fortunes which he had lost 
at those games. Faro, roulette and vingt-et-un were played at the gambling house 
at the corner of Orleans and Bourbon streets. Another famous ranch was on Bayou 
St. John. 

Very large sums were said to have been lost in these early days, and the most 
distinguished people played. Colonel Grymes and Edward Livingston, who were 
leaders of the bar, were said to have been very heavy plungers. John Davis, the 
theatrical manager, is said to have made a considerable fortune in various sorts of 
gambling games, and besides his theatrical ventures, opened gambling rooms, which 
were the sources of the capital he used in his theatrical business. In 1832 there 
were not less than fourteen large gambling establishments; and the evil grew to 
such an extent with the public games and the encouragement of private games, 
brag and ecarte, which followed upon the great indulgence in public gambling, that 
the Legislature in 1832 passed a law to suppress gambling. At the time of the 
Mexican w^ar it broke out again, and rondeau and loto were added to the old games 
which had made Xew Orleans the famous center for gentlemen of the green cloth. 
At old No. 4 Carondelet street there was a famous establishment, where now the 
Louisiana Club is located, for many years the domicile of the Boston Club. This 
was run by McGrath & Company, and was visited by prominent gamblers from all 
over the country, where the pools on the Metarie races were sold. It was elegantly 
fitted up and the business done was positively enormous. It afterwards became 
Sherwood & McGrath's. It is said that the losses in one night's play at McGrath's 
amounted to as much as eighty thousand dollars. 

Until it was closed by the law, old No. 18 Royal street was one of the most 
famous establishments of the city. Roulette and loto, faro and other games were 
played. It was frequented by large crowds of all classes and nationalities. It was 
brilliantly illuminated and ran day and night. More than most American gam- 
bling houses it resembled the gambling resorts of Europe, on account of the 
cosmopolitan character of the crowds and the popularity of roulette and the foreign 
looking croupiers, with their blue-black, close shaven faces. There were always 
Chinamen in this establishment playing loto. The Americans played roulette and 
faro and other games, only occasionally taking any hand at loto to try their luck 
against the Chinamen. With celestial patience and perseverance the Chinamen 
used to stick to their game for hour after hour, with absolute immobility whether 
they won or lost. 



472 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

Although there are laws against gambling in Louisiana — the Constitution de- 
clares gambling to be a vice, and the lottery has been stopped and the large gambling 
houses closed — there is still a considerable amount of it in the citj'.- Boys who play 
craps in the street are arrested, but private gambling houses that are out of sight 
flourish unmolested, although it is charged that the police must needs know of their 
existence. The man who comes to New Orleans who wishes to gamble will find no 
difficulty in running against a sport who will steer him to a place where he may be 
fleeced with a thoroughness as absolute as it was done in the old days. Poolrooms 
are open and are thronged by men of all classes and ages. At the private clubs 
there are still played games of poker, and it is said the gains and losses sometimes 
amount up to a considerable figure. Of course, at the races, there is a regular bet- 
ting ring, and on every race a considerable amount of money changes hands. 

RACING. 

While it is true that neither in New Orleans nor in Louisiana has there been 
any breeding of blooded horses, nevertheless, on account of the sporting and pleas- 
ure-loving character of the people, horse-racing, from the earliest days, has been 
a prominent feature of the city. The old Metairie racecourse, where now the Me- 
tairie Cemetery is located, fifty years ago was the most famous racecourse in the 
United States. Between 1840 and 1860, in proportion to the population. New Or- 
leans could bear comparison with any city in the world as to the number of its 
racecourses and the quality of the races. Even at the present time. New Orleans 
is one of the racing centers of the country. 

There was the Eclipse course at Carrollton, the Metairie course, that has just 
been referred to, the Bingaman course in Algiers, La., a course on the Hopkins 
plantation, about twelve miles below the city, and the Union course, now the Lou- 
isiana Jockey Club course, which is the only one that is now used. 

It was on the Metairie course that Lexington defeated Lecompte, April 1, 1854. 
Duncan F. Kenner, Richard Ten Broeck, Colonel Jefferson Wells, Colonel Binga- 
man, Colonel William Johnson and all the magnates of the day were present. 
Among the spectators was ex-President Fillmore. Perhaps this was the most fa- 
mous race that was run in New Orleans in the old days, although the racing was 
frequent, the horses were of first quality and the purses high. 

The races in our day take place in the spring and autumn at the Fair Grounds 
and are conducted by the Louisiana Jockey Club. 

The New Louisiana Jockey Club was incorporated on the IMth of March, 1880, 



STANDARD HISTORY OF Nf:\V ORLEANS. 473 

with a capital stock of seventy-five thousand dollars. The charter members and 
the first board of directors were : R. W. Simmons, John A. Morris, Walter J. Hall 
and George W. Nott. 

The Xew Orleans races are one of the features of ISTew Orleans and of the 
South. The best horses of the country are brought down, and great pains are taken 
by the club members, who are gentlemen of high character, to have the races abso- 
lutely fair. The crowds that gather there are great and the grand stand frequently 
contains a large assemblage of ladies. 

Adjoining the racecourse is the Jockey Club House, on the Metairie road, with 
an entrance drive from the racecourse. The Jockey Club House was once the 
residence of Mr. Luling. The club purchased it for sixty thousand dollars. It has 
a front of five hundred feet on Esplanade street by twenty-five hundred feet deep, 
with an area of nearly thirty acres. It is high ground and is exempt from overflow. 
The gardens are beautifully set out and are kept in perfect order, with Southern 
trees and plants and flowers and shrubbery. In the center of the park there is a 
lake, with a small island. There are orchards of fruit trees surrounding the park, 
and flowers and shrubbery. It is one of the most beautiful places in the country. 
The club building is a large old-fashioned brick building, three stories high, witli 
magnificent reception and dining rooms, library, reading rooms, etc., beautifully 
furnished with carved furniture. Large galleries surround the building and the 
terrace is one of the most beautiful in the country. It is surmounted by a cupola, 
from which a magnificent view of the city and the surrounding country can be 
had. 

Here, during the summer, the club gives its famous promenade concerts, 
which are attended by the fashionable people of the city and are among the features 
of social life in New Orleans. Bands of musicians are stationed about the gardens, 
in the shrubbery, and the grounds are lighted up by numbers of Chinese lanterns and 
electric lights, the effect of which is very beautiful. 

HUNTINO AND FISHING. 

On account of its situation, surrounded as it is by water and with bayous and 
lakes all over the country, and its neighborhood, no city in the country is more fav- 
orably situated than ISTew Orleans for all sorts of sport. The hunting is principally 
of ducks and snipe, but all kinds of fish, fresh water and salt, are caught in the 
immediate vicinity. There are many hunting and fishing clubs near the city of N"ew 
Orleans, many of them within the city limits, though not within the built-up por- 



474 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

tion, as the city limits of New Orleans stretch to the Eigolets, from the Jefferson 
line, a distance of fort}' odd miles. Every sportsman has his particular hunting and 
fishing grounds, but the whole country is good. There are hunting clubs at Eng- 
lish Look-out, at the Eigolets, Chef Menteur, at Miller's Bayou, Lake Catherine, 
and at Chandeleur Islands. All of these places are good for fishing also. Many 
of the sportsmen have elaborate outfits of canoes, pirogues and hunting suits — 
which must be yellow, the color of the marsh grass — and decoys, and innumerable 
paraphernalia for the amateur sportsman. The snipe shooting is good, but hunting 
duck is considered the nobler sport. The variety of ducks that may be shot in 
Louisiana is innumerable. The experts will name many more kinds than are found 
in the treatises of the ornithologists. The French duck is generally conceded to 
be the finest duck with regard to appearance and for the table. The Louisiana 
ducks, it is claimed, fly faster than the ducks in any other part of the world, but 
nevertheless very many are killed, both by the regular pot hunters and by amateur 
hunters. Many of the hunters are expert shots, and will calculate to a nicety the 
exact angle at which the gun is to be held and the exact distance ahead of the duck 
that it must be pointed. The hunting trains during the hunting season over the 
Louisville & Nashville Eoad, are always crowded with the regular hunters and 
their friends, whom they are taking over, and when they return Sunday night the 
amount of game that is brought in is something extraordinary. Over every scat 
is hung a bunch of ducks, and the baggage car, besides, is loaded full. To hunt 
ducks in Louisiana is not like hunting game in any other part of the country, where 
an afternoon can be devoted to the sport. It is a regular expedition. It is necessary 
to go to the hunting grounds so as to remain over night and get up an hour before 
daybreak and row or paddle in a small canoe or pirogue (riding in a Louisiana 
pirogue has been described by a visiting Englishman as floating in the water on a 
match) to the hunting grounds, where the blind is made and the hunters lay con- 
cealed until daybreak, when the ducks are expected to come. The coldest weather 
is considered the best for the sport, which, with a long pull before daybreak, makes 
the' amount of hardship that is endured necessarily considerable. The marshes are 
damp, and when the ducks do come, you have to be very quick in handling the gun, 
as single ducks or whole flocks will fly by with the rapidity of a rifle bullet. Never- 
theless, the game seems to be worth the candle, as when the ducks are flying the 
bags that are secured are considerable, and the Louisiana ducks are the finest in 
the world. 

All sorts of fish are caught in the waters of South Louisiana. Trout, black 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 475 

fish, perch, bass, croker, sheep-head, Spanisli mackerel, ponipain). mullet, plaice, 
red-fish and cat-fish. The cat-fish usually trouble the anuiteur fisherman, as they 
abound everywhere in great quantities. To catch small shark at Grand Isle with 
a rope for line and immense hooks is considered a very enjoyable sport on account 
of the dangers from the bite of the fish. The sport is not finished when the fish is 
caught, as, with the shark, it is necessary to kill it. The favorite way is to chop off 
its tail with a hatchet. While the fisherman is chasing the shark to "decapitate" 
its tail, if an Irish bull may be used, the shark is very often chasing the fisherman. 
Sharks are caught at the end of the Island and they are usually small shark, three 
to three and one-half feet long. Green trout is considered one of the finest fish 
that can be caught, and in all the bayous and lagoons during the summer they 
abound. 

The sportsmen's stores in N"ew Orleans keep in stock all sorts of rods and tackle 
and flies, where fishermen's outfits and paraphernalia can be had, and the trade is 
very considerable, as many men in New Orleans are enthusiastic fishermen, and 
some of them very expert. Green trout are usually caught with live bait, shrimp 
being used, though some believe in a bit of red flannel to attract the trout. There 
is always doubt about the red flannel, but it is supposed to appeal to the picturesque 
taste of the fish. There is no doubt about the shrimp. They will bite at shrimp, 
and the 'Cadian fishermen, who are always experts in all sorts of fishing, always 
employ shrimp. 

COCK-FIGHTING. 

In the old days, cock-fighting was one of the sports par excellence in New 
Orleans. While the practice never grew to the extreme that it has in Mexico and 
in the Central American countries, where the Reiiidero de Gallos is as invariably 
a feature of the city as the Plaza, with its bands of musicians; nevertheless there 
were cock-pits in many parts of the city, and then there was quite a trade in the 
breeding and training of game cocks, and considerable money was wagered upon 
the success of likely birds. 

The old Spanish cock-pit is at the corner of Dumaine and Priour streets, where 
occasionally a cock-fight is held, and where, a few years ago, there were mains regu- 
larly every SuTidayL f rom 9 a. m. till 3 p. m. Although it was originally a favorite 
sport with the Creoles, and although most of the fighting was in the Creole quarter 
of the city, nevertheless, it spread to the Americans, and the up-town residents be- 
came as fond of the sport as their down-town neighbors. There is a cock-pit in 



476 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

JefEerson Parish, just across the dividing line of the Parish of Orleans and the 
Parish of Jefferson, where many celebrated mains have been held, and where the 
jeunesse dore and the boys from "the front" frequently gathered to see the sport. 

raizE-Fir.nTiNG. 

At one time prize-fighting was one of the regular sports in Xew Orleans. In 
no city of the world, not even in London, has the manly art flourished as it did in 
New Orleans in its heyday. Xew Orleans was the headquarters of the Sullivan- 
Eyan fight which took place in Mississippi, and of the Sullivan-Kilrain fight, which 
also took place in Mississippi ; and in the city itself many famous fights were held, 
principally at the Olympic Club, at which Sullivan, Corbett, Hall, Fitzsimmons 
and all the great stars of the prize ring appeared and won fame and large purses. 
No club in the United States ever offered as large purses as the Olympic Club. 
There were several of the fights where purses of twenty thousand dollars were of- 
fered. 

Prize-fighting in New Orleans was finally stopped by a decision of the Supreme 
Court in a suit to forfeit the charter of the Olympic Club, and now only glove con- 
tests are held, which are infrequent and do not elicit great interest. 

BASE-BALL. 

Base-ball, since it has become a national game, has been played in New Orleans, 
and there have been in the city many fine games, the base-ball season extending for 
quite a while, and clubs from different leagues playing in the city, principally at 
Sportsman's Park, the grand stand of which is very large and the accommodations 
being sufficient, with the bleachers, to hold many thousands of people, who fre- 
quently congregate to see the games. 

RACQUETTE. 

Eacquette is still played in New Orleans at the old City Park on the Metairie 
road, near Canal street, by the Creoles, who have always been very fond of the game. 
There are several clubs in the city in the down-town quarter, and on Sundays very 
good games may be witnessed. 

TENNIS. 

While it was fashionable, tennis was played throughout the city, though of 
late it has been supplanted by golf. There are still many clubs in existence, notably 
one that plays in Audubon Park, and many people have tennis courts in their pri- 
vate yards. 



bTANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 477 

GOLF. 

The game of golf is recent in New Orleans, but is firmly established here, as 
in all large American cities who have followed the fashion of England and of New 
York in reviving the ancient game of Scotland. In Audubon Park there are several 
golf links, and the players operate upon them very frequently. There is a Golf 
Club and a Golf Club house in the park, at which, on ladies' day, teas are given 
which are considered quite minor society events. 

A peculiar feature of the sport in New Orleans is the picaninny caddy, who is 
very different in appearance from his Northern and European compeer, and by no 
manner of dressing up in the golfing rig can be made to look "English, you know." 
The appearance of a little negro boy in golf costume is one of the most comical 
sights that can be seen anywhere in the world, the resemblance being to that of the 
monkeys in fancy dress that accompany hand-organs. Nearly all of them pout 
while they are addressed as caddy, as if they did not understand the meaning of 
the word and take it to be a term of opprobrium, and, as during a game it is fre- 
quently necessary to call "caddy," the faces of the little negroes grow blacker and 
blacker. 

SUMMER PLEASURE RESORTS. 

In summer the population of New Orleans goes to the West End, which is 
reached by electric cars that start on Canal and Bourbon streets. In some respects 
it is like Coney Island in New York. There is music there during the summer, 
and some of the bands are of a very high quality. Vaudeville, restaurants, a 
scenic railway and sideshows and special attractions on special days draw the crowd. 
The restaurants have been already referred to under that particular head. The 
Southern Yacht Club is located at West End, and the West End and the St. John 
Rowing Clubs. 

The Spanish Fort, where the old Spanish Fort is still standing, was at one 
time a popular resort, and it is claimed by many to-day to be a much prettier place 
on account of the gardens than West End, but very little used, partly on account 
of the defective train service and partly on account of the growing supremacy of 
West End, due to its nearness to the city. The Spanish Fort has been given over to 
the negroes, and is a favorite place for negro picnics. 

The oldest of the summer pleasure resorts in New Orleans is Milneburg, whence 
the boats leave for Mandeville and Covington and places across Lake Pontchar- 
train. There are many private clubhouses here, and restaurants, also skiffs and 



478 .s'7'.I.\7>.iy/^ IIL^TOIir OF NEW ORLEANS. 

sail-boats to liirc 'I'lic finest of tiic n'staiiraiits is Moreau's, which will bo Ircati'il 
of imdi'i- Ibc licail nf I'cslMurailts. 

RKSTAUKANT8. 

Onu of (be most cclcbnitod eiift's of tiie old days was John Davis's, on Orleans 
etrcct, between Koyal and Bourbon, next lo the Orleans Tiieater and the fainous 
Orleans ballriKini. Here the wild .yoiiiij,' fellows and the roues of the early jiarl of 
the eenlurv used lo nieel lo di'ink. Here Ihey would ipiarrel over their drink or 
over some rival at one of the quadroon balls in the ballroon\ next door, aiul when 
the details were arranged, to report under the Trois Soeurs at the City Park, or, as 
tradition lias it, if it were late at night, upon the plat of ground in the rear of I he 
Cathedral, now feneed in, which was an admirable and convenient place for a duel 
with eoliehcmardes. Then there was the T.a Bourse de Maspero or Maspero's Vj\- 
changc, celebrated in the third decade of the present century. This was located on 
the corner of St. Louis and Chartres streets. The building has been changed some 
in the progress of time, but th(> ancient architecture is still recognizable. The 
Southern Kxehange barroom is now where the old Bourse used to be. This was 
the lilerarv I'eslaiiranl in aneieni linu's, anil the editors of the pajiers, professional 
men and Ihe nierclianis, used to meel and drink, ([uarrel and play dominoes, whic'li 
was a great game in Ihe old days. In ancient New Orleans there were quarrels ami 
also duels, not so many as at John D.avis", which was the fighting ])lace i)ar ex- 
cellence. 

The reslanranis lo-day are Lainothc's, on St. Charles, near Common, Moreau's. 
on Canal, between Carondelet and St. Charles, which has just been closed, and 
Fabacher's and The (iein, on Iioyal, near Canal, and the Restaurant de Paris, on 
Bourbon street, just o])])osite the French Opera House, where there is an admiralde 
table d'hote, and .\ntoine's, on St. Louis street, between Eoyal and Bourbon, cele- 
brated for its Creole cooking, as also Bczaudun's Restaurant de la Louissanc, on 
Cuslomhousc, belween Royal and Bourbon; at West End, Tranchina's and Astredo's 
and others. .M Miliieburg there is Moreau's, where they still serve the HouiUa 
bais.so. liercil waslhal Thackeray ale il when he came lo N'ew Orleans in I lie ".'lO's. 
when Miguel cooked il. ami Ihe famous novelist acknowledged that il was as good 
as that of Monsieur Tcri'c, al I'aris, famous in the New Street of Ihe lallle Fields 
tlial be immortalized in Ihe Ballad of the Bouillabaisse. 

(ipposile Ihe Cily Bark is the Renaissance des Chenes Verts, which Mr. .Mcialere 
keeps. It is one of the best restaurants in the country. There is Begue's, the fa- 



STANDARD IIISTOIiY OF NEW ORLEANS. 479 

mous breakfast place, on Decatur, at the corner of Madison, iiiul counllcss small 
restaurants in Ijidlr itiily, where the Hoheinians foregather; Pegot's, Bufla's, etc. 

The cooking in Now Orleans is celebrated, gourmands claiming that the Creole 
cooking is tlie best in the world. Francatelli and Urbain Dubois cannot equal the 
dishes prepared by a genuine Creole cook. The game, papaijottes, grassets, ducks 
and snipe are served fessande. There is bisque and courtbouillon and salmi and 
Spanish (imclcttes of all soiis. mikI gombo, gomho an\ lierbes, gombo file, gomlm aiix 
ecrevisses. 

Two drinks that are peculiar to New Orleans are the "roffignac," said to have 
been invented by the Marquis do RofTignac, one of the celebrities of the early days; 
and absinthe, which is also drunk in Paris. It is found at the old Absinthe House 
at the corner of Bourbon and Bienville streets, which was built in the year 1752, and 
which has been an absinthe house since 1826. 



CHAPTER XX. 



THE CHUECHES. 
By J. M. Leyeque. 

THE church which first sent the desciples of the gospel into Louisiana was the 
Eoman Catholic. De Soto is recorded as having had a number of missiona- 
ries with him. In the early days of the settlement of New Orleans, that 
religion, as to-day, had the majority of followers here. That was inherent in the 
nature of things. The two nations, Spain and France, under whose dominion 
Louisiana was, and to whom the early settlement and progress of Louisiana were 
due, were Eoman Catholic, and, although many of the early settlers were Hugue- 
nots, the strife of religious belief seems to have been much softened by the exigencies 
of the new life and the necessity to be brotherly and to live after the teachings of 
Christ. Twenty-two ecclesiastics are recorded to have accompanied the adventurous 
band of De Soto. The influence of the church is legibly traced in numerous names 
of parishes in the lower section of the State and in even more numerous names of 
streets of the city. 

When Eobert Cavalier de la Salle gave the name "Louisiana" to all that terri- 
tory which for years was of very indefinite boundary, one Father Athanase 
accompanied him. This is the same priest who later was the companion of Bien- 
ville and Iberville when they entered the river from the sea in 1699. The Eoman 
Catholic Church was very active in its missionary work among the Indians in those 
early days, and many of the clergy were martyrs to their zeal at the hands of the 
red man. 

When Decoudray came to Mobile in command of a fifty-gun ship in 1705, the 
Bishop of Quebec sent five priests with the party. The bishop also sent two nuns 
to Louisiana. They were of the order of Grey nuns and were the first to come to 
Louisiana. As early as this date, or very little later, there must have been a chapel 
erected in this city by the Catholics, for we find mention of it in the chronicles of 
Father Charlevoix, who visited the city in 1722. New Orleans was then an infant 
city, and it is evident that the founding of the city and of the place of worship in 




/y. M. 



STANDARD HISTORY OP NEW ORLEANS. 481 

it, must have been contemporaneous. It is recorded that in the year following, 1723, 
a severe storm passed over the city, demolishing the little chapel in which the first 
inhabitants of New Orleans used to worship. It is, therefore, not to be supposed 
that the first edifice of worship was a very sturdy structure. 

In the time of Bienville, three of the great orders of the Catholic Church were 
assigned each a division of ecclesiastical territory — the Jesuits, the Discalced (bare- 
footed) Carmelites and the Capuchins. The territory thus divided was very vast, 
extending to the Illinois River. The division excluded from New Orleans the order 
of Jesuits, and so Bienville provided that the Mississippi Company should furnish 
a house and lot for the representative of the Jesuits, and a chapel and vestry. 
Father Petit, a Jesuit superior, was stationed here, and thus the order of Jesuits, 
which has subsequently become so powerful and taken such a leading part in edu- 
cational and other work, had its humble origin in this part of the world. Although 
excluded from New Orleans in the assignment of territory, the necessity of having 
representation and a home in the entrepot of the southern valley brought the order 
here. 

The Discalced Carmelites, failing to take charge of the territory assigned them 
in the ecclesiastical assignment, their province was turned over to the Capuchins. 

The Bishop of Quebec at this time was the Vicar-General of Louisiana. He 
appointed Father Bruno, of the Capuchins, the first superior in Louisiana. The 
superior and his two monks ministered to the people of New Orleans in the early 
days. One of the monks was assigned to the troops, stationed here for the defense 
of the infant civilization, and the other ministered to the laity. 

It was by the industry of the Jesuit fathers of the early days of New Orleans 
that a large and valuable tract of the territory now occupied by the city of New 
Orleans, in the heart of the business section, was cleared of forest trees and put into 
use by civilized man. The tract extended from what is now Common street to De- 
lord. Facing on the river, it extended back to the lake. On this tract the Missis- 
sippi Company erected for the order a house and chapel. The grant of this property 
was made as a result of the Jesuit convention of 1726. The Jesuits, having them- 
selves cleared their property of the trees, installed a wax-shrub grove, from which 
a merchantable article was extracted. Their active industry converted this tract into 
one of the very first and finest estates of the primitive days. During the reign of 
Louis XV, of France, the estate was confiscated and sold for $180,000. The confis- 
cation took place in 1763. It was at the time that the greatest unfriendliness was 
being shown the order by the home government. It was alleged as an excuse for 



482 STANDARD HISTOEY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

the confiscation tliat tlie order here took no care of their missions; that they con- 
cerned themselves alone with improving their plantation, and that they had usurped 
the office of the Vicar General. At home the order was accused of attacking the 
royal authority, of encroaching on the prerogatives of the bishops, and, in fine, of 
endangering the public safety. 

The superior council of Louisiana, on June 9, 1763, condemned the order of 
Jesuits without a hearing. This was prior, by some ten years, to the sweeping con- 
demnation of the order by Clement XIV. By the sentence of the council, the goods 
and chattels of the Jesuits were sold at auction, with the exception of some books 
and clothes, which they were allowed to keep. The money realized on the sale of 
their goods in the city was to go to the missions, and that coming from property 
confiscated and sold in other parts of the State should go to the King. Even their 
church ornaments and sacred vessels were turned over to the Capuchins by this 
uncompromising decree, which further ordered the chapel of the Jesuits razed and 
the fathers sent back to France, forbidding them in the time before their departure 
to live as formerly in community. So vindictive was the execution of the decree 
that when the chapel was razed, not even the graveyard near by escaped desecration. 
The only Jesuit who was allowed to remain in New Orleans at the time of this 
expulsion was Father Baudoin, seventy-two years old, broken and feeble. He had 
resided for thirty years in the colony, and having no relatives or friends in France, 
he was allowed to remain in New Orleans for the rest of his days. It is thus seen 
that New Orleans enjoys the distinction of being one city on the new continent 
sufficiently old to have witnessed the days when men were "banished the city," and 
when religious persecution ran riot. Part of the Jesuits, not alone from New Or- 
leans, but through the province, departed in January, 1764, and part the next 
month. But three of all the number remained — Father de la Meurinie, who was too 
ill to undertake the voyage to the old country ; and the other. Father Meurin, who 
in some manner obtained consent to return to his mission work among the Indians. 
Father Baudoin was taken under the care and protection of Etienne de Bore, who 
in those days owned a home where Horticultural Hall in Audubon Park now stands, 
overlooking the river. The venerable Jesuit died in 1766. 

The Jesuits, being expelled from New Orleans, the Capuchins were then in 
ecclesiastical charge of the city. Father Dagobert, of whom many a vagrant verse, 
still preserved, sings, was the superior of the order. It was about this time that 
Louisiana became a part of the bishopric of Santiago de Cuba, being detached from 
that of Quebec, to which it had previously belonged. Right Eev. James Joseph de 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 483 

Echevaria was at the time the head of this bishopric, being stationed in the Antilles. 
The Spanish government, desirous to spread the use of the Spanish tongue in Lou- 
isiana, sent four young ladies here, who took the veil as Ursuline nuns, with the 
duty before them of teaching the tongue to the youth of New Orleans. It also sent 
one Spanish priest at the same time. This was in 1772. In the same year the 
ecclesiastical affairs of Ncav Orleans were taken in charge by Father Cirilio, a Span- 
ish Capuchin, who was sent to the city by the Bishop of Cuba. He arrived here 
July 19. There was some friction engendered between the priests of the same order, 
but of different nationalities. The Spanish Capuchin in charge sent reports to his 
bishop relative to the French Capuchins not at all to the credit of the latter. The 
Spanish governor, Unzaga, however, disapproved these reports and succeeded in 
establishing harmony between the priests of the difPerent nationalities. In 1781 
Father Cirilio was made a bishop and auxiliary to the Bishop of Santiago de Cuba. 
He was thus the first bishop of Louisiana, which, however, still remained a part of 
the former diocese. He appointed Father Antoine de Sedella rector of St. Louis 
Parish in New Orleans, and, after twenty years of service, was retired in 1793. 
Father Sedella had been one of six priests sent here by the Spanish government in 
1779, all of the Capuchin order. 

At the time of the retirement of Bishop Cirilio there had come to New Orleans 
a number of Protestants. Four Irish priests had also come to the mission of Lou- 
isiana from the seminary of Salamanca. They arrived in 1787. The bishopric of 
Havana was formed in 1790. The bishopric of Santiago de Cuba and the southern 
part of the island of Cuba became the bishopric of Santiago de Cuba. The northern 
portion of the island and the Floridas were merged, with Louisiana, into the bish- 
opric of Havana. Three years later, on April 25, 1793, Louisiana and the Floridas 
were formed into a new bishopric. Its ordinar)^ was Don Louis de Penalver y 
Cardenas, formerly a Jesuit pupil. St. Louis church was made his cathedral and 
New Orleans his see. The new bishop arrived July 17, 1795. 

At the opening of 1800 the Catholic religion was still the only one holding 
public religious services in New Orleans. There were two chapels and the church. 
The church was in charge of a priest and three assistants. It owned one square of 
ground. The pew rent and $100 per annum paid by the King was the entire revenue 
of the church. The chapels were attached, one to the hospital, the other to the con- 
vent. To the latter institution, M-hat was looked upon as a great misfortune 
happened on May 29, 1803, when sixteen of the Ursuline nuns, dissatisfied with 
French rule, left the convcjiit and went to Havana, only eleven nuns remaining. 



484 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

Bishop Penalver was made Archbishop of Guatemala on July 20, 1801, and the 
management of the religious affairs devolved upon Very Eev. Thomas Hasset and 
Very Rev. Patrick Walsh, his two canons. They continued to administer the charge 
until the appointment of Bishop Penalver's successor, Eight Eev. Francis Porro. 
Bishop Penalver never took charge of his appointment, nor did he come to New 
Orleans, being transferred to the diocese of Tarrazona because of the negotiations 
then pending for the transfer of Louisiana from France to the United States. Very 
Rev. Thomas Hasset dying in April, 180-1, Very Rev. Patrick Walsh remained in 
sole charge of the Catholic Church here until August 22, 1806. At this time the 
Very Rev. Jean Oliver was officiating at the Ursuline convent. The Bishop of Bal- 
timore, Rev. Carroll, appointed him as Vicar General. 

It was about this time that one of the most notable contentions in the history 
of the church in this section of the world occurred relative to the Cathedral. The 
chapel of the Ursuline convent had been made the parish church by Father Walsh 
on March 27, 1805. He had done this because of a difficulty he had had with Father 
de Sedella, who was in possession of the Cathedral. In 1813 Very Eev. William 
Dubourg, apostolic administrator of the diocese, came to New Orleans with the one 
duty before him, to settle the contention between the prelates. The apostolic admin- 
istrator became involved in the controversy he had came to solve. Both Vicar 
Generals engaged in the attempt to get the Cathedral from Father Antoine de Se- 
della. Father Sedella would not be ousted, however. He and his adherents forced 
Very Eev. Dubourg to take refuge in Acadia. The Cathedral remained in possession 
of Father Sedella in spite of all attempts by the Vicar General. His parishioners 
took the matter in hand, placed themselves in charge of the Cathedral, and appointed 
a board of wardens, composed of Thomas Poree, Paul Lanusse, Jean Baptiste La- 
batut, Jean Castanedo and Jean Baptiste Durrel. Subsequently Father Sedella 
was sustained by a decision of the Superior Court of the Territory of Orleans. 

Eight Rev. William Dubourg was appointed regular bishop by the Pope later. 
Right Rev. Guiseppe Rosati, of the order of Lazarists, Bishop of Tenagre, was 
transferred to the diocese of St. Louis March 20, 1827, and made the coadjutor to 
Bishop Dubourg. Right Eev. Raymond de Nekre, also a Lazarist, succeeded as the 
next Bishop of Louisiana, dying in 1833. For two years, until 1835, the Roman 
Church of New Orleans was administered by Very Rev. Fathers Blanc and Lada- 
viere. In that }-ear the former was consecrated bishop in the Cathedral. The see 
of New Orleans was made an archdiocese in 1852, Bishop Blanc becoming the first 
archbishop. He died June 22, 1860, and a tablet to his memory is in the Cathedral 
to-dav. 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 485 

Long ere this the zealous and obstinate Father Antonio de Scdella had de- 
parted for Cadiz, under circumstances peculiarly distressing, not however, before 
he had earned the distinction of being responsible for an attempt to introduce on 
the new continent the hideous inquisition. In spite of all opposition he had suc- 
ceeded in making himself a force in New Orleans. He had successfully resisted tiie 
officers of his church and remained in possession of the Cathedral. He set his plans 
for the introduction of the institution, which is one of the foulest blots on the pages 
of history, with all the care and pains of a zealot convinced that he is doing a great 
thing for the good of his fellow mortals. Thinking that he had even Governor 
Miro on his side in his purposes, he notified the governor one day that he might soon 
find it necessary to require guards at a late hour of the night to assist him. On the 
night following this notification, the guards responded and the priest was awakened 
by a thundering at his door, and opening it, confronted the guards and an officer. He 
thanked them in a little speech, and through them the governor for the prompt 
response to his call, but added that the time was not ripe for their service, and he 
dismissed them with the blessing of God. To his amazement, however, the officer 
refused to be dismissed and informed him that he was under arrest by the order 
of Governor Miro himself. The priest demanded if they dared place hands on an 
officer of the inquisition, to which the officer bluntly replied he dared obey orders, 
and arrested him, and next day he was placed on a vessel and deported to Cadiz. 
That was in 1827, and it marks an important epoch in the struggle of civil rights 
against possible religious persecution of the most infamous and extraordinary char- 
acter. If, with the same zeal and success with which this reverend zealot had 
previously held to the Cathedral despite the protest of authority, he had succeeded 
in introducing the germ of the inquisition here, there might be another chapter in 
the history of New Orleans to write — one which, to the credit of Governor Miro, 
has never demanded a chronicler. The deportation of Sedella took place soon after 
the arrival of Bishop Rosali. Sedella returned later, and, according to the chroni- 
cles, succeeded in giving the Catholic brethren no end of trouble. There was too 
much freedom in the air of the new country, however, too much of the virility of 
life, the lesson of God was too indelible in nature all around, for even the most de- 
vout followers of the prelate to tolerate the idea of the European iniquity. 

Father Sedella was succeeded by Father Jean Aloysius Leopold Moni. On 
Father Moni's death, the bishop appointed Abbe Rousillion, and with this appoint- 
ment arose a contention between the trustees and the bishop which was only finally 
settled in the courts. The question was, virtually, had the bishop any appointive 



486 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

power in the premises not subject to review and approval by the trustees? The 
trustees rejected Abbe Eousillion. The bishop yielded and appointed Father Con- 
stantius Maenhant. The trustees accepted the appointment for awhile, but the 
peace was of short duration, there being a lack of harmony between the trustees 
and the abbe. As a result, on November 8, 18-12, the bishop withdrew all his priests 
from the cathedral and the church was without any religious ceremonies whatever. 
In January the following year (1843) Bishop Blanc tried again to please the trus- 
tees by appointing Father Bach to the pastorate. Although he had been accepted as 
satisfactory by the trustees, harmony was not long-lived, and there arose another 
disagreement between trustees and church authority, the trustees claiming to have 
the right of naming the prelate or priest of the Cathedral. In spite of the fric- 
tion, Father Bach continued to exercise the offices of priest in the Cathedral until 
September of the following year. The following month the bishop announced a 
new plan. He would fill the vacancy from among the priests, but would not make 
known the name of the appointee until he became satisfied that his selection would 
meet with favor. Even this plan failed to receive the acceptance of the trustees, 
until finally the bishop announced that he would make no appointment to the va- 
cancy unless they agreed to accept his authority. He accordingly withdrew all the 
priests, with the solitary exception of Father Ascensio, who performed only the 
absolutely necessary calls of the office. At this juncture the trustees took a short 
route to a final settlement of the hard problem, appealing to the courts. Pierre 
Soule, Christian Eoselius, Mazareau and Canon represented the petitioners, who 
asked for damages in the sum of $20,000. The church was represented by St. 
Paul and Seghers. Judge Maurin, who presided, dismissed the petition and his 
decision was affirmed by the Supreme Court. This result brought about peace at 
last. 

Bishop Blanc was succeeded in 1861 by Right Rev. Jean Marie Odin, who was 
followed by Bishop Napoleon Joseph Perche, who was bishop of the diocese from 
1870 to 1883, and who was in turn succeeded by Most Rev. Francis Xavier Leray, 
who died in France, September 23, 1889. There was a vacancy of some months after 
his death, during which the parish was in charge of Very Rev. Father G. A. Rouxel. 
On August 7, 1888, Most Rev. Francis Janssens was promoted to the arehiepiscopal 
see of New Orleans from the see of Natchez. On September 16, 1888, he took 
charge of his new duties. He was a broad and splendid man, full of earnestness 
and purpose and deeply beloved by a vast circle, irrespective of religious faith. He 
died of heart disea.se at sea on his way to New York, his ill health being aggravated 
by overwork. He was succeeded on June 10, 1897, by Arclibishop Chapellc. 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 487 

The most ancient and interesting house of worship in the city of New Orleans, 
or in the State, for the matter of that, is the venerable St. Louis Cathedral. The 
histor}^ of its chief men has been reviewed. It has been associated with the history 
of the oldest denomination of the State since the beginning. It stands, indeed, as 
it were, the central figure in church history of the State, furnishing the very starting 
point of church liistory. It would therefore be of interest to tell something of the 
material structure which has silently witnessed so many changes, church and lay, 
in the life of the venerable city. The first and original St. Louis Cathedral, at the 
time it was a mere place of worship for the early settlers, was a storehouse, located, 
as far as can be ascertained, right where the present imposing edifice now stands, 
that is, just back of the Place d'Arms (Jackson Square) overlooking the river. This 
was in 1718. A brick and adobe structure was erected on the same site in 1720, 
and named the Church of St. Louis, after the King of France. In 1725, five years 
after, a brick building took the place of this older building, and more than half a 
century afterward, in 1793, the Cathedral, which still remains at the present day, 
was built. It was the gift of Don Andres Ahnonester y Koxas, one of the wealthiest 
men of the times in America. It required two years for the completion of the edi- 
fice, which was begun in 1792, and though used the next year, was not completed 
until 1794. Don Almonester was buried in the Cathedral. Francis Philippe de Ma- 
rigny de Mandeville, Antoine Philippe de Marigny de MaBdeville and Pierre Phil- 
ippe de Marigny de Mandeville were also buried in the Cathedral in these early 
days. 

In 1850 the principal tower of the Cathedral fell in, and when this was re- 
paired the building was enlarged to its present proportions. In 1892 the building 
was seriously damaged by a thunderbolt. Rev. Father Mignot, in charge of the 
Cathedral, inaugurated a movement for the repair of the damages and enough money 
was realized to have additionally done some of the interior mural decorations which 
excite considerable interest to-day. Erasme Humbrecht was the author of the work, 
and among the paintings are "St. Louis Announcing the Crusade," and "St. Louis 
Receiving the Shepherd's Staff From Our Lord," while other paintings are wrought 
upon the vault. ,^-w^ 

Although the seventeen hundreds saw Catholicism in this section of the new 
world clustered about the Cathedral as a center, and the Cathedral and the chapels 
mentioned were the only places of worship of the young colony, the next century 
witnessed pronounced activity among the Catholics in church building. Among 
the more important churches which demand consideration in a review of the local 



488 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

history of the church are St. Alphonisus of the Redemptorist congregation, St. 
Mary's Assumption church, St. Patrick's, St. Joseph's, Notre Dame de Bon Se- 
cours, Annunciation Catholic Church, St. Vincent de Paul, St. Theresa, Church of 
the Holy Name of Jesus, Church of the Holy Name of Mary, Holy Trinity, Mater 
Dolorosa, St. Stephens, Ursuline Chapel, St. Cecelia's, St. Augustin's, Sacred Heart 
of Jesus, St. Anthony, Our Lady of Good Council, Our Lady of the Sacred Heart, 
St. Ann's, St. Boniface, St. Francis de Sale's, St. Henry's, St. John the Baptist, 
St. Joseph's Chapel, St. Joseph (Gretna), St. Mary's Church, St. Maurice, St. Mi- 
chael, St. Peter and St. Paul's, St. Eose de Lima, Church of the Immaculate 
Conception, St. Eoche's Chapel, St. Francis of Assissi, Greek Church of the Holy 
Trinity. 

The Church of the Immaculate Conception, or the Jesuits, is one of the most 
famous of the Catholic churches of to-day in the city. It adjoins the Jesuit College 
on Baronne, corner of Common streets. It was established in 1848. It was not 
until 1847 that the Jesuits were invited to return to New Orleans. The money 
with which the real estate was bought was borrowed from Father Maisonabe, S. J., 
who loaned it without interest. Eev. Father John Cambaiso, whose parents were 
Genoese, built the church, which was erected in 1853. The architecture is Mo- 
resque. It was completed in. 1859. One of the most notable features of this church 
is the stained glass windows. Its statuary is also rich, a notable bit of it being a 
marble figure of the Virgin standing in a niche over the high altar. This was made 
for Marie Amelie, Queen of Louis Philippe, by Foystier, for her private chapel. 
When the King was dethroned in the revolution of 1848, the sculptor sold the statue 
for $6,000. The statue was sent to New York and there purchased by the Jesuits 
who raised a subscription for that purpose. Father Hubert, S. J., was responsible 
for the enterprise. There is a gilt bronze altar in the chapel which cost $15,000, 
purchased in 1870. 

In 1732 the Eedemptorist congregation was founded by St. Alphonsius Li- 
guori, and over a century later the order was represented in New Orleans. On 
October 24, 1847, Rev. Peter Czackert arrived in New Orleans with a band of priest.s 
of the order. A mission was established by them on Constance street, between Jo- 
sephine and St. Andrew. The following year Father Czackert died and his work 
was prosecuted by Father Petesch. He organized St. Theresa's Society October 
15, 1849. The convent of Notre Dame was erected in 1854 on Laurel and Jackson 
streets, devoted to the care of orphans, and in 1858 St. Alphonsus Church was 
erected on Constance street, betv/een Jackson and St. Andrew, at a cost of $100,- 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 489 

000. Subsequent improvement and additions to this has raised tlie amount many 
thousands of dollars. The mission house of the Redemptorist fathers, a three-story 
brick building, was erected opposite this church in 1882. The same order erected the 
St. Alphonsius Hall and boys' school in 1869, St. Alphonsius girl school, the Con- 
vent of Mercy and St. Catherine's College, which are under the charge of the 
Sisters of Mercy. The same order erected St. Mary's Assumption Church and school 
for the Germans, the Church of Notre Dame being erected for the benefit of the 
French by them. St. Mary's school was erected as far back as 1868. 

In 1833 St. Patrick's church was built. The first church edifice was erected 
on April 23, 1833, Rev. Father Adam Kindelon being the first pastor. But the 
present imposing brick structure on Camp, near Girod, completed in 1837, was 
begun in 1835 by Rev. Father James Ignacius Mullen. Father Mullen, who died 
in 1866 at the age of seventy-four, was buried beneath the floor of the church. 

St. Mary's Assumption Church was founded in 1845 and is on Josephine street. 
Laurel and Constance. The architecture is of the Renaissance style and it is said to 
have one of the finest altars in the countr)', which cost $10,000. 

St. Joseph's Church, on Tulane, between St. Adeline and Derbigny, was erected 
in 1841. The first building was a frame structure, standing where the present col- 
ored school is. On December 8, 1871, Archbishop N. J. Perche laid the corner stone 
of the present structure. It was consecrated by Archbishop Janssens, December 18, 
1892. It has a seating capacity of 1,600 people. 

Notre Dame de Bon Secours, on Jackson, between Laurel and Constance, was 
founded in 1858. Annunciation Church was established in 1846, and is at the 
corner of Mandeville and Marais. St. Vincent de Paul, on Dauphine, between 
Montegut and Clouet, was founded as far back as March 20, 1839. The Sisters of 
Charity built St. Theresa's Catholic Church at the corner of Camp and Erato in 
1850. The Church of the Holy Name of Jesus was established in 1892 on St. 
Charles avenue, between Calhoun and Exposition boulevard. The Church of the 
Holy Name of Mary was erected in 1859 at the corner of Alix and Verret. The 
Holy Trinity Church, which is German, is situated on St. Ferdinand street, be- 
tween Royal and Dauphine streets, and was established in 1870. Mater Dolorosa 
was built in 1874. It stands at the corner of Cambronne and Seventh streets. It 
was consolidated with the Church of the Nativity in 1899. The Church of the 
Nativity is situated on the opposite side of the street, and was erected in 1874, be- 
ing known as St. Mary's Church until 1894. The Vincentian Fathers, under Rev. 
Angelo Hippolyte Gandolfo, S. M., organized St. Stephen's Parish in 1849. The 



490 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

church of the parish is at the corner of Berlin and Chestnut streets. The first 
church of the parish, which served also as the parochial residence, was located on 
Camp street, near Napoleon avenue. On June 8, 1851, a larger church was erected 
at the corner of Camp and Xapoleon avenue. Subsequently the house of worship 
was removed to the corner of Camp and Berlin streets. The property of the parish 
is to-day said to be worth about $30,000. 

The first chapel of the Ursuline Sisters was erected away back in 1734 on Ursu- 
lines street, between Chartres and Decatur. The present chapel was erected in 1839. 
It has no congregation, but is a place of public worship. Its antiquity and historical 
associations make it a point of great interest to the visitor. St. Cecelia is at the 
corner of Lesseps and Rampart. It was formerly at the corner of St. Claude and 
Poland. It was established in 1896. St. Augustine's Church, at the corner of St. 
Claude and Hospital, was established in 1841. The Church of the Sacred Heart of 
Jesus was erected June 14, 1874. It is situated on Canal, between South 
Lopez and South Eendon. The Church of St. Anthony is Italian. It is at 
the corner of North Rampart and Conti. This is a very old church, being founded 
in 1823. It was erected as a mortuary chapel on objection raised to holding burial 
services at the Cathedral. It is dedicated to St. Anthony of Padua. Our Lady of 
Good Council Church is situated at the corner of Louisiana avenue and Chestnut 
streets. It was established July 3, 1887. Our Lady of the Sacred Heart Church is 
situated at the corner of North Claiborne and Annette streets, having been erected 
in 1871. St. Ann's was built in 1852, and is at the corner of North Roman and 
North Prieur. St. Boniface, corner of North Galvez and La Harpe, was built in 
1869; St. Francis de Sale, corner of Second and South Franklin, in 1873; St. 
Henry's, which is German, on Berlin, between Constance and Magazine streets, in 
1856; St. John the Baptist, on Dryades, between Calliope and Clio, in 1851, the 
present edifice being erected in 1869 ; St. Joseph Chapel, corner Ursuline and North 
Johnson, in 1888; St. Joseph's (Gretna) in 1870. St. Mary'a Church was the 
archbishop's residence until 1899. It was erected in 1835. St. Maurice's, corner 
of Hancock and Royal, was erected in 1844 ; St. Michael's, on Chippewa, between 
Race and Orange, in 1872; St. Peter and St. Paul's, on Burgundy, between Marigny 
and Mandeville, in 1849, the present church having been erected in 1861 ; St. Rose 
de Lima, on Bayou road, between North Dorgenois and North Broad, in 1859. St. 
Eoch's chapel is one of quaint interest. It is situated in St. Eoch's Cemetery, on 
the avenue of that name, corner of North Roman. The side walls of the chapel are 
the vaults of the dead of the societies of St. Ann and St. Joseph. ' Above the altar 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 491 

is the shrine of St. Eoch. Innumerable votive offerings are to be seen at the foot of 
the statue of St. Eoch and elsewhere, laid there by those who believe in the efficacy 
of prayers to the saint. St. Eoch is believed by the lassies to send husbands among 
other gifts. The Church of St. Francis of Assissi, only recently erected, is in State 
street, between Patton and Constance, and has a school atttached. Its rector is 
Eev. Father Brockmeier. The Greek Church of the Holy Trinity, on North Dor- 
genois, between Hospital and Barracks, is a small brick structure. 

It would be a point of interest in the history of these various churches of the 
Catholic faith to give a list of the men who have been factors, obviously, of the 
most important character, in the making of the history. 

The rectors of the Jesuit Church, contemporaneously presidents of the Jesuit 
college, have been: Very Eev. John Baptist Maisounabe, 1847-1848; Very Eev. 
John Cambizo, 1848-1852; Very Eev. Anthony Jourdant, 1852-1854; Very Eev. 
Aloysius Curioz, 1854-1862; Very Eev. Anthony Jourdant, 1862-1869; Very 
Eev. Francis Gautrelet, 1869-1880; Very Eev. Theobald Butler, 1880-1887; Very 
Eev. John F. X. O'Connor, 1887-1890; Very Eev. David McKiniry, 1890-1895; 
Very Eev. Henry Clay Semple, 1895-1899; Very Eev. John Brisland, 1899. 

St. Mary's Assumption Church — Fathers Thadeus Anawander, 1855-1861 ; 
F. Jacons, 1867-1870; H. Giessen, 1871-1872; N. Jaeckel, 1873-1874; Max Leim- 
gruber, 1874-1877; James Karicher, 1877-1879; Joseph Colonel, 1879-1881; Max 
Leimgruber, 1881-1883 ; Henry Giessen, 1884-1886 ; Bernard Klaphake, 1886-1887; 
Frederick Faivre, 1887-1891; George A. Grimm, 1891-1893; Joseph A. Firle, 1893- 
1898; Henry Weber, 1898. 

St. Patrick's Church — Eevs. Fathers Adam Kindelon, 1833; James Ignatius 
Mullen, 1833-1837; John Flanaghan, 1869-1872; P. F. Allen, 1872-1887; John 
Dumas, 1887-1892; E. J. Fallon, 1892-1900. 

St. Joseph's Church— Eev. E. D'Hamo, 1844; P. M. Paget, 1844-1858; John 
Hayden, 1858-1870; T. J. Smith, 1870-1880; M. P. O'Eegan, 1880-1881; E. J. 
Fitzgerald, 1881-1891; F. Guidry, 1891-1893; John Hickey, 1893-1894; F. N. 
Nugent, 1894-1897; P. V. Byrne, 1897-1898; T. J. Weldon, 1898-1900. 

St. Alphonsus Church— Fathers P. McGrabe, 1857-1861 ; J. A. Dyffy, 1866- 
1870; M. Burke, 1870-1871; J. B. Duffy, 1872-1874; F. Girardey, 1874-1883; 
Henry Giessen, 1883-1888; Frederick Faivre, 1888-1891; George A. Grimm, 1891- 
1894; Joseph A. Firle, 1894-1898; Very Eev. Henry Weber, 1898-1900. 

Notre Dame de Bon Secours — Fathers G. Geissen, 1858-1869; Alfred de 
Ham, 1869-1872; Theodore Lamy, 1872-1873; Nicholas Berchem, 1873-1874; 



492 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. ^ 

Alfred de Ham, 1874-1877; H. Geissen, 1877-1883; Theodore Lamy, 1883-1885 
Frederick Faivre, 1885-1887; Alfred de Ham, 1887-1888; Frederick Faivre, 1888- 
1891; Very Eev. George A. Grimm, 1891-1893; Joseph A. Firle, 1893-1894; Alfred 
de Ham, 1894-1895; Celestin Gregoire, 1895-1896; Joseph A. Firle, 1896-1898 
Henry Weber, 1898-1900. 

Annunciation Catholic Church— Father R. McMorris, 1846-1860; R. Durier, 
1860-1885; G. A. Rouxel, 1885-1899. 

St. Vincent de Paul— Eev. Father E. Foltier, 1869-1878 ; A. F. X. Chapuis 
1878-1892; Arthur Drossaerts, 1892-1900. 

St. Theresa's— Fathers J. P. Belliar, 1856-1858; John Flanaghan, 1857-1861 
T. J. Kennedy, 1868-1874; P. M. L. Massadier, 1874-1890; F. X. Cuppens, 1890 
1897; T. F. Delaney, 1897-1898; P. M. L. Massadier, 1898-1900. 

Church of the Holy Xame of Jesus— Father John A. Downey, 1882-1899 
Paul Paget, 1899-1900. 

Church of the Holy Xame of Mary— Fathers F. Dems, 1870-1872: H. Bel 
langer, 1872-1879; S. M. Brady, 1883-1885; A. Pompallier, 1885-1886; J. B 
Chataigner, 1886-1888; James Goggan, 1888-1893; Joseph Roman, 1893-1897; J 
H. Blenck, 1897-1899; Father Joyce, 1899-1900. 

Mater Dolorosa — (Eev. Anthony Bichlmayer, 1874-1898; Charles Brockmeier, 
1898-1899; Church of the Nativity, before its consolidation with the Church of 
Mater Dolorosa)— Fathers R. P. Vallee, 1874-1892; J. J. Ferguson, 1892-1893 
Marius Welte, 1893-1896; John F. Prim, 1896-1900. 

Church of the Holy Trinity— Father P. Leonhard Thevis, 1870-1893; J. B. 
Bogaerts, 1893-1898; Anthony Bicklmayer, 1898-1900. 

St. Stephen's Parish Church — Eev. Angelo Hippolyte Gandolfo, 1849; John 
Mary Delcros, 1851-1858; Anthony Verrina, 1858-1868; Rev. A. Mandine, 1868- 
1878; Anthony Verrina, 1878-1900. 

Ursuline Chapel — For many years, Eev. N. G. Percha, and subsequently, Rev. 
Charles Denoyal. 

St. Cecilia's Church — Eev. J. Eeiter. 

St. Augustine's— Father Eousilon, 1841 ; next Father Jobert, till 1874; Father 
Joseph Subileau, 1874 to date. 

Church of the Sacred Heart of Jesus — A. Marine, 1880-1883; G. Demers, 
1883-1886; J. Arlington, 1886-1887; J. Adelsperger, 1887-1889; J. M. Scherer, 
1889-1890; A. E. Saulmier, 1890-1895; D. J. Spillard, 1895-1897; P. W. Condon, 
1897-1898; Peter Lauth, 1898-1899; Rev. Father Warken, 1899-1900. 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 493 

I 

Church of St. Anthony— Father J. J. Turgis, 1867-1869; Gabriel Chalon, 1870- 
ISn ; J. A. Manoritta, 1876-1900. 

Our Lady of Good Counsel — Father Joseph F. Lambert. 

Our Lady of the Sacred Heart — Father Antonio Borias, 1870-1881; Celestin 
M. Frain, 1881-1900. 

St. Ann's— Fathers J. M. LaFranc, 1852-1857; H. Tumoine, 1857-1893; Al- 
bert Bulot, 1893-1898; Joseph Thebault, 1898-1900. 

St. Mary's— Father A. Blanc, 1827-1861; Gilbert Eaymond, 1866-1882; H. 
M. LeCozic, 1882-1892; J. A. Bogaerts, 1892-1893; Louis Prim, 1893-1894; Very 
Eev. J. A. Thebault, 1894-1898; John B. Baronnet, 1898-1900. 

St. Maurice— Eev. Father Bonnafe, 1856-1880; J. Anstett, 1880-1881; J. 
Dumas, 1881-1887; A. Dubourg, 1887-1890; E. Aveilhe, 1890-1900. 

St. Michael's Church— P. G. Tobin, 1872-1874; Thomas Heslin, 1874-1889; 
Michael Coughlan, 1889-1900. 

St. Peter's and St. Paul's— Eev. Fathers C. Moynihan, 1849-1879 ; J. Moyni- 
han, 1879-1884; E. M. Kenney, 1884-1885; John B. Flanahan, 1885-1896; Joseph 
Hanrahan, 1896-1900. 

St. Eose de Lima — Fathers M. Mittelbronn, 1868-1896; Alphonse Jannsens, 
1896-1900. 

St. Boniface— Fathers Joseph Eoeger, 1874-1890; Alphonse Leute, 1890-1893; 
Paul Schaeuble, 1893-1900. 

St. Francis de Sales— Father Nicholas Simon, 1873-1900. 

St. Henry's Church— Fathers M. Eadamaerger, 1870-1871; J. Bogaerts, 1871- 
1872; M. Eadamaergerts, 1873-1874; J. Bogaerts, 1874-1891; Louis Eichen, 1891- 
1900. 

St. John the Baptist — Fathers Jeremiah Moynihan, 1851-1875; Thomas J. 
Kenney, 1875-1881; James G. Foote, 1881-1889; M. J. Farrelly, 1889-1896; J. 
M. Laval, 1896-1900. 

St. Joseph's Chapel— Eev. Fathers Peter Cooney, 1889-1893; P. Berthet, 1896- 
1900. 

St. Joseph's Church (Gretna)— Eev Fathers Bogaerts, 1870-1871; M. Hal- 
bedel, 1871-1878; Eugene Fraering, 1878-1891; Earnest Earhart, 1891-1894; 
Father Blenck, 1894-1900. 

Greek Church (Church of the Holy Trinity)— Fathers Gregory Yayas, 1872- 
1874; K. Michel, 1881-1884; Michel Kalitski, 1884-1886; Archimandrite Misael, 
1886-1900. 



494 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

So for Catholicism in Louisiana. As has been stated it was the earliest 
religion introduced in Louisiana and New Orleans, for the reason that that vast 
tract of territory, known as Louisiana, belonged to Catholic countries at the outset, 
and was peopled and civilized by staunch Catholic nations. 

If the historian of Methodism of the Mississippi valley, Rev. John C. Jones, 
makes no mistake, it was not until the dawn of the 1800s that we find Protestantism 
represented in the person of one preacher, Lorenzo Dow, who in 1803 conducted 
Protestant religious services in the Attakapas. In 1805 Rev. Elisha W. Bowman 
conducted services in Opelousas, and is said to have come to New Orleans, where 
he endeavored to awaken the interest of the Protestants. It is recorded that his 
attempt was ineffectual, for the reason, doubtless, that there were even then but 
few of his faith here and liberality had not progressed to the point where Roman 
Catholics would go to hear one of another faith, however inspiring his message. 
Eev. Bowman was given a large territory. It extended from Vermillion Bay to 
Catahoula and from the Teche to Rio Hondo. 

In 1805 a Protestant printed an appeal in the Louisiana Gazette, calling 
upon the English-speaking populace to show that they were not irreligious. He 
pointed out that there were no churches of the English-speaking people in the 
city, and declared that this should be remedied. As a result of this agitation a 
meeting of Protestants was held in Francisque's ballroom on the evening of ilay 
29. Resolutions were adopted to establish a Protestant church in New Orleans 
and to have a resident minister and the meeting adjourned to reconvene a little 
later in the home of Mme. Forrager, now No. 227 Bourbon, between Customhouse 
and Bienville. A call for subscriptions for a Protestant church was printed June 
7, Hugh Pollock, Joseph M. Bell, Richard Relf and John McDonogh being named 
as the parties with whom money could be deposited. The individuals of these meet- 
ings, while all Protestant of course, belonged to different denominations, for on June 
16, a vote was taken to determine the denomination of the minister to be invited. 
There were 45 Episcopalians, 7 Presbyterians and 1 Methodist. 

On July 3, 1805, as a result of this movement, Gov. Claiborne approved a bill 
of the legislative council incorporating "The Church Wardens and Vestrymen of 
Christ's Church" in the county of Orleans. The charter members were: J. B. 
Prevost, Joseph McNeil, Richard Relf, Benjamin Morgan, Robert Dow, James 
Brown, Joseph Saul, William Kenner, William Brown, John Watkins, Evan Jones, 
George T. Phillips, William Harper, Richard Butler, William G. Garland, James 
M. Bradford, R. D. Sheppard, George T. Ross, Charles Norwood, Walter Clarl' 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 495 

James C. Williamson, Charles Patton, Thomas MeCormick, John F. Watson, Ed- 
ward Livingston, William W. Smith, John Poultney, John F. Sanderson, Henry 
A. Heins, Samuel D. Earle, James McDonogh, John McDonogh, Andrew Burke, 
John Palfrey, George W. Morgan, Abraham R. Ellery, Thomas L. Harmon, James 
Proffit, James Martin, Thomas Callender, William Donaldson and Hugh Pollock. 
Other white persons, not less than twenty-one, and paying not less than $10 per 
annum to the support of the church, might be added, according to the act. The 
income of the church from lands, rents, tenements, etc., etc., was not to exceed 
$20,000 per annum and it was provided that the vestry of the church should not 
exceed fifteen, including -always two church wardens in the total number, elected 
annually, the vestry to select the minister. The wardens were to be selected from 
their own number and by them, and the treasurer was to be one of their body. 

Under this organization, Protestant services were conducted for the first time 
in the history of the city on Sunday, July 15, 1805, in a house on Eoyal street, 
formerly occupied by a Mr. Freeman. 

The first minister selected was Rev. Philander Chase. He arrived here from 
New York on the brig Thetis October 20, 1805. He was sent by the Right Rev. 
Benjamin Moore, Bishop of the Protestant Episcopal Church of New York State. 
The bishop had been petitioned to this end by James M. Bradford, James C. Will- 
iamson and Edward Livingston. The first vestry was organized on November IG, 
and was composed of J. B. Provost, Dominie A. Hall, Benjamin Morgan, Joseph 
Saul, William Kenner, Joseph McNeil, George T. Ross, Charles Norwood, Andrew 
Burke, R. D. Sheppard, Richard Relf, Edward Livingston, John McDonogh, John 
F. Sanderson, and A. E. Ellery. Joseph Saul and Andrew Burke were chosen 
wardens. On November 17, 1805, Rev. Chase held his first services in the Cabildo. 
A permanent arrangement was effected with him and six months later he brought 
his family here. Rev. Chase remained rector until March, 1811, when there was 
an interruption in the services for a few years. The next minister employed was 
Rev. James F. Hull, of Belfast, Ireland. He remained rector for nineteen years. 
Services had been held in the court room on Royal street, but a church edifice was 
erected at the corner of Bourbon and Canal, some months after the death of Rev. 
Hull. In 1847 another church was erected a block away, at the corner of Dauphine 
and Canal, at a cost of $50,000. Later the congregation erected the edifice at the 
corner of St. Charles and Sixth streets. Rev. Hull was succeeded at his death in 
June, 1833, by Rev. James A. Fox, who served until 1835. Rev. J. T. Wheat, 1835- 
1837; Rev. N. S. Wheaton, 1837-1844; Rev. Francis L. Hawks, 1844-1849; Rev. 



495 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

Edmund Neville, 1849-1851 ; Rev. William T. Leacock, 1851-1861. When Benja- 
min Butler occupied New Orleans, 1862, he took charge of the church, and ap- 
pointed Rev. F. E. Chubbuck to conduct the services, the wardens having been 
compelled to surrender the keys of the church. The resident preacher was trans- 
ported across the line by order of Butler on charge of disloyalty. The church 
remained in the charge of the Federal authorities until December, 1864, when it 
was restored to the wardens on condition that they would select a loyal minister. 
Rev. Dr. Leacock was tendered the pulpit and retained charge until 1882. In 
that year, upon the resignation of Rev. Leacock, Dr. Alexander I. Drysdale accepted 
the rectorship, and retained it until his death, August 30, 1886. On March 6, the 
following year, Rev. Davis Sessums became the rector, and continued to fill that 
post until he was consecrated bishop of Louisiana, December 7, 1891. The rectors 
since then have been in turn. Rev. Quincy Ewing, Rev. Frank I. Paradise, Rev. F. 
H. Coyle, Rev. W. W. Howe and Rev. Charles D. Wells. 

A church which has disappeared from the city since many years, but which 
forms a part of the history of the Episcopal Church of New Orleans, was situated 
at the corner of Rampart and Bienville from 1830, when it was built, to 1874, when 
it went out of existence. 

It was the French Evangelical Church. Among its first ministers were Rev. 
DuFernex and Rev. C. Leiris. The latter conducted a parochial school. Rev. 
Raymond A. Henderson became minister in 1834. Its services were conducted in 
both French and English. Its Sunday school instructions were carried on in French, 
English and Spanish. Five years after its founding, this church was admitted 
into the union by the Diocesan Convention. Later the church went out of use 
and services were only resumed there in 1848, the Rev. Thomas D. Ozanne being 
rector. He served until 1849 and was succeeded by Rev. C. H. Williamson. The 
church was sold and the parish dropped from the register in 1874. 

The Annunciation Episcopal Church was chartered March 25th, 1844. Among 
its charter members were Thomas Sloo, Jr., Ben. Lownges, Wm. S. Brown, Joseph 
Callender, E. W. Briggs, Chauncey B. Black, John P. McMillan and John Carrigan. 
These gentlemen were elected vestrymen. The first services were held in 1844 
by Nathanial Ogden Preston, in a building at the corner of Race and Chippewa. 
The church building was consecrated March, 1846. It was destroyed by fire April 
15th, 1858. With the proceeds of the insurance a new site was purchased for the 
church at the corner of Race and Camp streets. It was not until 1873 that a new 
church was built, although the reorganization of the church was inaugurated at 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 497 

the close of the war. In the interim, the services were held in the Methodist 
Church. Eev. John Percival has been the rector of this church since its reor- 
ganization. 

Trinity Church, of which the eloquent and popular Dr. Beverly Warner is 
to-day the rector, stands at the corner of Jackson and Coliseum streets. This 
church had its inception in 1847 when six communicants held service at the corner 
of Washington and Laurel streets, under Reverend Ranney. The parish was in- 
corporated the same year. Mr. Charles P. Clarke, who was licensed as a lay reader, 
and took charge of the work upon the resignation of Mr. Ranney, raised sufficient 
money to purchase three lots at the corner of Second and Live Oak streets. The 
first vestrymen were Wm. M. Goodrich, Ferdenand Rodewald, Charles P. Clarke, 
Augustus P. Phelps, Washington W. Vaught, John F. Thorpe and Daniel Dewees. 
The parish was admitted into the union May 3rd, 1848. The first rector was Rev. 
Alexander Dobb. In 1851, the site of the present church was purchased. The first 
services in the new building were held April 3rd, 1853. The old chapel on Second 
street was sold. The rectors of this church were as follows: Rev. 0. Flagg, 1853- 
54 ; Rev. Henry M. Pierce, 1854 (June to December) ; Right Rev. Leonidas Polk, 
1855-60; Rev. Fletcher J. Hawley, 1860-62; Rev. L. Y. Jossup, 1862-64; Rev. 
Anthony Vallas, 1864 (April to September); Rev. John Percival, 1864-65; Rev. 
John-W. Beckwith, 1865-68; Rev. John M. Galleher, 1868-71; Rev. S. S. Harris, 
1871-75; Rev. Hugh ^Miller Thompson, 1876-83; Rev. R. A. Holland, 1883-86; 
Rev. Randolph H. McKin, 1886-88; Rev. W. A. Snively, 1889-92; Rev. C. C. 
Kramer, 1898 (during the summer) ; Rev. Thomas F. Gailor, 1893 (first half of 
year) ; Rev. C. Hains, and Rev. Wm. Cross, 1893 (to October 1st) ; Rev. Beverley 
E. Warner, 1893-1900. 

Mount Olivet Church was organized in 1852. Rev. C. H. Williamson was its 
first pastor. In that year, money was raised and a site for a church purchased 
at the corner of Peter and Olivier streets. The church was burned December 9th, 
1866. A new building was immediately erected and completed for its first ser- 
vices April 21st, 1867. The ministers who have held the rectorship in this church 
since the time of Rev. Williamson are: Rev. C. F. Rottenstein, X. C. Preidham, 
Ballad S. Dunn, C. W. Hilton, H. E. Bakewell, Wm. Leacock, Rev. Wm. C. Mc- 
Cracken, Rev. F. Fontaine, Rev. C. S. Hegges, and Rev. Jesse S. Moore. 

Rev. J. T. Wheat was responsible for the organization of St. Paul's Church. 
This divine was appointed a missionary for the upper portion of the city. The 
church was organized in 1836. The first services were held in the school room. 



498 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

what was then Tivoli Circle (Lee Place). Later a warehouse on Julia street 
served the purpose of a house of worship and later still the congregation met on 
Camp street. The first vestrymen were John Messenger, Augustin Slaughter, John 
H. B. Morton, Thomas X. Morgan and John G. Grayson. A subscription of 
$40,000 had been tendered when the great financial panic of 1837 occurred, and 
the heaviest subscribers to the church fund were of course the heaviest sufferers 
from the panic. The next year, however, Eev. Charles Goodrich revived the church 
building project, and in the summer of 1839 the church building was completed 
at the corner of Camp and Bartholomew streets. In 1853 a contract was entered 
into for the erection of a church to cost $45,000 and the first services in the new 
church were held December 24, 1854. During the war Eev. Elijah Guion was in 
charge of the parish. He resigned in 1868, Eev. William F. Adams, subsequently 
consecrated missionary bishop of New Mexico and Arizona, succeeding him. Rev. 
H. H. Waters succeeded him and has been rector of this church ever since. A 
rectory was purchased in 1883 at No. 1420 Polyrania. The church was burned in 
1891 and a new building erected. 

St. Paul's parish set about to erect a new church building in 1853. They 
utilized much of the material of their old church and rebuilt at the corner of 
Rampart (South) and Euterpe. Rev. John Woert was the rector. This building 
was destroyed by fire about the time of the Civil War. In June, 1865, the ser- 
vices of the parish were resumed in a rented room. A new building was begun 
later, but the congregation would not complete it. Trinity Church offered to com- 
plete the building if it were given to it. The new chapel was consecrated April 
17, 1870. Rev. Alexander Marks was the first rector. The following year Grace 
parish was formed, the chapel retaining the name of Trinity Chapel. Rev. George 
E. Upton succeeded Eev. Marks in 1873. Grace parish was again merged into 
Trinity that year, Eev. James H. Stringfellow taking charge until August of 
1874. Eev. S. H. Granbury, Dr. Thompson, of Trinity; Eev. Charles Stewart, 
Eev. M. M. Moore and Eev. I. N. Marks were successively rectors until 1883. In 
1884 the property was made over to the bishop of the diocese. Eev. A. Bakewell 
was placed in charge. Trinity Chapel has been independent of Trinity Church 
since 1884. 

St. Anna's Church was built at a cost of $10,000 by Dr. William N. Mercer. 
It was completed December 1, 1869, and is located on Esplade avenue, between 
Marais and Villere. The site was bought on the proceeds of the sale of St. Peter's 
Church property, which church had been incorporated in 1847, and dissolved in 
1869. The church was burned in 1876 and a new church built the following year. 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 499 

St. George Church is situated at the corner of St. Charles avenue and Cadiz 
street. St. George's parish was formed by the union of Emanuel and St. Mark, 
1864. The first rector was Eev. H. C. Duncan. He was succeeded in 1875 by 
Rev. B. T. H. Maycock. Eev. George R. Upton succeeded him in 1877. The old 
church building stood at the corner of Pitt and Napoleon avenue, but was moved 
to Cadiz and St. Charles. The new church building was erected in 1899. The 
rectors of the church, since the time of Rev. Upton, 1882, were Revs. John Philson, 
S. M. Wiggins, A. Kenney Hall, A. J. Tardy, Dr. Knapp and J. W. Moore. 

St. John Church was established in 1871 at the corner of Third and Annun- 
ciation. Its first rector was Rev. Dr. Harrison. The successive rectors, after 
Dr. Harrison, were Revs. C. B. Chamblin, A. J. Tardy, Charles Stewart, Edward 
Fontain, A. J. Tardy (a second time), S. M. Wiggins, Dr. Douglass, R. S. Stew- 
art, Dr. Goodrich, Oliver Wilson, J. E. Hammond, Robert C. Celmine, A. Gordon 
Bakewell and A. J. Tardy. 

Grace Church is to-day domiciled on South Rampart, between Canal and 
Tulane avenue, in a building on which the parish has a lease of twenty years, 
with the privilege of buying. It was domiciled in a room at No. 24 (old number) 
Baronne, where services were held from 1886, the year of the formation of the 
church, the latter part of the year when the services were held in Werlein's theater, 
which was tendered free of rent. Before the close of the year, the arrangements for 
the place on Rampart was effected. Rev. Matthew A. D. Brewster has been rector 
since 1892, W. C. McCraeken having preceded him. 

There is one colored church of the Episcopal denomination, established by 
Bishop Leonidas Polk, in 1885. It was first known as St. Thomas, but now as St. 
Luke, on Fourth street, between St. Charles and Carondelet. 

From what has been said it will be seen that the Catholic Church being the 
first to gain a foothold in this city, the Episcopalians by vote showed the biggest 
numerical strength of all the Protestant denominations, and was the first of the 
Protestant denominations to be established. Having reviewed at some length the 
career of these two sects from their inception here to the present, we may now with 
propriety turn our attention to the other Protestant denominations which to-day 
are well organized and recognized moral and spiritual forces in New Orleans, having 
fine churches, eloquent and forceful preachers and large followings; the Presby- 
terians, the Baptists, the Methodists, etc. 

A central figure in the church life of New Orleans, indeed it might be said 
of the country to-day, is the Rev. Dr. B. M. Palmer, a man of magnificent intellect. 



500 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

of superb forcefulness of logic, of golden rhetoric, into which a rich and cultured 
imagination infuses a charm which is at once an inspiration and a delight to his 
hearer — a man withal of comprehensive, massive sympathies and a broad view of 
life, and one to whom as the Jsestor of ecclesiasts in these parts more than passing 
mention is due. No man has so idealized and magnetized the potency and beauty 
of the church to the vast audience outside of church circles in every great city as 
has this splendid man, so long a worker in this city, so famous among the great 
divines of the age. His fame is in a manner identified with the First Presby- 
terian Church of the city. According to the chronicles, Presbyterianism was fiist 
implanted here by members of the denomination in New England. The Connec- 
ticut missionary society sent Kev. Elias Cornelius on a missionary tour to New 
Orleans. He arrived here December 30, 1817. That is said to have been the first 
effort by this denomination to establish itself in New Orleans. As a result of his 
efforts the Legislature soon afterwards passed an act of incorporation of a Presby- 
terian church. There was a meeting at the home of a Mr. Paulding on February 
9, 1818. There Rev. Cornelius preached the first sermon and the church enterprise 
thus set on foot was the second of the Protestant denominations begun in New 
Orleans church history. The first Presbyterian church was built on St. Charles 
street, between Gravier and Union, and dedicated July -Ith, 1820. The first 
rector was Rev. Sylvester Larned, a graduate of Princeton, who had come to New 
Orleans through the agency of Rev. Cornelius. He died in August following, and 
was succeeded by Rev. Theodore Clapp, of Massachusetts. He was elected to fill 
the vacancy, but a question arose as to his orthodoxy and a division arose in conse- 
quence in the church membership. January 13, 1832, fifteen of the members with- 
drew. They worshipped in a warehouse standing on the site where to-day is the 
imposing structure of the First Presbyterian Church. Rev. Mr. Harris was their 
first minister. A church building was erected by the dissenting members, but it 
was burned in 1854. In 1857 it was rebuilt as it stands to-day. Rev. B. M. Palmer 
took charge in March, 1856, and had served forty-three years in March, 1899, one 
of the most universally loved and admired and potential men in the city, irrespec- 
tive of religious faiths. 

In July, 1855, the Carrollton Presbyterian Church was established by the 
Louisiana presbytery. Rev. D. S. Baker served this congregation until February, 
1856. Rev. N. P. Chamberlin was elected and installed the following June. In 
1860, Rev. I. R. Hutchinson officiated and later Dr. James Purviance. During the 
war the Federal troops gave it to the negroes for a school. The church was re- 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 501 

stored to its congregation in 1867. It had no regular minister until 1883. Eev. 
James Beattie, Eev. H. W. Flinn, and Kev. John N. Lyle each preached and con- 
ducted services in the church. During 1894 to 1895, Eev. E. E. Steele served 
the church, and then Eev. Dr. E. H. Nail. Eev. J. W. Caldwell then took charge, 
preaching his first sermon on March 17, 1896. Its first pastor and Eev. Caldwell 
are the only two regular pastors the church has enjoyed. The present church, at 
the corner of Hamson and Burdette streets, was erected in the winter of 1897-1898. 

The Second Presbyterian Church was incorporated in 1845, but disbanded 
at the close of the war. It stood at the corner of Prytania and Calliope. Most of its 
members united with the Thalia street church. 

The Third Presbyterian Church was organized in 1847, Eev. James Beattie 
being its first pastor. The first frame building was erected on Casicalvo street, 
in 1848, and in 1860 the present church was erected on Washington square. Eev. 
D. S. Baker became its pastor in 1850, and there served it in turn, Eev. James 
Richards, Eev. N. G. North and Eev. H. M. Smith. 

The Fourth Presbyterian Church was organized in 1847. Rev. N. F. Packard 
was its first pastor. It incurred an original debt of $40,000, too heavy for the 
congregation to bear, and in 1872 the church building was sold to the Central 
Congregational Church (colored) for half the amount. It stands at the corner 
of Liberty and Gasquet. 

The Canal Street Presbyterian Church, at the corner of Canal and North 
Derbigny, was erected in 1875. Eev. M. W. Travick was its first pastor. Eev. A. 
N. WyckofE succeeded him. In 1893, Eev. J. H. Nail became the pastor. 

Eev. Jerome Twichell organized the Lafayette Presbyterian Church in 1843. 
The original church building stood on Fulton, between St. Andrew and Josephine. 
In 1853, Eev. Twichell was succeeded by Eev. J. Sidney Hays. Eev. T. E. Markham 
was the next minister in 1857. In 1860 the church was burned. Union Hall, on 
Jackson street, was used temporarily during the war, and then for a time after the 
war as the First German Church. In 1867 the congregation took charge of its 
present church on Magazine street, above Jackson avenue. Eev. Markham con- 
tinued pastor until 1894, and upon his death in that year Eev. S. C. Byrd took 
charge. He was succeeded by Eev. J. C. Barr, who is pastor to-day. Eev. Markham 
was one of the notable divines of the city and the church erected a monument to his 
memory in Metarie cemetery. 

The Prytania Street Presbyterian Church was established in 1846, three lots 
at the corner of Prytania and Josephine being purchased for the church building. 



502 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

Rev. E. R. Beadle was its first pastor, succeeded by Rev. Isaac Henderson until 
1865, when Revs. Benjamin Wayne and W. F. V. Bartlett each served for a short 
while, being succeeded by Rev. R. Q. Mallard, who was pastor until 1877. Rev. 
H. M. Houston served then for a few months and then Rev. J. H. Nail became the 
regular pastor from 1879 to 1894, when Rev. Francis L. Ferguson took charge 
until 1890. For two years thereafter various pastors officiated until October of 
1892, when Rev. Dr. J. W. Walden, of Ohio, became pastor, remaining until 1806. 
Rev. Dr. D. 0. Davies was then placed in charge, and upon his death, in 1898, 
Rev. B. H. Dupuy ministered to the congregation, until 1899, Rev. W. McF. 
Alexander becoming the pastor to date. 

Franklin Street Memorial Church was organized in 1860 at the corner of 
Thalia and Franklin. Later the church was domiciled at the corner of Franklin 
and Euterpe. Rev. Dr. Fisher was pastor from 1860 to 1861. Rev. W. A. Hall 
succeeded him to 1866; Rev. W. C. Dunlap to 1868; Rev. William Flinn to 1889; 
Rev. Ezekiel Forman to 1898; Rev. W. E. B. Harris to date. Mrs. Mary W. Bart- 
lett erected this church in memory of her husband. 

Napoleon Avenue Presbyterian Church was organized in 1869, and the church 
building was erected in 1872 on Napoleon avenue, between Chestnut and Coliseum, 
out of the proceeds of a festival given for the purpose in Union hall. Rev. Benjamin 
Wayne was the first pastor. 

The First Italian Presbyterian Church was erected in 1897, on Howard, near 
Clio. The missionary work, culminating in it, was begun in 1886. Its pastor 
is Rev. C. Russo. 

Seamen's Bethel is under the direction of the Presbyterian Church, and is 
located at 2218 St. Thomas street, convenient to the seafaring men, to whose 
benefit it is dedicated. Rev. A. J. Witherspoon, D. D., the organizer, was pastor for 
eighteen years, and Rev. R. E. Steele succeeded him, officiating until the war with 
Spain broke out, when he became chaplain in the United States navy. James 
Sharrard was elected to fill the vacancy. The officers of the Seamen's Friend 
Society, responsible for this institution, are Andrew Stewart, president; Henry 
Ginder, secretary; and Gilbert Green, treasurer. 

The First German Presbyterian Church was erected in 1856 on First street, 
near Laurel. It became known in 1882 as the First Street German Church. From 
1865 to 1878 this church was connected with the Northern General Assembly. Its 
pastors have been Revs. Munzen Maier (1853-1857), Christian Mayer (1857-1858), 
J. C. Seybold (1859-1860), J. H. Hollander (1861-1876), Lesko Triest to 1878; 
William Graf to 1880, and Louis Voss to date. 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 503 

The Second Presbyterian Church, on Poet, between St. Claude and North 
Eampart streets, was dedicated in 1864. In 1867 it was sold to a colored congrega- 
tion. In 1867 the place of worship on Allen, between Claiborne and Derbigny 
streets, was dedicated. In 1871 the corner-stone of a new church was laid and a 
year later it was dedicated. Rev. F. 0. Koelle has been the pastor of this church 
since 1873. 

The German Protestant Evangelical Church was located at first at the corner 
of Philip and Chippewa in 1845. The present structure at the corner of Chippewa 
and Jackson was built in 1876. Its pastors have been Revs. C. A. Schramm to 
1849; Dr. Lippert, 1850; P. Rohl, 1851 ; Harry Hiestant, 1852; Ludwig Kehrwald, 
1854; Ernst Borger, 1855; Hermann Pressles, 1858; Carl Adams, 1864; Ludwig 
P. Heintz to the present. 

St. Matthew's German Evangelical Protestant Church was first located on 
Madison street, near Third in 1849. There was a separation in the congregation 
in 1854, the other portion of the congregation locating on Zimpel, near Monroe 
street. They were reunited in 1884, and became known as the German Evangelical 
Church of the Seventh District. In that year the church on Dante, near Elm, was 
built and named St. Matthew Church. Its pastors have been Revs. L. P. Heintz, 
J. M. Hoffer, Mischi, Perpeet, Wallraff, Polster, Ueber, Sehaffraneck, Hoppe E. 
de Geller, L. Von Rague, Matin Otto, Philip Ziemer (of the reunited churches) ; 
Revs. Victor Broesel, Frank Holke, William Karbach, J. C. Rieger, who has served 
from 1893 to the present time. 

The First German Evangelical Protestant Church, organized in 1863, was 
for a time located at the corner of Camp and Jena streets, but later removed to 
Camp and Milan. The church at that place was erected in 1865. The pastors 
serving this church have been Revs. William Judt, Frederick Judt, Owen Riedy, 
Julius C. Kraemer, Julius Quinius, who is the pastor now. 

The Immanuel Evangelical Lutheran Church, organized in 1881, as the Eng- 
lish Immanuel Evangelical Lutheran Church, was first located at the corner of 
Canal and Derbigny. In 1883 the present church on St. Louis, near Johnson, was 
built. Its pastors have been Revs. J. F. Doescher, J. Werner. C. B. Gohdes and A. 
0. Swinehart. Two colored missions of this denomination are the Evangelical 
Lutheran Mount Zion Church, corner South Franklin and Thalia and St. Paul's 
Lutheran on Annette, near Claiborne. 

The First Baptist Church was organized in 1843. As early as 1826 an effort 
had been made to establish a Baptist Church in this city. In 1812, Cornelius Pauld- 



504 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

ing came from Savannah, Ga., a member of that denomination, and the house he 
owned on Canal street was repeatedly given to holding services by that denomina- 
tion. Rev. James S. Eaynoldson preached in Paulding's house in 1817. Rev. Mr. 
Davis baptized the first candidate of the denomination in the Mississippi River, in 
front of the custom house in 1820. Rev. William Rondeau came from England 
in 1826 and baptized two candidates the next year. Mr. Paulding, in 1833, erected a 
building on St. Charles street, where Soule's Commercial College stands to-day, 
dedicating the second story to church purposes. Here Rev. Pharcellus Church, who 
came from New York, preached during 1834-1835. Rev. Russell Holman came as 
a missionary in 1842, and for three years he preached in the upper story of No. 66 
Julia street. December 28, 1843, the first formal organization of that order was 
efEeeted. The names of the incorporators of the first church appearing in the 
legislative act are W. H. Rondeau, Nathaniel J. Pegram, J. P. Todd, J. S. Davis, 
E. Everett, R. Holman, J. Judsu, W. M. Perkins, W. Page, C. Fuselie, J. S. Marlton 
and W. M. Hinton. The first church was built on St. Charles street and this was 
Bold by the sheriff in 1851. Rev. I. T. Hinton was the first pastor of this church, 
and dying in 1847 was succeeded by Rev. Thomas G. Freeman, and in turn Rev. 
Charles H. Raymond and Rev. Sereno Taylor and Leonard Fletcher. His pastorate 
closed in April of that year, and in June the sheriff's sale was made. Property 
was secured later at the corner of Camp and Terpsichore and a building was begun 
here in 1854. 

The First Baptist Church in 1861 purchased lots on Magazine and Second 
Btreets. The church met with reverses during the Civil War, but early in 1863 Rev. 
John C. Carpenter took charge and the church grew rapidly until 1870. The build- 
ing was much improved in 1868. The pastors of the church after Rev. Carpenter 
were Revs. J. M. Lewis, E. A. Hayeden, M. C. Cole, John F. Purser, Dr. A. B. Miller 
and Rev. Charles V. Edwards, who is pastor to-day. In 1892 the church was burned 
and the Garden District Theater, on Magazine street, was purchased. It serves 
for a church to-day. 

The Coliseum Place Baptist Church, corner of Camp and Terpsichore, waa 
built in 1854, completed the next year, and opened for services with Rev. William C. 
Duncan as pastor. A new building was erected in 1873. The pastors, after Rev. 
Duncan, were Revs. E. G. Taylor, N. W. Wilson, J. B. Lowry, S. Landrum, B. W. 
Bussey, D. G. Whittingill, who to-day holds this pulpit. 

The First Emanuel Baptist Church, on Erato, between South Peters and 
Tchoupitoulas, was established in 1887. Rev. John M. Richards has been pastor 
since 1892. 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 505 

Plymouth Kock Baptist Church, corner of Hillary and Mississippi streets, was 
established in 1892, Eev. David Young being the pastor to date. 

Valence Street Baptist Church, corner of Valence and Magazine, was estab- 
lished in 1885, Rev. C. F. Gregory being the inspiring spirit and resigning upon 
the completion of the edifice. Its pastors have been Eevs. E. Z. F. Golden, Rob- 
ert W. Merrill, David Ingram Burser, William D. Gay and C. W. Tompkins at pres- 
ent pastor. 

This denomination has been largely affected by the colored population, the 
Tast majority of whom appear to be of that persuasion. There are a large num- 
ber of colored Baptist churches in the city, of which the following is the list : 

Amazon Baptist Church, corner of Delord and Burgundy, established 1882. 

Beautiful Zion Baptist Church, Pelican avenue, between Elmira and Bien- 
ville streets, established in 1884. 

Austerlitz Baptist Church, situated on Austerlitz street, between Constance 
and Magazine streets, founded in 1877. 

Beulah Baptist Church, situated at 5242 Laurel street, established in 189-3. 

Broadway Missionary Baptist Church, situated on Broadway, between Mag- 
azine and Meadow, established in 1872. 

Christ Baptist Church, situated 410 Bringier street, established in 1893. 

Evangelist Baptist Church, corner St. Andrew and Felicity street, estab- 
lished in 1897. 

The Fifth African Baptist Church, Howard street between Jackson avenue and 
Philip street, established 1863. 

The First African Baptist Church, corner Howard and Cypress streets, organ- 
ized in 1866. 

The First Free Mission Baptist Church, Common street, between Claiborne 
and Derbigny streets, established in 1870. 

The First Free Baptist Mission, South Rochblave and Perdide streets, estab- 
lished in 1877. 

The First Zion Baptist Church, 626 S. Franklin street, established in 1890. 

Good Hope Second Baptist Church, 735 Pacific avenue, established in 1867. 

Israelite Baptist Church, corner of Marais and Annette streets, organized in 
1880. 

Mount Carmel Baptist Church, corner Perdide and Tonti streets, organized in 
1896. 

Mount Moriah Baptist Church, Walnut, between Wall and Esther streets, es- 
tablished in 1878. 



5o6 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

Mount. Olive Baptist Church, Third, between South Liberty and Howard 
streets, established in 1882. 

Mount Olive Baptist Church, Gravier street, near S. Carrollton avenue, estab- 
lished in 1889. 

Mount Pilgrim Baptist Church, Newton street, between Teche and Nunez 
streets, established in 187G. 

Mount Triumjih Baptist Church, 173G Fern street, established in 1880. 

Nazareth Baptist Church, 191!) N. Prieur street, established in 1S77. 

The New Light Baptist Church, Feliciana, between N. Voillerc and N. Kobert- 
son, established in 1880. 

The Samuel Israelite Baptist Church, 2019 Toure street, established in 1887. 

The Second African Church, Melpomene street, between Freret and South 
Eobertson street, established in 1887. 

The Second Baptist Church, Laurel street, between Milan and Berlin streets, 
established in 1895. 

The Second Emanuel Baptist Church, Zimfel street near Monroe, established 
in 1895. 

The Second Free Baptist Mission, Burdette street, between Oak and Plum 
streets, established in 1872. 

The Si.xth Baptist Church, Felicity, between Laurel and Constance streets, 
established in 1880. 

The Sixth Union Baptist Church, Orleans street, between N. Prieur and N. 
Johnson streets, established in 1870. 

St. John's Baptist Church, First street, between Howard and Freret streets, 
established in 1875. 

St. John's Divine Baptist Church, 1769 N. Derbigny street, established in 1873. 

St. Luke's Baptist Church, Cypress, between South Prieur and South John- 
son streets, established in 1874. 

St. Mark's Baptist Church, corner South Rampart and Toledana streets, estab- 
lished in 1873. 

St. Mark's Fourth African Church, Magnolia, between Common and Gravier 
streets, established in 1880. 

St. Matthew's Baptist Church, Second street between Magnolia and Clara 
streets, established in 1886. 

St. Peter's Baptist Church, 1731 Orleans street, established in 1880. 

The Tabernacle Baptist Church, 2652 Tulane avenue, established in 1889. 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 507 

The Union Baptist Church, 241G St. Peter street, established in 181)1. 

Zion Baptist Church, N. Dorgcnois and N. Broad streets, established in 1897. 

Zion Traveler Baptist Church No. 1 Adams street, between Commercial and 
Pearl streets, established in 1865. 

The First Congregational Church was chartered in 1833. Its incorporators 
were Samuel McCutchen, Jacob Baldwin, James McReynolds, Eichard Davidson, 
Henry Babcock, Peter Laidlaw, J. D. Bein, Stephen Henderson, Charles Lee, P. S. 
Newton, William C. Bowers, Henry Carlton, James H. Leverich, William G. Hewes, 
Isaac G. Preston, Benjamin Story, Henry Loekett, J. W. Lee, Joshua Baldwin, and 
Abijah Fisk. This church was in a manner an offshoot of the First Presbyterian 
Church. When Rev. Clapp, whose connection with that church has already been 
narrated, divorced himself from a part of the congregation of the First Presbyterian 
Church by the exposition of certain views which were deemed unorthodox, the list 
of followers named above clung to him. The famous Judah Touro who had 
purchased the church at the corner of St. Charles and Gravier dedicated the build- 
ing to the use of this congregation for ninety-nine years. It was actually occupied 
until 1851 when it was burned. Mr. Touro presented the congregation with an- 
other church on St. Charles street and Rev. Clapp occupied this pulpit for about 
five years. In 1855 the congregation completed a church of its own at the corner 
of St. Charles and Julia street. It is known as the Church of the Messiah. Rev. 
Dr. Clapp was succeeded by the following line of ministers in turn: Rev. E. C. 
Bolles, C. H. Thomas, W. G. Eliot, W. F. Stowe, W. J. Lloyd, George H. Deere, C. 
A. Allen and Walter C. Pierce, who is to-day the eloquent and popular minister of 
this church. 

There are four colored churches of this persuasion, the Central Congregational 
Church, corner of South Liberty and Gasquet, established 1877; The Howard Con- 
gregational Church, No. 1015 Spain, established 18G9; the Howard Church, Bar- 
tholomew near Dauphine; the Morris Brown Congregational, North Villerc, be- 
tween St. Anthony and Bourbon, established 1869; the Morris Brown Chapel, 1819 
N. Villere. 

The German Protestant Church was incorporated in 1826. For a few years 
services were conducted in private residences and in a school house on Burgundy 
street near Canal. In 1839 a church was erected on Rampart street. In 1840 
the congregation erected a church on Clio between St. Charles and Carondelet. In 
1897 a new building was constructed. The pastors have been Henry Hiestand, 
John William Mueller, J. E. Schneider, Christian Schreuck, E. Berger, D. Kaess- 



5o8 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

mann, Anton Vallas, Alexander Kretchman, J. M. Hofer, J. B. Erben, Herman 
Pressler, H. J. Perpeet, A. H. Becker to the present time. 

The Fixst Christian Church was chartered 1845. As early as 1839, Rev. Alex- 
ander Campbell delivered a series of discourses here, and probably set on foot the 
movement which culminated later in church organization. The congregation first 
used a hall on Julia street. In 1850 a brick building was erected at the corner of 
Coliseum and Melpomene streets. This was sold later and in 18GG the congregation 
rented a small church on Sixth street, between Laurel and Annunciation streets. 
It was not until 1877 that the congregation purchased the property at the corner 
of Melpomene and Calliope streets and in 1896 the present church was com- 
pleted, having been begun the year before. Since 1855 J. D. Ferguson, W. E. Hall, 
J. L. Parsons, W. L. Gibson, David Walk, Ernest F. Johnston, Robert E. Schwatz, 
James Sharp, S. Streator, J. E. Terry, S. R. Hawkins, Malcomson J. Pittman, the 
present pastor. 

As early as 1818 the Methodist Episcopal Church had assigned to preach in 
New Orleans Rev. Miles Harper and before this time there had been occasional 
preaching by some member of this church. The Carondelet Street M. E. Church 
was organized in 1825. In 1836 a church was erected at the corner of Carondelet 
and Poydras. It was burned in 1849. Rev. J. C. Keener was then pastor. The 
present building was erected in 1852. The Methodist Church was divided in the 
sections of the country as early as 1844. This church united with the Southern 
branch. Its pastors have been Revs. J. C. Keener, J. B. Walker, W. V. Tudor, John 
Matthews, Felix R. Hill, C. W. Carter, Beverly Caradine, William R. La Prade, J. L. 
Pierce, E. N. Evans, Franklin N. Parker, who is pastor at the present time. 

CarroUton Avenue Methodist Episcopal Church, South corner of Carrollton 
avenue and Elm, was established in 1885. Its pastors have been Revs. F. N. Parker, 
J. M. Henry, L. A. Reed, P. H. Fontaine, G. D. Parker, who has been the pastor 
since 1898 to date. 

The Burgundy Street Methodist Episcopal Church, South, on Burgundy, be- 
tween St. Roch and Lafayette, was established in 1866. Its pastors have been Revs. 
J. A. Pauly, J. B. A. Ahrens, John G. A. Rabe, Charles A. Crote, J. G. Krauter, J. J. 
Blanz, William Lieser, Jacob Merkel, William Schule, James E. Denson, L. A. Reed, 
Thomas B. Clifford, and P. 0. Lowry. In 1899 the Moreau Street Church was sold 
and the congregation consolidated with the Burgundy Street Church. 

The Dryades Street German M. E. Church, South, on Dryades, between Euterpe 
and Felicity, was organized in 1854 and its pastors have been almost identical with 
the list of divines given in connection with the other Methodist churches. 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 509 

The Felicity Street Methodist Episcopal Church, South, was established in 
1850. The congregation had previously worshiped in a building corner St. Mary 
and Magazine. Later a building was used on Euterpe and Melpomene. Rev. H. N. 
McTyeire was the first pastor and its service has been conducted in large measure by 
the preachers given in connection with the other churches. In 1887 the church was 
burned. It was rebuilt the next year. This church was at one time one of the 
most influential in the city. 

The Louisiana Avenue M. E. Church, South, corner of Louisiana avenue and 
Magazine street, was established in 1874, corner of Laurel and Toledano streets. It 
was removed to its present location in 1864. Its pastors have been C. F. Evans, J. 
C. Miller, James A. Ivy, J. C. White, Linus Parker, John T. Sawyer, Halsey Wer- 
lein, C. Keener, W. A. Wright, A. C. Coey, S. H. Werlein, B. F. White, S. B. Walker, 
W. Wimberly, James T. Sawder, C. M. Lyons, H. W. Knickerbocker, B. D. Skipper, 
E. H. Wynne, who holds the pulpit at the present. 

In 1892 the present church building was erected. 

The Moreau Street M. E. Church, South, to which reference has been made was 
erected at the corner of Chartres and Lafayette, in 1840, and its consolidation with 
the Burgundy Street Church was effected after over half a century of existence. 

The Rayne Memorial, corner of St. Charles and General Taylor, was established 
in 1877. Its name was the St. Charles Avenue M. E. Church and was subsequently 
changed. The Parker Memorial Church was organized in 1889, in which year the 
church was built on Magazine and St. Peter's avenue. 

The Algiers Methodist Episcopal Church was organized in 1844. The original 
chapel occupied a site said to be now some three hundred feet in the river. It was 
originally known as Good Hope Chapel. Rev. Charles W. Whital, a retired sea cap- 
tain, was the first regular pastor, leaving to establish a seamen's bethel at the foot of 
Esplanade street. The land on which the chapel was erected was the gift of J. B. 
Olivier and among the original donors to the building fund was the great philan- 
thropist, John McDonogh, father of the public school system of this city. The 
church is at the corner of Lavergne and Delarondc. 

In 1890 the First Italian M. E. Church was organized, the building standing on 
Clio, between Prytania and St. Charles. Rev. Giovanni Baptiste Giambruno was the 
first pastor succeeded by Rev. Joseph Vital. 

St. Charles Avenue Methodist Episcopal Church, corner St. Charles and Cal- 
liope, was organized in 1867. It was originally called Ames Chapel and its name 
was changed in 1888. Its organizer and first pastor was Rev. J. H. Newman and 



Sio STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

subsequent to 1870 Revs. L. C. Maslock, J. C. Hartzell, James Morrow, James H. 
McCarty, George E. Bristor, William C. Webb, J. G. Vaughan, T. Stalker, W. P. 
McLaughlin, William F. Shane, E. L. Crawford, G. S. Easton, E. W. Osborn and 
Eev. W. R. Clease. 

The colored churches of this denomination are the Wesley Chapel on South 
Liberty, established 1867; Mount Zion, 1872; Union Chapel, 1872; Thompson 
Chapel, 1872; Pleasant Plains, 1873; Kenner Mission, 1883; St. Matthew Chapel 
(Algiers), 1887; Mt. Calvary, 1880; Asbury and Algiers Mission, 1890; Scott Chiun 
Chapel, 1890; Simpson Chapel, 1872; First Street M. E. Church, 1872; Camp Par- 
apet, J\L E. Church, 1873; Haven Church, Mallalieu, Mount Zion, No. 2, St. John's 
African, St. James African, St. Peter's African, Union Bethel Church, Williams 
Chapel, La Harpe Street Church, Cushman Chapel and Nashua Chapel. 

The denomination has also three churches among the Germans, known as the 
First, Second and Third German M. E. Churches. The first is the corner of St. 
Andrew and South Franklin; the second at Eighth and Laurel, and the third on 
North Rampart, between St. Ferdinand and Press streets. Among the German 
divines of the denomination are Revs. L. Allineger, J. Braun, George Doodall, I). 
Matthaei, John J. Rienle, B. Brezinger, John C. Groth, Henry Dietz, John Pluen- 
neke, W. A. Moers, J. L. J. Earth, J. Ivienle, William Traeger, J. A. Traeger, G. 
Schuler, Rudolph Brueck, H. Schmaltz, John Streit, J. Weber, Jacob Brown, Henry 
C. Hoffman and Jacob Ueber. 

From the standpoint of chronology it would be in order here to give some ac- 
count of the works of the children of Israel in the matter of religious activity, for in 
New Orleans as in every other city on the face of the earth the Jews had found a 
home and became valuable citizens early. In 1847 Touro Synagogue 
was erected. It was then known as the Dispersed of Judea. It is 
located on Carondelet, between Julia and St. Joseph. It had been 
formerly located at the corner of Bourbon and Canal, the Church of the Episcopal- 
ians originally. Rabbis J. K. Gutheim, R. S. Jacobs, Joseph H. M. Chumaceiro and 
I. H. Leucht have been successively in charge of this temple. The Chevre Mikveli 
Israel Synagogue at 510 Carondelet, established in 1872, has been served by Rabbis 
Abraham Alimo, Elisha Silverstein, Albert Silverstein, Lois Silverstein, M. Man- 
delstann, who is to-day rabbi. The Gates of Prayer was established in 1854. It is 
located on Jackson, between Chippewa and Annunciation, the present structure 
having been built in 1855. Rabbis Sampson Cerf, Nathan Schwersky, M. Eisen- 
berg, D. Jacobson, Jacob Korn, and M. Sessler have been in charge of this syna- 



STAXDAUD niSrORY OF SEW ORLEAXS. 511 

gogue since the beginning successively. The Right Way Synagogue, Carondelet, 
between Poydras and Lafayette, established in 1870, has had the following rabbis : B. 
E. Jacobs, M. A. Seiferth, M. Shokat, Louis Silverstein, and S. Gordon. Temple 
Sinai was organized in 1870. The movement was inaugurated indeed in 1864. 
The building was erected on Carondelet, between Delord and Calliope, in 1871. 
Eev. J. K. Gutheim was selected rabbi in 1872. In 1888 Eabbi Gutheim was suc- 
ceeded by Eev. Max Heller. 



CHAPTER XXI. 



MANUFACTURES. 
Bv Norman Walker. 

THE manufactories of New Orleans are nearly all of recent growth and de- 
velopment, a matter of twenty or thirty years at most. In one or two lines 
there was, from necessity, some development in earlier days, but the city 
was distinctly not a manufacturing one at that time, but devoted instead to com- 
merce and finance. It did not become a manufacturing center until after the 
Civil War, when a shrinkage in its trade, or rather, a reduction in the profits 
therefrom, compelled it to find other employment for its large surplus population. 

It would be absurd, therefore, to attempt any account of manufactures in the 
earlier French days, because there were none. The inhabitants depended on France 
or Spain for such manufactured goods as they needed. There were a few black- 
smith and repair shops — nothing more; and New Orleans could, with difficulty, 
put in condition such vessels as arrived here in any way damaged by wind or 
weather. In one line only it did some light manufacturing, but of a very crude 
character. This was in supplying the lumber or boxes in which Cuban sugar was 
at that time shipped to market. It could scarcely be called a New Orleans industry, 
however, for while the lumber was shipped from that city and the boxes were some- 
times made there, the bulk of the work, as in the manufacture of staves to-day, 
was done in the country parishes. The same was true of the small cotton industry 



512 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

of Louisiana, which was confined exclusively to the rural districts — the Acadian 
women and daughters turning out the famous Attakapas cottonade, popular iu 
Louisiana for nearly a centiiry. 

Nor did the American domination which brought so many improvements in 
other lines make any marked change in the conditions prevailing in manufactures. 
The destiny of the city was believed to be wholly commercial — and commerce wa» 
very profitable at that time — and manufactories were regarded with more or less 
contempt. The city had all the raw materials necessary for manufactories, cheap 
and in abundance, but it was lacking in skilled operatives; and commerce gave 
employment to nearly its entire population. One serious evil presented itself in 
this condition of affairs. The busy season of the year was naturally the winter, 
when the city was marketing the crops of the Southwest. This was followed by a 
long period of rest, when there was little doing in a commercial line. The conse- 
quence was that the laboring classes had six months of good labor and six months 
of very little work. They had to get very high wages for this first period in order 
to make up for the long time they were at rest and without anything to do ; and 
the summer saw those who were improvident suffering because of the difficulty of 
getting any employment at that time. It was a ease, therefore, of feast and famine, 
alternating. Manufactures could, of course, have averted the evil by giving em- 
ployment to the operatives all the year round ; but it was not until late in the 
forties when Pittsburg, Cincinnati and other Western cities began to enjoy pros- 
perity as manufacturing centers, that the political economists of Xew Orleans 
realized that for sound and substantial business their city ought to have factories 
to supplement its active commerce. An agitation then began, which, however, was 
productive of few important results. The fact is, slavery was an enemy of manu- 
factories, as some of the great political economists of the South have lately shown. 
It had a tendency to crowd mechanics out of New Orleans. In the records of that 
day a general desire is shown to have mechanical work done by negro slaves. 
Negroes, educated as blacksmiths and carpenters, were in great demand and brought 
two or three times as much as "green hands," who could only contribute the rough- 
est kind of labor. These skilled negro workmen were rented out, and sometimes 
were leased to themselves, paying their owners for the privilege of hiring their own 
labor and in this way accumulating enough money to purchase their freedom. 
So general was the belief in slavery that the Louisiana Engineering Department 
secured from the State of Louisiana the right to purchase such negro slaves as it 
might need in the work of levee building, the construction of canals and such other 
improvements as it had on hand, much of it requiring more or less skilled labor. 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 513 

It can be readily recognized how thoroughly demoralizing slavery was under 
these conditions to free labor and to manufactories; and, as has been stated. New 
Orleans did not smile on manufacturing. When, in the thirties, it was organizing 
so many new banks, all of them save one devoted themselves to fostering the com- 
mercial interests of New Orleans or the agricultural interests of the State. But 
a single bank, the Mechanics and Traders, was expected to look after the mechanical 
and manufacturing arts, and it had the smallest capital of any of the new banking 
institutions; and it was provided that $100,000 of its stock should be withheld to 
be subscribed to by mechanics exclusively ; but there is no evidence that they did so. 

Such manufacturing industries as sprang into existence during that time 
owed their origin to the absolute necessities of New Orleans, and were mainly for 
such repair work as could not be done elsewhere. Occasionally, the citv suffered 
because of a lack of manufacturers. Thus, for instance, an early effort to provide 
it, or at least the central portion of the town, with water proved a failure, because 
there was no iron piping or tubing through which the water could be forced. An 
attempt was made to supply this deficiency with cypress logs, hollowed in the center 
60 as to form pipes. The substitutes were not satisfactory ; they were too expensive 
and were not as well suited to water as iron pipes are. 

Later on, when the city began its drainage work, it was found impossible to 
obtain in New Orleans the pumps and other machinery needed, and they had to 
be purchased in Baltimore. The newspapers of the time complained of these pur- 
chases and declared that New Orleans could turn out the machinery needed as 
well and as cheaply as Baltimore; but they -were probably mistaken. The com- 
pany which made the purchases was composed of very patriotic and public-spirited 
men, who were anxious to use the home market as much as possible and to encourage 
home industries, and the very fact that they went to Baltimore to purchase what 
they needed may be regarded as proof positive that they could not get it in New 
Orleans. 

The early factories of New Orleans, therefore, devoted themselves almost 
exclusively to repair work, or turned out such goods as could not be well manu- 
factured anywhere else. 

In the first category may be placed the foundries, which soon grew to be the 
leading industry of the city and remained so for many years. The foundries were 
originally designed for the repair of such machinery as became broken or could 
not otherwise be used, and which was too heavy to be shdpped back to the place 
of its original manufacture. They found plenty of work when the steamboats 



514 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

came in vogue, for these boats were constantly getting out of order and their 
boilers needing attention. From this repairing business the foundries gradually 
branched out and became manufactories of machinery, agricultural implements, 
boilers, etc. The development of the sugar industry proved a great stimulus to 
them. That industry called for a great deal of machinery ; and while the bulk of 
this came at first from the manufacturing towns of the North and West, its ten- 
dency was to drift to New Orleans, as the planter could then readily order what 
he needed; and if he broke a roller could get one of exactly the size required close 
at hand. Under the stimulus of this demand, the foundries and machine shops 
of New Orleans attained a very high degree of prosperity in ante-bellum days 
and were decidedly the most prosperous of all the manufacturing industries of the 
city. They claimed to have been able to manufacture anything in the iron and 
copper line. Occasionally they ventured on big pieces of work, and New Orleans 
was inclined to boast in 1848, when the Leeds foundry nianufactured all the 
machinery necessary to establish a large rope and cordage factory there. It might 
be stated, however, that these were exceptional ventures, and done naore to show 
what the New Orleans foundries were capable of than with any idea of profit. 

Among the ante-bellum industries which did well in New Orleans because it 
did not pay to carry them on elsewhere, were naturally the building trades and 
the manufacture of building materials— brick, tile, lumber, etc. The brick was 
made almost exclusively in New Orleans, or at points across the lake in St. Tam- 
many pari.sh. The city bricks were manufactured on the river front, mainly of 
river clay. They are still to be seen in many of the older buildings of New Orleans 
and in some of the banquettes, or sidewalks. They were a bright red, very soft, but 
hardened with tiiiic, and resisted fire better than nuniy of the harder varieties, as 
the latter crumbled away before the flames, whereas the river bricks became harder 
and stronger the longer they were submitted to fire. In many of the older build- 
ings these bricks were much larger than the standard sizes of to-day and very much 
like those used by the Egyptians and Assyrians. Several factories also made roof 
tiling of the same material, the houses in the business section being covered with 
these tiles instead of cypress shingles, after the big fires, which destroyed so large a 
portion of the city. The tiles went out of fashion long ago, on the introduction of 
slate for roofing purposes. 

In lumber and similar lines the factories in or around New Orleans, 
either on the city or Algiers side of the river, did considerable business. Pirogues 
or skiffs from cypress logs were made in the earliest days, as were boxes for the 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 515 

marketing of the Cuban sugar crop. Later on, skiffs were made, and still later 
the small schooners, luggers, etc., employed in the Lake Pontchartrain and lower river 
trade. The sawmills made such lumber as was used in buildings, except the finer 
class of goods — doors, sashes and blinds. Other industries in which wood enters 
as the principal material, were the manufacture of cisterns, hogsheads, barrels and 
casks for the sugar and molasses crops. It will be readily seen that the manufacture 
of such bulky articles elsewhere would have been unprofitable. The cooperage 
business for years ranked next in importance to the foundries. It also was built 
upon the success of the sugar industry. To supply from 400,000 to 500,000 
hogsheads, and 500,000 to 600,000 barrels annually naturally gave employment to 
a large number of men and severely tested the output of the New Orleans cooperages. 
There was consequently a very considerable demand for second-hand hogsheads, and 
in years of a big crop barrels were brought down the river from points as far distant 
as Cincinnati. 

Similar in its character was the manufacture of bread, which naturally had 
to be done in New Orleans ; but the bread was of a poorer quality than that turned 
out by the city bakers to-day. 

A large business was done in the manufacture of boots and shoes, but they 
were custom-made and not luudc in factories. Tlie Southerners looked 
with some contempt on the factory-made shoes of New England, and, save the lower 
classes and negroes, demanded a much higher grade of goods. As a result the 
output of the New Orleans shops was very large. This was also true of the tailoring 
establishments, but such things as clothing factories, which now constitute so 
important an item among the industries of New Orleans, were practically un- 
known. 

It will be seen from this brief review that manufactories had made little head- 
way in New Orleans up to the Civil War. The city did some repairing and manu- 
factured a few articles which coiild not be easily or profitably made elsewhere. 
The exceptions were its machine shops, cooperages and a few soap and candle fac- 
tories, which utilized the refuse of the city. The latter, however, did not begin to 
supply the large demand and New Orleans depended on the West for most of the 
candles it used or supplied to tlie neighboring country. 

In 1833 it showed commendable energy and public spirit, thanks to Mr. J. H. 
Caldwell, in the manufacture of gas, using that material as an illuminant in ad- 
vance of most of the Western cities. 

Its other ventures in manufactures were small and unimportant. Although 



5i6 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

the center of the cotton trade, it had done practically nothing in the manufacture 
of cotton goods, although the Soutii Atlantic and Gulf States from 1840 to 1860 
were erecting a number of new cotton-mills. There was one venture at a mill 
which proved a failure, and a second venture, on a small scale, just before the 
Civil War broke out, which survives to-day in the Lane Mills. 

While handling the tobacco crop of the country, it did nothing in the manu- 
facture of tobacco or cigars, and postponed tlie utilization of its possibilities to a 
much later day; and it equally neglected its opportunities in the manufacture of 
woolen goods, although it handled a large quantity of wool. 

In 1848 a rope factory was established in New Orleans for the manufacture 
of ropes from hemp, large quantities of which were exported through that city 
to Europe and the Atlantic States. The "fuss" made over this factory well illus- 
trates the paucity of manufactories in New Orleans at the time. The papers 
bragged that the machinery had been made in a New Orleans foundry (Leed's) and 
that the output sold for more than the ropes turned out in the New England 
factories. The new establishment emplo3'ed 150 hands and was one of the largest 
factories in the city. 

The next twelve years tell of a few similar ventures, but of little importance. 
It began to be recognized that the prosperity of New Orleans would bo built on 
much safer and better foundations if it had manufactories to supplement its com- 
merce; and De Bow's Review was filled with strong articles, showing how much 
more easily and at greater profit cotton could be manufactured in New Orleans than 
in New England. But in spite of this lucid demonstration the cotton mills did not 
come to the Crescent City, but found a more profitable home in Massachusetts and 
Rhode Island. The census of 1850 showed the weakness of New Orleans in manu- 
factories, both in the few lines of industry that prevailed there and in the small 
output of products. 

The industries singled out by that census as worthy special mention show 
the following output in New Orleans in 1850: 

Agricultural implements $ 25,010 

Iron foundries 312,500 

Lumber 112,967 

Leather 47.000 

Boots and shoes 203,213 

Soap and candles 175,000 

The output, it will be seen, was in those lines of goods which were successful 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 517 

in New Orleans because they had for special reasons to be located there. Few, if 
any, factories had selected that city as their site through preference. The manu- 
facturers of machinery and the iron foundries were part of the same general busi- 
ness which owed its vitality to the steamboats and the sugar industry. There was 
little else of any importance. Nor did the decade show any improvements worth 
mentioning. Indeed, the census of 1860 showed a decline in some lines, such as the 
manufacture of soap and candles, which was being cheapened by the competition 
of the West. The principal items of manufacture in New Orleans in 1860 were as 
follows : 

Agricultural implements $ 86,408 

Machinery 318,400 

Iron foundries 535,800 

Lumber 131,855 

Cotton goods 101,850 

Leather 78,085 

Boots and shoes 664,990 

Soap and candles 156,310 

Here is little to boast of. All the factories of New Orleans gave employment 
to scarcely 3,000 hands, and their united output was less than cither the sugar refin- 
ing, rice-cleaning or manufacture of clothing amounted to in 1900. In fine, when the 
Civil War came on, New Orleans was practically without manufactories. The war 
naturally did not improve conditions, and, the city being without the commerce 
that supported it, a large part of its population was dependent on rations furnished 
by the Federal government during this period of great depression. 

In 1865, when peace returned and New Orleans began to rebuild, it found so 
mixch to do in other lines that manufactories could not at first receive the attention 
they deserved, but the popular sentiment at this point was decidedly better than it 
had been. The disappearance of slavery alone had a beneficial effect, as it 
had shown itself incompatible with factories, crowding out free labor, while the 
negroes were not adapted to industries which required care and skill. 

Manufactories received more attention in the post-bellum period than ever 
before, and the city was in a more favorable condition to venture into them. They, 
indeed, were necessary to give employment to the large surplus population which 
commerce no longer required. There was a large supply of labor of excellent 
quality, even if somewhat unskilled. In the matter of raw materials there was all 
that could be asked for by any important industry ; and New Orleans had a better 



5i8 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

supply of such materials at small cost than any city in the Union. It was the 
principal exporting port for cotton, hides and wool, the center of a vast lumber 
region, near to the iron fields of Alabama, and it had all the coal required for its 
factories floated to their very doors, via the Mississippi. In the matter of markets 
it was most favorably situated, having not only the neighboring districts of the 
South and West, but Mexico and Central America, within its reach. 

The chief difficulties and hindrances under which it labored were the lack of 
capital and skilled labor and the prejudice which exists in most countries against 
home-made goods — a prejudice which New Orleans is only just overcoming. The 
lack of capital was the most serious objection, and the large mimber of failures in 
the factories which occurred must be credited to it. Such skilled labor as was 
needed was readily imported, and, as a matter of fact, most of the new industries re- 
quired only rough labor, the ventures being mainly of a simple and light character, 
the result of new discoveries and improvements. 

Among the earliest industries to show vitality were the cleaning of rice, the 
manufacture of artificial ice and of cotton-seed oil. The use of machinery in rice- 
cleaning had been tried a couple of years before the war and it had been found 
that it was superior in every respect to the old farm process that had prevailed 
before that time, when a horse-mill had been employed in preparing the rice for 
market. A great development took place in the rice industry from 1865 to 1875, 
growing out of the fact that many of the sugar planters found it impossible, because 
of the bad condition of the times and the lack of the necessary capital and ma- 
chinery, to continue the manufacture of sugar. Much sugar land, therefore, was 
planted in rice, which costs less to cultivate, and the rice crop greatly increased. 
The New Orleans mills added to their machinery from time to time, improving the 
quality and consequently the value of their product. The result was that the city 
mills completely monopolized the product of the State, buying all the rice in rough, 
cleaning and polishing it, and selling the cleaned product. The output of the rice 
mills varied from $2,500,000 to $5,000,000 a year, dependent upon the greater or 
less success of the crop. Of late years, since the transfer of the rice industry to 
Southwest Louisiana, New Orleans has not enjoyed that monopoly of the rice- 
cleaning business it once maintained, for there are a number of rice mills in Crow- 
ley, Rayne and other country towns. Still the bulk of the rice crop comes to the 
city and is cleaned and marketed here. The rice-cleaning industry of New Orleans 
dates back nearly forty years. Previous to the Civil War nearly all the rice raised 
in Louisiana was grown in Plaquemines parish. The process of cleaning it was very 
primitive, and was done generally liy the rice-grower himself. The rice was cleaned 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 519 

cither by a large wooden drop pestle or by horse mills. The first steam mill in 
Louisiana was erected by Mr. W. N. Thompson in Plaquemines parish, in 1858. 
It was sold in 1875, and destroyed by fire in 1877. 

In 1863 Mr. John Foerster erected the first mill in New Orleans, on Adele 
street. He erected a second mill on Magazine and Julia street in 1882, and soon 
after a third mill on the corner of Magazine and Notre Dame streets, and knovra as 
the Orleans Mill. In 1899 the style of the firm was changed to the Orleans Kice 
Milling Company. It has a capacity of 800 barrels of rice per day. 

In the meanwhile other mills were erected by Allen and Symes in 1868, on 
Magazine street, near Lafayette; on Elysian Fields avenue, near the river, by Siew- 
ard and Kip (the mill was recently destroyed by fire) ; and on Toulouse street, 
near the river, a mill, now known as the Crescent City Eice Mill, was erected by 
J. David, with a capacity of 400 barrels of rice per day. 

T. J. Thompson, son of the pioneer in the milling business, erected a mill 
on North Peters street, which was conducted for some years under the firm name 
of Sieward and Thompson. It was sold in 1882 to Isaac Levy, and in 1886 to 
M. E. Legendre. It has passed through several hands since then and is known 
to-day as the Planters' Rice Mill, and has a capacity of about 500 barrels of cleaned 
rice per day. 

The National Eice Milling Company entered the field in 1892 and erected 
a very large mill on the corner of Chartres and Montegut streets, with a capacity 
of from 1,500 to 2,000 sacks of rough rice per day. 

The People's Eice Mill, located on North Peters street, has a capacity of 450 
barrels of rice per day. 

Thompson's Eice Mill, on Marigny street, erected in 1895, has a capacity of 
325 barrels per day. 

Lanaux's Rice Jlill, located on Decatur street, near Conti, employs about 
20 hands and has a capacity of about 500 sacks of rough rice per day. 

Socola's Eice Mill, located on Decatur street, near St. Peter, has a capacity 
of about 750 sacks per day. 

Levy's Eice Mill, on Julia, near Alagazine, has a capacity of about 800 bar- 
rels of rough rice per day. 

The latest rice mill to be established in New Orleans is Eickerfs Mill, at 
the corner of South Peters and Notre Dame streets, erected in 1898 by Frank Eick- 
ert, Jr., with a capacity of 400 barrels of rice per day. 

Other rice mills are the Crescent City and Ward's, on Toulouse street, and the 
Dixie, on Tchoupitoulas street. 



520 SriXDAED HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

The manufacture of cotton-seed oil from cotton-seed also dates back to a few- 
years before the Civil War, when Messrs. Fisk and Maginnis were successful in 
extracting the oil from the seed of the cotton plant ; but the industry was of little 
practical value until 18G5 and 1866, when improved processes used 
made it an exceedingly profitable one. The period from 1865 to 1885 may be con- 
sidered the most prosperous in tlie cotton-seed industry in New Orleans, and 
during part of that time it was the most important and profitable industry in tiiis 
city, there being no less than eight mills employed in the manufacture of cotton- 
seed oil and its by-products. The mills refined and steadily improved the quality 
of the oil turned out by them. The bulk of their output was shipped to Europe, 
whence it returned to America labeled "olive oil." Indeed, cotton-seed oil was found 
80 useful as an adulterant, and even as a substitute for olive oil, that the olive- 
producing countries, like France and Italy, took steps to prevent its introduction or 
to compel it to pay such a heavy duty as would prevent it from being used to 
any great extent as an adulterant. The uses of cotton-seed oil greatly increased 
from year to year. It was found to be an excellent adulterant in the manufacture 
of lard, and thousands of gallons of it are so used in the lard refineries of Chicago 
and Kansas City. An attempt to use it in the manufacture of artificial butter has 
not been so successful. The oil, however, proved a magnificent material from which 
to manufacture soap, especially the higher grades. An excellent imitation of the 
castile soap of Spain, which is made from olive oil, was obtained from cotton-seed 
oil, and in their earlier days several of the cotton-seed oil mills used their entire 
product in the manufacture of soap. 

The oil mills also manufactured cotton-seed cake and meal, these being the 
residue of the kernel after the oil had been extracted from it. They have ever 
been found excellent as a food for cattle, — and thousands of tons are exported to 
Europe each year for feeding stock, — as well as a high-grade fertilizer, and they 
enter into the manufacture of nearly all the commercial fertilizers produced in the 
South to-day. 

The cotton-seed oil industry owes its origin to New Orleans. The process of 
manufacturing oil from the seed was discovered and improved there. New 
Orleans has always been the center of the industry, and the largest manufacturer of 
cotton-seed oil in the world. The industry attracts less attention now than in the 
earlier days, when there were half a dozen mills competing for the cotton-seed to 
be crushed by them, as it is in the hands, and more or less under the control, of a 
single concern to-day. the American Cotton-seed Oil Company. Moreover, a 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 521 

number of nil mills have recently sprung up in the interior towns in order to be 
near the supply of cotton-seed. These mills manufacture crude oil, which is shipped 
to New Orleans and there refined and prepared for the market. This city has, 
therefore, become more of a refining than an oil-manufacturing center. It still 
turns out more oil than any other city in the Union and handles the bulk of the 
product of the South, which is shipped through it to Europe or Chicago and 
other points where lard-rendering is an important industry. The largest mill, 
the Union, is situated at Gretna, immediately opposite New Orleans, and repre- 
sents the consolidation of several large companies. There are several independent 
concerns, of which the Standard Cotton-seed Oil Mill, Independent Mill and the 
Delta Eefining Company may be mentioned. 

Outgrowths of the cotton-seed oil industry are the soap mills and fertilizer 
and acid factories, of which New Orleans boasts several. The city possessed in its 
earlier days several large factories, manufacturing soap and candles, but the manu- 
facture of cotton-seed oil gave them much better material with which to work than 
they had used before, and the consequence was a larger production of soap, and 
of a better quality. The same is true of the fertilizer factories, which have found in 
cotton-seed meal the very material they needed for the manufacture of a high-grade 
fertilizer for use in cotton and sugar lands. 

The Standard Guano and Chemical Manufacturing Company is one of the 
pioneers in Louisiana in the manufacture of commercial fertilizers. It was or- 
ganized in 1872, as Stern's Fertilizer and Chemical Company. The present com- 
pany was established in 1887, with a capital of $200,000 and a plant costing 
$100,000. It employs 200 hands and has an output of $1,000,000 a year — most 
of the fertilizers being manufactured for the cotton and sugar plantations. 

The Standard Cotton-seed Oil Mill is an outgrowth of the Standard Guano 
and Chemical Company. It was established in 1878, with a capital of $130,000, 
employs 100 hands and does a business of about $500,000 a year. Its works are 
located at the corner of Elysian Fields and Marigny avenues. 

The National Acid Company is an outgrowth of the Standard Guano Com- 
pany. It was organized in 1889 and manufactures sulphuric, muriatic and nitric 
acids and acid phospate, which are sold throughout the South and West. It has 
a capital of $210,000, employs about 100 men and has an output of $400,000 per 
year. 

The Planters' Fertilizing Company was established in 1886. It is the out- 
growth of the Maginnis Oil Mills, which were for years pioneers in the manufac- 
ture of cotton-seed oil, as well as of soap manufactured from that oil. 



522 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

J. H. Keller's Soap Works cover two squares of ground at Felicity, Josephine 
and Front streets. They were established on a small scale by John H. Keller in 
1849. The capital of the company is $150,000 and the output is $200,000 a year. 

The Crescent City Soap Works, limited, are situated on Girod and Notre 
Dame streets. 

Ice was first introduced into New Orleans about 1826, when it was regarded 
as a great luxury. It came from New England, mainly from Maine, in sailing 
vessels. A large part of the cargo was naturally lost in the long voyage, and the 
ice when it reached New Orleans commanded a high price. The supply was 
uncertain and the city was frecjuently without ice for weeks at a time during the 
hottest weather of summer. The importation of ice continued up to 1868, when the 
manufacture of artificial ice in New Orleans drove out the New England or natural 
product. 

The first company in the field, the Louisiana Ice Company, was formed in 
1868. The process of manufacturing was very expensive and the factory of the 
company cost no less than $-150,000. It could be easily duplicated to-day for 
$50,000. Its output was 50. tons a day and sold for $20 a ton. Ice was then made 
with the Carre machines, manufactured in France. In 1878 the Louisiana Ice 
Company erected a second factory, on Front and Poydras streets, with a capacity of 
75 tons per day. 

A third factory was erected on Delord street, the capital, $150,000, being 
supplied by Senator Jones, of Nevada. A new process was employed in the 
manufacture of the ice, by the spraying of water on pipes. Senator Jones lost 
all the money he put in the enterprise. 

The People's Ice Company erected a factory at the corner of Fulton and 
Julia streets, at a cost of $75,000, with a capacity of 50 tons a day. This factory 
went out of existence in 1892. 

The Southern Ice Company erected a factory in 1881-2 at Tchoupitoulas and 
Third streets, at a cost of $133,000 and with a capacity of 50 tons a day. It is 
now owned by the Crescent Ice Company. 

The Consumers' Ice Company erected a factory on Magazine and Girod streets, 
which cost $300,000 and had a capacity of 120 tons of ice per day. It is now owned 
by the Crescent Ice Company. The latter company, which had been in the natural 
ice business as early as 1866, erected a factory in 1889, at the corner of Front 
and Lafayette streets, and in 1890 a second factory, at the corner of Decatur and 
Elysian Fields streets, the cost of the two factories being $250,000. A third factory 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 523 

was built in 1894, at the corner of Antonine and Tchoupitoulas streets, at a cost 
of $50,000 and with a capacity of 40 tons a day. 

The Municipal Ice Company, established in 1892, built a factory at the cor- 
ner of Market and Tchoupitoulas streets, at a cost of $350,000, with a daily capacity 
of 200 tons of ice. This property was sold by the United States Marshal in 1899 
for $60,000 and was bought in by the Crescent Ice Company, which now largely 
controls the manufacture of artificial ice in New Orleans, operating six factories, 
three of which it erected itself and three it purchased. Its total output is 650 
tons a day — more than enough to supply the needs of New Orleans and vicinity. 

Since 1898, when the Crescent Ice Company secured a control of the artificial 
ice business of New Orleans, several new ice companies have been organized — the 
Carrollton Ice Company, on Burthe street; the Crystal Ice Manufacturing Com- 
pany, on St. Peters street ; the Hercules Ice Company, on North Peters street ; the 
Home Ice and Distilled Water Company, at the corner of Water and Milan streets ; 
and the Independent Ice Company, on North Basin street. The processes used 
in the manufacture of artificial ice have been so improved, and simplified, and 
the cost of the machinery has been so reduced, that it calls for very little capital to 
embark in the business of making ice, and new companies are constantly springing 
into existence. 

An outgrowth of the ice industry has been the distillation of water and 
its sale as a commercial product. The water from which ice is manu- 
factured in New Orleans is purified by distillation. As the water supply of the 
city is deficient, the river water being too muddy for use, several companies have 
embarked in the distillation of water, which is sold as low as five and six cents a 
gallon. 

These industries, the manufacture of artificial ice and cotton-seed oil, with 
its kindred products, and the cleaning of rice, sprang into existence in 
New Orleans, in the period 1865-1870, as the result of improved processes 
in manufacturing. At the same time that they were building up, an indus- 
try, which had been one of the oldest and most successful in the city, 
was seeing now life and vigor. This was the foundry business and 
the manufacture of machinery. It had owed its origin to the necessity of keeping 
in repair the steamboats engaged in the trade of New Orleans and the construction 
and repair of the sugar-houses. The year 1865 saw these sugar-houses almost com- 
pletely wrecked by four years of civil strife, overflow and neglect; and the foundries 
and machine shops of the city had an accumulation of work on their hands suffi- 



524 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

cient to keep them busily emploj'ed for a decade. The result was an activity even 
greater than in the most prosperous ante-bellum days. Nor did this activity let 
up. On the contrary the development of the sugar industry of Louisiana kept the 
foundries and machine shops busier than ever, and compelled them to 
steadily improve the quality of their output. The manufacture of a higher 
grade of sugar required more complicated machinery than had been used, and the 
New Orleans foundries were no longer mere repair shops, but turned out the most 
complicated machinery, supplying not only Louisiana, but other sugar-producing 
countries. 

The McKinley law, with its bounty proviso, stimulated the output of high- 
grade sugar machinery, since the bounty depended on the manufacture of the best 
quality of sugar. The Louisiana planters had to overhaul their sugar-houses and 
are estimated to have expended between $5,000,000 and $6,000,000 for improved 
machinery during the tirst two years the bounty was in operation. Nor did repeal 
check the demand for improved machinery, which has continued steady ever since. 
Formerly the planters made a large part of their purchases in Cincinnati, Pittsburg 
and other Northern points, but to-day the manufacture of sugar machinery is al- 
most wholly concentrated in New Orleans, which city has latterly been supplying not 
only Louisiana and the neighboring States of Texas and Florida, but Mexico, Central 
and South America and even for distant Hawaii. 

The principal business of the New Orleans foundries is in the manufacture 
and repair of sugar machinery, but the cotton-presses and gins also give them 
some business, as do the steamboats and steamships with their boilers, etc. These 
facts will explain how it was that the foundry, boiler and machine shops of New 
Orleans enjoyed a prosperity in ante-bellum days which were not shared by any 
other manufacturing industries, not even by the manufacture of cotton goods and 
lumber, for which the city seemed in so many ways admirably adapted. 

The foundries and machine shops were highly prosperous as early as 1840, 
employed a large number of hands, who were paid handsome wages and who 
were easily princes among the mechanics of the few struggling industries which 
at that time managed to survive in New Orleans. 

One of the first factories in New Orleans was Leed's Foundry, established in 
1825, in the square bounded by Delord, Constance, Tchoupitoulas and St. Joseph 
streets. It manufactured all kinds of machinery, but made a specialty of that 
employed in the manufacture of sugar. The founder of this factory, Jedediah 
Leeds, died in 1844, and the foundry passed into the hands of his heirs and his 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 525 

partner, John Leeds. It was doing a large manufacturing business when the Civil 
War broke out. The Confederate Government, finding New Orleans in danger 
from the Union fleet under Farragut, lying off the Passes, set to work to construct 
at New Orleans several powerful vessels of a new type and more or less ironclad, 
which would be able to meet and overcome the wooden vessels of which Farragut's 
fleet was mainly composed. Two of these vessels, the Louisiana and the Missis- 
sippi, were far in advance of anything in naval architecture which America had yet 
ventured on. The contract for the supply of the machinery to be used was let in 
New Orleans, and the Leeds Foundry, as the principal one, secured the best 
contracts. The two vessels of w^hich so much was expected were not, however, 
completed in time and were set fire to and destroyed when it was announced that 
Farragut had passed Forts Jackson and St. Philip and was on his way up to New 
Orleans. There was some complaint made about the slowness of the New Orleans 
foundries in supplying the necessary machinery, and the whole transaction was 
made the subject of a special inquiry by the Confederate Congress, which showed 
that no blame attached to the local factories. As a matter of fact these foundries 
were in no position to manufacture ironclad men-of-war, however successful they 
might have been in turning out high-grade sugar machinery. In this connection it 
may be mentioned as an evidence of the development and improvement in New 
Orleans manufactories that in 1S99 the Johnson Iron Works of that city furnished 
all the steel gunboats used by the republic of Mexico in patroling its Atlantic coast 
and in carrying on war with the Maya Indians of Yucatan. 

The Leeds Foundry also turned out the cannons used by the citizens of New 
Orleans in the battle fought on the levee at the foot of Canal street, September 
14, 1874, and which resulted in overthrowing the Kellogg State Government. 

The Leeds foundry was subsequently incorporated as a company, with Mayor 
Charles J. Leeds as president. In 1896 the plant was purchased by the Schwartz 
Foundry Company, Limited, of which company Moses Schwartz was president, 
and the plant materially improved and enlarged. 

The Daniel Edwards Foundry was established in 1846, by Daniel Edwards, an 
Englishman, who had been brought up in the business. After conducting the 
establishment for some years alone he associated with him in the firm his son, James 
D. Edwards, under the firm name of Daniel & James D. Edwards. It became 
James D. Edwards on the death of the founder, and in 1884 Edwards & Haubtman, 
when Mr. Leon F. Haubtman was taken into partnership. On the retirement of 
Mr. Haubtman, in 1893, the business was turned over to Daniel Edwards, grand- 



526 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

son of the founder, so that the firm, after many changes, returned at the end of 
a half century to its original name. The Edwards Iron Works are on Front street 
and extend through the square to Delta street. They employ from 200 to 250 men, 
with a yearly output of $750,000, turning out all kinds of brass, copper and sheet- 
iron works and making a specialty of sugar machinery, as well for Cuba as for 
Louisiana. They have paid special attention to the diffusion process of extracting 
sugar from the cane and have built and equipped most of the diffusion plants in 
Louisiana and Texas. 

John Ward established iron works in New Orleans in 1847. He was suc- 
ceeded by John W. Ward, a son, in 1876, and in 1899 by John A. Ward and 
Patrick Kelly. They employ 150 hands and manufacture sugar machinery and 
ship-work, boilers and tanks. 

The Shakespeare Iron Works were established in 1845, on Girod street, between 
Dryades and Baronne. They were operated originally by John Shakespeare, but 
passed at his death into the hands of his son, Joseph A. Shakespeare, for two terms 
mayor of New Orleans. Mr. Shakespeare took Julian Swoop into partnership, and the 
latter is now sole owner of the works. The foundry manufactures steam engines, 
sugar-mills, sawmills, drainage and centrifugal machines, gin gearings, grate l)ars, 
stone fronts, columns, ventilators and all kinds of blacksmith work. About 
100 men are employed and the output is some $200,000 a year. 

The McCann Iron Works were established by David McCann at their present 
location, Julia, South Peters, Fulton and Notre Dame streets. The business 
carried on has been that of general repairing of steamboat and steamship ma- 
chinery — all heavy work; and about 40 men are employed. 

Joseph Sutton & Son, iron founders at 1158 South Peters street, are successors 
of Mims & Cochran, who established the business in New Orleans in ante-bellum 
days. The present firm dates from 1886 and makes a specialty of marine and 
architectural iron work, including columns, posts, railings, etc. It also does some 
work for sugar-mills. 

The Johnson Iron Works, Limited, are on Julia, from Delta to Water streets. 
The works were established in 1869 and incorporated as a company in 1889, with 
a capital of $100,000. They employ 100 hands in the manufacture and repair of 
marine work, sawmills, electric plants, railroad work, etc. In 1899 the foundry 
began building stern-wheel steamers, lighters and small gunboats at Algiers, on the 
site formerly occupied by the McLellan Dry Dock Company. 

The Reynolds Iron Works Company, Limited, was established in 1869, at 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 527 

the corner of Fulton and Delord streets, with W. H. Reynolds as manager. It manu- 
factured cotton-presses, elevators, irrigating and drainage machinery and building 
ironmongery, and employed 125 men, with an annual output of $150,000. Tlie 
affairs of the company are now in the process of liquidation. 

Murphy's Foundry, on Magazine street, near Lafayette, was established in 
1884, and is especially devoted to sugar machinery, including nearly all the kinds 
used except the mills themselves. The New Orleans Boiler Works have been 
recently added to the plant as a branch, manufacturing steam boilers and bagasse 
furnaces and drags and conveyors for sugar-houses. In the machine shops 125 
men are employed and in the boiler works 75, with a total output of S600,000. 
The sugar machinery manufactured is not confined to Louisiana, but a very large 
portion of it goes to Cuba, Mexico and other sugar-manufacturing countries. 

The Algiers Iron Works Company, Limited, originally situated near the Good 
Intent dry docks in Algiers, opposite New Orleans proper, was established by A. 
Tufts & Company in 1890, but was purchased in 1896 by Mr. Connell, renamed 
the J. D. Connell Iron Works and transferred to 1307 South Peters street. 

The H. Dudley Coleman Machinery Company was organized in 1890, as the 
successor of H. Dudley Coleman & Company. The business dates originally from 
1850, when Willis P. Coleman began the manufacture in New Orleans of cane- 
mills. In 1865 Mr. Dudley H. Coleman was taken into partnership. The works 
of the company were situated at the corner of Erato and Magnolia streets and 
at one time were most prosperous, having a capital of $100,000, employing 150 men, 
with an output of $200,000, doing general foundry work of a heavy character, such 
as cane-mills and sugar-evaporating machinery, steam engines, boilers, mills, ma- 
chinery and mill supplies. The company is now in process of liquidation. 

The Whitney Iron Works were incorporated in 1883. The business now owned 
and operated by the company was begun, in a small way, before the Civil War by E. 
M. Ivins. It was sold out to Charles G. Johnson, under whose proprietorship it was 
known as Johnson's Iron Works and was sold by him to the present company. It 
was always located on Tchoupitoulas, between Julia and St. Joseph streets. When 
the Whitney Iron Works were incorporated Mr. George Pandely was made presi- 
dent and Newell Tilton, manager. Upon the death of Mr. Pandely in 1894, 
Mr. Charles M. Whitney became president, and upon the death of Mr. Tilton, in 
1895, Mr. A. H. Swanson succeeded as manager. The works have been increased 
in many respects of recent years and are now one of the largest of their kind in 
the Southern States. Their principal business is the manufacture of sugar ma- 



528 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

chinery, repair work for steamships, sawmill machinery and a general line of 
heavy castings and all kinds of foundry work. Of recent years the company 
has been shipping sugar machinery in large quantities to South America. It 
employs from 200 to 400 men, dependent upon the season and the amount of 
business on hand. 

There has been some development in other lines of iron and other metal manu- 
factories, such as agricultural implements, but nothing like that in sugar machinery, 
foundry work, etc. 

The Crescent City Cornice Works, situated on Perdido, between St. Charles and 
Carondelet streets, were established in 1892 by E. A. Vancleave. It employs 60 
hands and confines itself to cornice and ornamental work, building fronts, skylights, 
ventilators, ice-cans and exhaust and blow pipes. 

Hinderer's Iron Fence Works are located on Camp street, opposite Margaret 
Place. They were established in 1884, and employ 20 hands, manufacturing artistic 
iron fences and iron furniture of all kinds. 

The Haller Manufacturing Company was established in 1888, by Mr. H. Haller, 
who had personally been in the biisiness since 1S65. The company, which is 
incorporated with a capital of $50,000, is located at the corner of Constance and 
\.)range streets. It manufactures all kinds of sheet-metal goods and stamped 
tinware. It employs 150 men. 

The sugar industry of Louisiana may claim to have founded the important 
machinery and foundry business of New Orleans. It also naturally built up the 
business of refining sugar, as well as the refining and clarifying of molasses. 

The largest single manufacturing industry in New Orleans is that of sugar- 
refining. The business, however, is almost exclusively in the hands of the American 
Sugar Refining Company (the so-called sugar trust), and it is difficult to get exact 
data on the subject of production. Even in 1890, when the Government was taking 
the census, the statistics were deficient and unsatisfactory. The American Sugar 
Refining Company's plant in New Orleans is one of the largest manufacturing 
establishments in the country, and the third sugar refinery in size. It consists of two 
large refineries, adjoining each other, including a cooperage, where are manu- 
factured the barrels used for the sugar turned out by it. Of these two refineries, 
the Planters' was erected by E. J. Gay in 187'6, for the purpose of refining the 
sugar crop of Louisiana, the bulk of which at the time was low-grade sugar. The 
Louisiana Refinery was erected in 1883. Both ultimately passed into the hands of 
the American Sugar Refining Company and have been greatly improved and added 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 529 

to by it since then. The capacity of the two refineries is 1,250,000 pounds of sugar 
per day, and not only is all the sugar crop of Louisiana needing refining handled 
by them, but many million pounds are imported annually from Cuba, Hawaii 
and even Germany. The output frequently runs up to $10,000,000 or more a year, 
a large part of the sugar consumed in the Mississippi Valley being refined in 
New Orleans. 

Henderson's Sugar Eefinery, located at the corner of South Peters and Julia 
streets, is the successor of a small refinery established in 1867 by Adam Goodal. It 
was purchased by William Henderson in 1876, when it was removed to the Pelican 
Warehouse, where it remained until 1892; it was then established at its present site. 
It has a capacity of 800 barrels of sugar per day. 

Another outgrowth of the refining and sugar industries of Louisiana are 
the molasses factories of New Orleans, which take the crude molasses, much 
of it of a low grade, and prepare it for the market. Among the factories are the 
Louisiana Molasses Company, Constance and St. Joseph streets; National Refining 
Company, North Peters street ; Southern Molasses Company, St. Louis street ; and 
Wogan Brothers, North Peters and Port streets. 

The lumber industry of New Orleans is one of the oldest. As has been noted 
the city even in its earliest days shipped a large qiiantity of lumber or lio.xes to 
Havana to be used in marketing the Cuban sugar crop. Later on it manufactured 
such lumber as it needed for its building trades, cisterns, tanks, shingles, etc. Cy- 
press was almost exclusively used for these purposes, and it was not until about 
twenty years ago that the value of yellow pine was fully recognized. Even to- 
day cypress is the only wood mainly sawed in the New Orleans mills. The 
concentration of the lumber industry in the city has been due to Ihe ease with 
which the lumber can be marketed there. The mills are situated either on the river 
front or on the new or old basin. The logs are floated down to them, while 
the lumber, doors and other output, are easily conveyed to any market. AVhereas 
a few years ago the greater part of the lumber consumed in New Orleans in the 
building trades was imported into the city from the rural districts, mainly the 
Mississippi Sound country, now three-fourths of the lumber used in the city, 
whether for building or in the furniture or other kindred trades, is sawed in the 
city itself; and the output of the city mills is constantly increasing. The output 
of the city sawmills was 49,000,000 feet of lumber in 1897, 60,000,000 in 1898 and 
85,000,000 in 1899, and will probably reach the 100,000,000 limit in 1900. The 
citv mills also turn out nearly all the laths and shingles used in New Orleans. 



530 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

On the other hand, the brick industry, which was formerly in a very healthy 
condition, has moved away from New Orleans, and now nine-tenths of the brick 
used in the city is imported from St. Tammany Parish or from along the line of the 
Illinois Central Railroad. 

The Fischer Lumber and Manufacturing Company, Limited, operates the 
Picayune Saw and Planing Mill on the banks of the Mississippi in Carrollton. 
It was established in 1868 by F. Fischer, handling mainly cypress lumber, 
The firm became F. Fischer & Sons in 1887 and was incorporated as a limited 
company under that name in 1890. The mill manufactures cypress lumber, shin- 
gles, barrel headings and staves, and carries a large quantity of lumber in stock. 
It employes 100 hands, and, with a capital of $850,000, turns out products to the 
value of $500,000 per year. 

The Algiers Saw and Planing Mills, which was formerly the property of 
Hotard and Lawton, is now operated by Albert E. Hotard alone. The mill proper 
employs only 35 men, but it has a number of others engaged in the parishes in 
getting out timber, chiefly yellow pine. The plant was established in 1870 by Peter 
Fink, who retired in 1892. 

The Berwick Lumber Company, situated at Clio and Freret streets, deals in 
sashes, doors, blinds and saloon and office fixtures. It owns cypress lumber and 
shingle mills at Berwick, St. Mary parish, Louisiana, its establishment there having 
a capacity of 60,000 feet of himber and 30,000 shingles per day. The factory in 
New Orleans, which converts their lumber into sashes, doors and blinds and 
other finished products, employes 100 hands. Other lumber and planing mills are 
the Central Manufacturing and Lumber Company, Lambou & Noel Companv, W. 
Moffett, Roberts & Co., Pelican Sawmills, W. L. Sirjacques & Co., American Manu- 
factory, Crescent City Manufacturing Company and Brackenridge Lumber Com- 
pany. 

The Otis Manufacturing Company, situated at the foot of Marengo street on 
the Mississippi river, was established in 1860 by Henry Otis, and the present com- 
pany was incorporated in 1882. Its capital is $100,000, and it employs 75 hands. 
It is mainly engaged in the manufacture of lumber from mahogany, Spanish cedar 
and other timber of the tropics, and has vessels running to Mexico and the 
West Indies for the importation of these woods. They are cut into lumber and 
veneering, to be used in the manufacture of furniture, cigar boxes, etc. The mill 
has a capacity of 35,000 feet of lumber per day, and the annual outpiit is estimated 
at $300,000. 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 53 1 

The Orleans Manufacturing and Lumber Companj', located at the corner 
of Julia and Clara streets, on the new basin, was established in 1888 and for a time 
was the largest manufacturing establishment of its kind New Orleans, employing 
200 hands, having a capital of $150,000 and doing a business of $300,000 a 
year; but it is now in liquidation. It manufactured sashes, doors and blinds and dealt 
in lumber generally. 

L'Hote & Company's Sash and Blind Factory is situated on Basin street, at 
the head of the old basin. It was established in 1847 by George L'Hote, now 
deceased. The factory covers three acres of groimd and is one of the largest of its 
kind in the South. It makes a specialty of manufacturing cabins and dwellings 
framed for shipment and for interior finish. It has filled many contracts for foreign 
countries, particularly for Mexico, and furnished the lumber for the Orizaba ex- 
position buildings and the quarantine station at Vera Cruz George L'Hote, son 
of the founder of the factory, is now the manager. It employs 200 hands and has 
an output of 50,000 feet of lumber per day. 

The other industries dependent upon wood as the principal material used by 
them have not made as great an advance as the manufacturers of lumber, doors, 
sashes and blinds and such other articles used in the building trades. But, even 
in their lines there has been some advance, and New Orleans now turns out a great 
deal of furniture, some of it of a high grade. 

The cooperage business continues much as it was of old, save that it is con- 
centrated in one or two large concerns, of which the Brooklyn Cooperage Company 
is an example, instead of being distributed among a score of small factories as 
formerly. 

The manufacture of cisterns and tanks also continues much the same as 
formerly, but attracts less attention than it did because of the development of 
other and more important industries. The cypress of Louisiana being found one 
of the best woods for resisting injury and decay from water, the Louisiana fac- 
tories do a large business in making tanks for Central and South America and the 
West and Northwest. The bulk of the business is in the hands of the country 
factories in Plaquemines and Baton Eouge, although New Orleans shares some of it. 

In spite of the fact that New Orleans for more than half a century before the 
Civil War was the great cotton center of the United States and the world, supply- 
ing the cotton mills of New England and Europe with all the raw material used by 
them, it made no movement in the direction of using the cotton handled in the 
manufacture of cotton goods. In Southwestern Louisiana some of the small farm- 



532 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

ers — Creoles and Acadians — had manufactured in their lines a small amount 
of a cloth which, like all homespun cloth, was coarse, but of a very strong texture. 
The cloth, known as Attakapas or "Tuckapaw," from the name the district was then 
known by, was popular and sold well; but the output was very small and there 
was shown no disposition to increase it. The industry was confined to a few 
families and handed down from mother to daughter; this spinning and weaving 
still prevails in many Acadian households, where the hand loom is always a promi- 
nent piece of furniture. 

The only venture made by Xew Orleans in cotton manufacturing in the early 
days was the Wliitney mill, erected by Mr. B. Whitney, at the corner of Tchoupi- 
toulas and Eoffignac streets, in 1838. The machinery was complete in all particu- 
lars, and the operations of picking, carding, spinning, dyeing and weaving were 
carried on simultaneously in the manufacture of twilled and double-twilled cotton 
goods. The venture attracted less attention than it would to-day. There being 
no skilled labor in New Orleans, Mr. Wliitney had to import his labor from New 
England. The venture was only a temporary success, and went the way of several 
other similar ones of a later day. 

In 186-1:, however, a more successful venture was made, although on a smaller 
scale. Mr. N. L. Lane erected a small cotton mill at the foot of Cadiz street, in 
what was then the city of Jefferson, but is now the Sixth Municipal District of 
New Orleans. From a very small beginning the mill gradually increased in size, 
and in 1883 it was incorporated with a capital of $375,000. At that timr 
the mill had 2,160 spindles and 68 looms, which were increased to 10,000 spindles 
and 308 looms, and again increased in 1894 to 17,000 spindles and 368 looms, 
while important additions were made to the buildings. The Lane ^Mills, for they 
retained the name of their founder, although they have passed into other hands, 
employ about 450 hands and manufacture sheetings, twills, ducks, osnaburgs, 
denims, yarns and camlets to the value of about $400,000 a year. 

It is not necessary to mention the several failures in the establishment of new 
cotton mills, one of the most conspicuous of which was the Louisiana Mill, upon 
which a considerable amount of money was expended, and which, after promising 
well in the beginning, proved a failure, and in doing so had a most unfavorable 
influence on the cotton industry in New Orleans, as it seemed to demonstrate 
that it could not be carried on here profitably, — a view of the matter which has 
since been corrected by the success of the Maginnis mills. 

The Maginnis Cotton Mill No. 1 was erected in 1881, with 15,300 spindles and 



STASDAED HISTORY OF NEW ORLEAXS. 533 

360 looms. John B. Maginnis was the founder and served as president until his 
death. In 1888 a second mill, called IsTo. 2, was built, with 19,9G8 spindles and 696 
looms, the two mills having a capacity together of 11,000 to 12,000 pounds of cotton 
per day. Upon the death of John H. Maginnis, his brother, A. A. Maginnis, was 
elected president, and under his management the mill was still further increased 
to 40,752 spindles and 1,216 looms, consuming an average of 16,000 pounds of cotton 
each working day and turning out 65,000 yards of cloth, as well as a quantity 
of hosiery, yarn, cotton-batting and cordage. Its products are largely shipped 
abroad, going to South and Central America, as well as all parts of the United 
States. The mills employ 800 to 1,000 people, with a monthly paj'-roU of from 
$14,000 to $18,000. 

In 1899 the movement in favor of cotton mills in the South, which had 
shown such success in the South Atlantic States and brought about the erection 
of so many new mills, struck New Orleans, and a meeting called for the purpose 
of considering the subject appointed a committee to collect subscriptions for a 
new cotton mill, a number of large subscriptions being guaranteed in advance. 

If, however, there are no large cotton mills, there have been established 
in New Orleans during the last ten years a number of smaller establishments, 
such as knitting mills for the manufacture of hosiery, jerseys, knitted underwear 
and similar goods, and these knitting mills supply a very considerable portion of the 
cheaper class of goods used in Xew Orleans and the region tributary to it. 

The Alden Knitting Mills were established in 1891, with an authorized 
capital of $10,000, and with Joseph E. J. Meyer as president. The works were 
first located on Julia street, with an output of only 50 dozen pairs of hose per day. 
In 1894 they were transferred to Decatur street and the product increased to 800 
dozen of socks and ladies' hose per day, sold in all parts of the United States, the 
distributing points being Xew York and Chicago. The works employ 125 girls and 
about 10 men. The capital remains at $10,000, but the investment amounts to 
$60,000. Since 1894 the company has done its own dyeing, having established 
the first aniline and salt dyeing plant south of Baltimore. A. W. McLellan became 
president in 1892. 

The Kohlman Knitting Mills, on St. Thomas street, also manufacture hosiery 
and underwear. 

Although New Orleans handled all the tobacco of Kentucky and Ohio in the 
earlier days when tobacco was a more important item in its commerce than even 
cotton, it took no advantage of the opportunity for the manufacture of tobacco. 



534 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

cigars, snuff and cigarettes. Several small ventures were made in earlier days, and 
Mr. Sarrazin secured quite a reputation for the snuff his factory turned out. New 
Orleans factories also did some business in grinding the famous Perique tobacco of 
St. .James Parish. The city, however, won its importance as a great tobacco-manu- 
facturing center first when Mr. S. Hernsheim embarked in the business. 

The factory of S. Hernsheim Brothers & Company was founded in 1857 
by Simon Hernsheim, and its business has increased steadily since then to the 
present day, when it stands third in importance in the United States, giving em- 
ployment to 1,200 hands and being the largest single factory in New Orleans. It 
turns out a number of famous brands of cigars, among which may be mentioned 
"La Belle Creole," "Jackson Square" and "El Belmont," as well as several varieties 
of tobacco, and controls the Perique tobacco crop of St. James. 

The W. R. Irly branch of the American Tobacco Company (the tobacco trust) 
was established in 1872. Between 1875 and 1899 it absorbed no less than a half 
dozen tobacco companies. In 1899 it became a part of the American Tobacco 
Company. 

The People's Tobacco Company, Limited, was organized in 1899, as an inde- 
pendent company to fight the trust. 

The Southern Tobacco Company, Limited, was organized in 1899, by Mr. 
Augustus Craft, and others who were crowded out of the tobacco business by 
the consolidation of a number of concerns in the trust. It also is independent. 

New Orleans, from the start, handled a large part of the cigarette business 
of the South, and claimed that in the manufacture of cigarettes it did not follow 
the example of so many of the Northern factories, which doctored the to- 
bacco with drugs or chemicals, but that, on the contrary, it used only the highest 
grade and finest tobacco. The fact is that the cigarette habit is very old in New 
Orleans, a large part of its population having been smokers of Havana cigarettes 
for years, and they were not inclined to accept drugged cigarettes made with scrap 
or refuse tobacco. 

One of the most recent industries of New Orleans and one of its largest is the 
manufacture of pants and ready-made clothing. The output is estimated at from 
$7,000,000 to $10,000,000 and is increasing. It is all of recent origin, due to the 
abundance of labor in New Orleans. The industry is in somewhat different shape 
from that in New York. Sweat shops are almost unknown, and only a very small 
population, less than one-quarter of the operatives, work in the factories, the 
others, mainly women, doing their work at home, and, therefore, under more com- 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 535 

fortable conditions. Only a small part of the output is sold in New Orleans, 
the bulk of it being distributed in the countrj-, from New York, Chicago and other 
central points. The tendency is in the direction of improvement in the quality 
of goods turned out : that is, while there has been a large increase in the 
amount of clothing manufactured, the amount of the cheaper goods remains 
the same. The average improvement in quality in the output between 1898 and 
1900 was 25 per cent and the value 40 per cent. 

The manufacture of boots and shoes has shown a similar change of recent 
years. The boot and shoe industry was large even as early as 1850, and New 
Orleans manufactured nearly all the shoes it wore, as well as those needed in 
the tributary country. These, however, were practically all custom-made, and the 
industry owed its success to the demand for a higher grade of goods than the 
New England factories turned out, and to the belief that the Southern foot 
required a different make of shoes, which were made on what were known as 
"Creole lasts." 

The industry has been completely changed of recent years. The "Creole last" 
has been discarded, and the shoes turned out are of the same size and pattern 
as are made in other shoe-manufacturing centers. A large proportion of them, 
however, are factory-made, the most improved machinery being used. The result 
is that the New Orleans shoemakers, instead of being confined to a very limited 
territory, are now manufacturing shoes which are shipped to all parts of the South 
and West and are in great demand everywhere. 

The canning of fish, fruits and vegetables is an important industry of New 
Orleans, wliich owes its success and prosperity largely to the Dunbars, who have 
built up the business. The specialties are the canning of oysters, done mainly at 
Biloxi and other points on Mississippi Sound; of shrimp, of which New Orleans 
has a practical monopoly ; of figs, orange marmalade and of such syrups as can best 
be produced in a semi-tropical country. The shrimp industry has reached very 
large proportions. New Orleans shrimp being shipped to all quarters of the world. 
Several Chinese colonies are engaged in drying shrimp in the neighborhood of 
New Orleans, and hundreds of tons of dried shrimp are shipped annually to 
China, where they are considered a great table delicacy. 

The manufacture of beer is one of the more recent industries of New Orleans, 
with some very serious ups and downs. In ante-bellum days a low-grade article 
had been manufactured in New Orleans, known as "city beer." In 1883 the 
Southern Brewery was organized for the manufacture of genuine lager beer. 



536 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

and met with such success in supplying not only the local market, but 
the neighboring States and countries that a number of other breweries 
were established, with an output far greater than was needed. The Louisiana 
Brewery was established in 1885, and in 1887 the Pelican, Crescent, Lafayette 
and Weckerlings breweries (the latter an enlargement of an old establishment). 
The fact that these breweries manufactured more beer than was needed led to their 
consolidation in 1890, under the name of the New Orleans Brewing Association, with 
a capital of $3,100,000. The new association closed the Crescent Brewery in 1893 
and the Lafayette Brewery in 1894. The sale of beer by the company greatly 
increased, from 50,000 barrels in 1885 to 235,000 in 1894 and 240,000 in 1895. The 
association, however, did not prosper, and in 1895 Mr. A. G. Eicks was appointed 
receiver. It was liquidated in 1899, when the property was bought in on behalf 
of the stockholders and reorganized as the New Orleans Brewing Company. 

Besides the business belonging to the New Orleans Brewing Company there 
are several independent concerns, the Jackson, Security, Standard and Columbia 
brewing companies. 

The advantages New Orleans offers for the construction of vessels have long 
been recognized, but these advantages have never been fully utilized. It has 
turned out a number of schooners, luggers and smaller vessels and a few large 
ones, such as transfer and ferryboats, but its boat-building business has been con- 
fined mainly to repair work. Its docks are located at or near Algiers. The United 
States has ordered the construction of a large dry dock at that point, has purchased 
the necessary grounds and made all the required preparations, except to vote 
sufficient money to complete the works. There are several private docks for the 
repair of vessels. 

The Good Intent Dry Dock Company, Limited, was organized in 1866. Its 
charter expired in 1891, when the company was reorganized, with its dock at the 
ferry landing in Algiers. It employs 100 hands. 

The McLellan Dry Dock Company was established in Algiers in 1866, and 
employs 100 hands. The Marine Dry Dock, formerly at the foot of Bermuda street, 
Algiers, was removed in 1897 to Tunisburg (now known as McLellanville), three 
miles below Algiers; and in 1897 the Ocean Dock was also moved to the same 
point. In 1897 a sectional steel dock was purchased from the United States Govern- 
ment at Pensacola, and towed around to McLellanville, where it is now located. 

Plans are on foot for the establishment of a large shipyard in New Orleans, 
but nothing practical has yet been done in that line. 



STANDAUD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 537 

It is impossible to review at length on the other industries of New Orleans, 
as the total runs up to 123. They include nearly all kinds of manufacture incident 
to a great city. Gas, electricity, paint, willowware, umbrellas, pickles, macaroni, 
trusses, artificial flowers, china and pottery, perfumery, horse collars, patent 
medicines, mustard, etc. In fine. New Orleans, which forty years ago manu- 
factured scarcely anything and had to send North for the simplest manufactured 
articles, now turns out nearly every variety of goods. 

The development of manufactories in New Orleans, however, is best shown 
in the following statistics, which give the mimber of separate industries, number 
of factories, employes, wages paid and products, at the several censuses taken in 
1870, 1880, and 1890, carried up to 1899 : 

No. different 

Industries. No. factories. Employes. Wages paid. Total products. 

1870 63 554 4,411 | 1,204,254 | 8,450,439 

1880 89 915 8,404 3,717,557 18,808,906 

1890 145 1,960 25.221 10,887,584 48,295,449 

1899 183 2,215 37,622 17,116,420 78,820,960 

New Orleans is the largest manufacturer of cotton-seed oil in the world and 
the largest cleaner and preparer of rice, molasses, prepared moss and of various 
canned goods ; and it holds a high position in the refining of sugar, the manufacture 
of clothing, cigars and a number of other important industries. Its manufactories 
now give employment to a much larger proportion of its workers than does com- 
merce, which was formerly supreme. 



CHAPTER XXII. 



COMMERCIAL AND MERCANTILE INTERESTS. 
By Norman Walker. 

NEW ORLEANS is to-day, and has been for half a century, the second port in the 
LTnion, its commerce, imports and exports being exceeded only by those of New 
York. There was a time when it promised to be first. This was the dream of JeflEer- 
son, who, in a message on the purchase of Louisiana, prophesied that the world 
would see in the capital of this new dominion, New Orleans, the greatest com- 
mercial entrepot of all times. The author of "The Declaration of Independence" 
could see far enough ahead to know that the center of population, production 
and wealth of the American Union would be transferred to the great and fertile 
valley of the Mississippi, two-thirds of which he had purchased for the United 
States. As the port of this great valley New Orleans seemed destined for the high 
position that JefEerson had prophesied for it. He could not, of course, foresee that 
Stephenson's invention, the railroad, would carry the produce of the great valley 
over the mountains to New York and other ports on the Atlantic and thus deflect 
a great deal of business which, in his day and long afterward, it seemed certain 
that New Orleans would monopolize for all time. 

But if New Orleans has not yet secured the commercial supremacy in the 
Mississippi Valley which Jefferson and the other political economists of his time 
predicted for it, it has never stood lower than second in commercial importance 
among American cities; and its commercial history is full of interest and plays 
a leading part in the story of the continent. Spain, France, England and the 
United States all saw in New Orleans the key to the great Mississippi Valley, 
and it played a leading part in the international politics of the eighteenth century. 
When the United States sprang into existence New Orleans became of even greater 
commercial and political importance than it had been before the birth of the 
republic. During the last years of the eighteenth century and the first of the 
nineteenth the great question of the West and Southwest was which power was 
to possess New Orleans. We are now able to see how nearly this question broke up 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 539 

the new union of States during its infanev, when the peojik' of Kentuck)', 
Tennessee and the other settlers who had poured over the mountains into the 
Mississippi Yalley talked secession loudly and proposed disunion because they 
thought the Government had neglected their commercial interests, and because 
they saw their only hope for the future in the possession of New Orleans and the 
mouths of the Mississippi, which would give them an outlet for their produce. 
It is unnecessary here, however, to go into the history of the many conspiracies 
which had for their purpose the separation of the States and Territories of the 
valley from those of the Atlantic coast, to form with Louisiana a new empire. 
Jefferson's purchase, accomplished largely in consequence of the European com- 
plications then prevailing, prevented the establishment of a new republic on 
American soil, of wliich New Orleans was to have been the capital and commercial 
center; but it did not affect its commercial importance; indeed the next forty 
years raised the Louisiana city to the zenith of its power and importance. 

The commercial and mercantile history of New Orleans shows a succession 
of marked epochs and of great vicissitudes. No city in the world of its importance 
has witnessed more radical changes in its conunercial methods from the early days 
of pirogues and canoes to this latter age when the great Father of Waters handles 
only a small share of its business, and the railroads play the leading part in 
transportation ; yet it has never during all this time, not even during the depression 
of the Civil War, failed to be a power in the commerce of the world, affecting the 
trade of both Europe and America. 

Just, as in Jefferson's day, the aim of the Government was to secure possession 
of New Orleans and the outlet of the Mississippi and thus prevent the secession 
of the Western States, so in the Civil War, Lincoln saw that if New Orleans and 
the Mississippi remained in the hands of the Confederates it would Treaken the 
loyalty of the trans-Mississippi States and tend to bring about 9 break-up 
between the West and East. His first important military movement, therefore, 
was that directed against New Orleans for the purpose of opening up the Missis- 
sippi river — a movement in which he was successful, and which played so important 
a part in weakening the Southern Confederacy and hastening its end. 

Throughout the commercial and mercantile history of the nineteenth century 
the importance of New Orleans comes to the front. It gave its name to the best 
grade of molasses, and New Orleans molasses (that is, molasses shipped through 
New Orleans) is known throughout the world. It gave its name to the best 
grade of cotton — "Orleans ;'' and cotton manufacturers everywhere so called the 
long staple cotton produced on the fertile lands of the Mississippi bottoms. 



540 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

It made its impress even upon the size and draft of vessels. It was seen during 
the middle of the century that freight could be carried far more cheaply in large 
vessels of great tonnage than in the smaller ones that had formerly been used. 
The ship-builders everywhere commenced building larger vessels, and therefore ves- 
sels of greater draft. The increase in size of the average sea-going vessel was marked 
from year to year, but was suddenly checked. The ship-builders explained that this 
check was due to the bars in the Mississippi river. As New Orleans was so important 
a port it would not pay, they said, to build ships of so great a draft that they could 
not sail up the Mississippi. It was thus the conditions prevailing at New Orleans 
which held back for some years the development and growth in size of the 
merchant marine, not of America alone, but of the whole world. 

Of the earlier epochs of New Orleans commerce it is unnecessary to say 
anything here. The French political economists of the day saw a brilliant future 
for the colony, but it was merely a dream as far as they were concerned. Nothing 
practical was accomplished, and the whole matter was badly mismanaged. The 
city and colony were of no importance in the commerce of the world and were 
actually a drag and a heavy expense upon France and afterward on Spain, when 
Louisiana was transferred to it. 

Law's great Mississippi scheme, watered as badly as some of the railroad 
Btock of to-day, did nothing for the colony. The early colonists, like those on the 
Atlantic coast, came to Louisiana looking for easy fortunes, which they expected to 
make from the gold mines and pearl fisheries they believed to exist in El Dorado, 
and with no desire or intention of cultivating the soil or developing the resources 
of the country, or doing any similar slow and hard work. 

They found in the Mississippi a splendid water way opening to them the 
commerce of a continent; but as there were no settlements of any moment on that 
river or its tributaries, this water way was of little practical value to them. As early 
as 1705 the Mississippi had suggested itself as a means of communication between 
the far North and the Gulf of Mexico. In that year, only six years after Bienville 
had first visited New Orleans and had seen in it the best site for the capital of the 
new colony and for the port of the great valley, the first cargo came down the 
Mississippi. As might be expected, it consisted neither of the product of the field or 
the factory, but altogether of the fruits of the chase. A number of French voyageurs 
settled in the Indian country around the Wabash, collected from the several hunting 
posts in the neighborhood 10,000 deer and 5,000 bear skins and shipped them down 
the Mississippi as the only way by which they could reach Europe, as it was 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 54 1 

impossible to pack them across the country and over the mountains to Canada or 
Philadelphia. It was a wild experiment, but one that had a most important 
influence, since it contributed largely to the success of Bienville's plan to have 
New Orleans made the capital of the colony, as well as to the ultimate settlement of 
the Mississippi Valley, for it showed that colonists upon the great river had an 
outlet to the markets of the world, as short in time and less expensive and difficult 
than packing their products by horse or wagons over the mountains to the Atlantic 
seahoard. 

The Canadian voyageurs who brought down their first cargo on the Mississippi 
traveled 1,400 miles without seeing a settlement or a white man, and through a 
country filled with hostile Indians. It took them nearly six months to make the 
trip, but they got through all the difficulties and reached the Gulf in the early part 
of 1706. As Xew Orleans did not exist then or until twelve years later, these 
primitive merchants floated down the Mississippi only as far as Bayou Manchae, 
then a' navigable stream (it was closed by Gen. Jackson in 1815 as a protection 
against the British fleet), and sailed through Bayou Manchae and Iberville (now 
Amite) river into Lake Pontchartrain. Thence they went through Mississippi 
Sound to Mobile (then known as St. Louis des Mobiles), where their cargo was 
marketed. The furs were sold in France and the voyageur merchants made a 
handsome profit, but they did not care to repeat the experiment. They did not 
return home, but settled in Louisiana. 

The experiment produced important results. It inflamed the speculative 
craze, just then so prevalent in France. The French Western Company, organized 
by Anthony Crozat, was formed to operate the colony and received a monopoly of 
its trade for 25 years, on the condition of spending a large sum annually in the 
development of the country and settling so many families there annually. The 
movement proved an improfitable one. The amount of commerce handled via 
the Mississippi was small ; the people whom the company brought over to the colony 
did not care to cultivate the land or did not know what crops to cultivate, and the 
country selected for settlement — the coast of Mississippi Sound — proved sandy 
and unfertile. After Igsing considerable money on his investment, Crozat surren- 
dered his charter or contract in 1717 and turned the colony over to the French crown. 
The change enabled Bienville to carry through his far more practical ideas, which 
were to transfer the French settlements to the Mississippi and to make New 
Orleans, whose commercial possibilities he foresaw, the capital. 

During the first years of the new city its trade consisted almost exclusively 



542- STAXDAED HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

in the product^ of the chase, and these figured very prominently in its business 
for nearly half a century afterward. During all of this early time N"ew Orleans 
was one of the chief entrepots of the Northwestern and Canadian fur trade. About 
1720 it began receiving other products by river, from the French settlements on 
the Illinois and at the mouth of the Missouri. These shipments, as to-day, con- 
sisted largely of food products, the country around Xew Orleans being not self- 
supporting in the matter of food at the time, growing mainly indigo and similar 
articles, so that it had to get its food supply abroad. In 1730 the exports from New 
Orleans were valued at only $62,000 a year, of which 65 per cent was in the shape of 
skins from the upper country. 

The early French domination in Louisiana saw little improvement in the 
commercial conditions of New Orleans, for while there was no monopoly of the 
trade as there had been under Crozat, it was bound by so many limitations that it 
was anything but free, the colony not being allowed to sell or buy in the open 
market, but being compelled to ship to France alone. This restriction proved as 
injurious to the government as to the colony. At no time was Louisiana self- 
supporting as the British colonies on the Atlantic were, but France was com- 
pelled to make good an annual deficit in the revenues. 

In 1763 Louisiana was ceded to Spain. The commerce of New Orleans 
at that time amounted to only $304,000 a j'ear, less than the value of a sin- 
gle cargo shipped from the city to-day. Of these exports only half came from 
the country around New Orleans. The items are as follows: Indigo (raised in 
Louisiana proper, and the main product of the colony at that time), $100,000; 
deer skins and furs from the Upper Mississippi, Missouri and Ohio, $80,000 ; 
lumber, $50,000 ; naval stores, $12,000 ; rice, peas and beans, $-l:,000 ; tallow, $4,000. 
The smuggled trade was put down as $54,000, but may have been more. Most 
of this was in the hands of the English, whose commercial influence in the colony 
was very great. As for the food products brought down from the Illinois country 
they were all consumed in and around New Orleans and did not find their way 
abroad. 

With Spanish rule the commerce of New Orleans advanced rapidly. This was 
due less to the policy pursued by the Spanish.government than to the situation of the 
city itself. The importance of the Mississippi, with its 20,000 miles of navigable 
water-wavs stretching into all parts of the continent, began to be realized and 
appreciated, and the great powers of Europe played an exciting game of intrigue 
for its control. 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 543 

Spain took Louisiana in 1763, not from any particular desire to own tlie 
country, but as a protection against British aggression on her Mexican possessions. 
She was never able to overcome the prejudices of the original French settlers, 
although she dealt more liberally with Louisiana than with any of her Spanish- 
speaking colonies and spent far more on it than she got in return. Her commercial 
polic}-, however, was the same Spanish policy which has lost her all her colonial 
possessions in America — the restriction of all trade to Spain alone. Xew Orleans was 
shut out from every market in the world except certain specified ports of Spain — 
markets in which the merchants of Xew Orleans were completely at the mercy of the 
Spanish merchants, and could neither sell their goods to advantage nor purchase 
what was needed in Louisiana. It was prohibited even ■ from trading with 
the neighboring port of Havana, although that also was iinder Spanish rule. 

The natural result of these restrictive regulations was to defeat themselves and 
build up a smuggling trade, which was almost as large as the legitimate commerce 
and far more profitable. From one-fifth to one-half of the imports received in 
New Orleans were smuggled in ; and this business was easily enough conducted 
because by treaty Great Britain had reserved to itself the right for British ships 
to enter the Mississippi and supply the British settlements on the east bank of the 
river, above Bayou Manchac, with such articles as they needed. These vessels 
were supposed to be handling the trade of the English settlements in West Florida 
and in what is now the State of Mississippi; but their voyages up the Mississippi 
gave them a splendid opportunity of dealing with the colonists below Fort Bute, 
the southernmost British port (at the Junction of the Mississippi river and the 
Manchac). British trading vessels on the way to Fort Bute or Baton Rouge landed 
part of their cargoes in Louisiana. The center of this smuggling trade was at a 
point about six miles above the city of Xew Orleans, where entire cargoes were 
disembarked and where the city merchants had their agents and representatives 
to purchase the British contraband goods. The slave trade formed a very con- 
siderable proportion of this smuggling, and the Louisiana planters were supplied with 
"Guinea negroes"' mainly by the British vessels. In all the earlier commercial 
reports this smuggling was spoken of openly. There was, indeed, very little secrecy 
about it, and during the French regime it was winked at by the authorities, many 
of whom found it personally profitable. Popular sentiment was very warmly in 
favor of the contraband trade, which was so profitable to the country and which 
enabled the Louisianians to get many goods that would otherwise have never 
reached the colonv. 



544 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

When the Spaniards took possession of ^STew Orleans they set to work 
to break up this smuggling, which not only cut down the colonial revenue, but 
injured the mother country. Governor O'Eeilly found the commerce of the city 
very much demoralized by this contraband trade. He reported to the Spanish 
government that he foiind the foreign commerce of New Orleans almost wholly 
in the hands of the English. "They have their traders and their ships here,'" he 
reported, "and they pocket nine-tenths of all the money spent in New Orleans and 
Louisiana." 

The extreme measures of O'Eeilly soon broke up the business and ousted the 
British from their commercial supremacy, which, however, was never quite as 
great as he asserted. All foreign vessels were prohibited and prevented from trading 
with the Louisianians. This Chinese policy did not continue very long 
in the face of the popular protest. New Orleans was granted absolutely free trade 
with Havana and all the Spanish ports instead of being restricted to a few ; and the 
non-intercourse act was ultimately so modified as to permit two vessels per year 
to enter New Orleans from France, so that the natives could get the fashions and 
costumes of Paris, to which they still clung. 

The Spanish government grew steadily more lenient in its commercial policy, in 
the vain hope that it would win by these means the good will of the people of Louis- 
iana. Under Unzaga, who succeeded O'Eeilly, smuggling through British vessels 
again became common. It enriched the planters and enabled them to greatly in- 
crease the number of their slaves. Unzaga, seeing that the Louisiana Creoles, be- 
cause of their French origin, preferred dealing with France rather than England, 
gave the former country all the opportunities he could ; and during his regime the 
control of the colonial trade passed into the hands of French merchants and so con- 
tinued for many years, until the irrepressible American came on the scene. 

The British traders found themselves treated with rigor by Unzaga, while the 
French were favored and encouraged. Soon afterward, in 1778, when Galvez, the 
greatest of all the Spanish governors of Louisiana, and the most interested in its 
welfare, was at the head of the colony, he issued a proclamation giving New Or- 
leans the right to trade with any port of France, and a little later included among 
tlie ports -nath which New Orleans was allowed to carry on free and unlimited in- 
tercourse the thirteen American colonies, just then struggling for independence. 
Thus it was that New Orleans entered into business with the country of which it 
was destined soon to be a part. At that time Spain was at war with England, and 
Galvez was leading a Louisiana army against the British port of Pensacola (which 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. S45 

he captured). In consideration of the bravery of the Louisiana troops, the com- 
mercial facilities of New Orleans were still further extended, and it was also allowed 
to trade with Mexico, which country had heretofore been completely closed to it. 

During this period, with the relaxation of the severe commercial restrictions 
that had prevailed, the trade of New Orleans had grown very rapidly. It added 
to the diversity of its exports. In 1750 it, for the first time, shipped a little cotton, 
and in 1765 some sugar. Its fur trade had grown to over $100,000 a year, all 
going to Europe. It did a considerable business in lumber, supplying, indeed, most 
of the Havana demands, and furnishing the boxes in which the Cuban sugar was 
shipped to market. In 1770 the exports of New Orleans had risen to $631,000 a 
year, having more than doubled during the short period of seven years of Spanish 
rule. 

In the meanwhile events were occurring that completely changed the commerce 
of New Orleans and ultimately the ownei-ship and flag of the colony. All the river 
trade of the city had hitherto been downward, but with the settlement of the 
Ohio Valley some business sprang up in the way of supplying the people of Kentucky 
and Ohio with calicoes and such other manufactured goods as they needed. 

The first commercial relations between New Orleans and the Americans were 
of a very friendly nature. During O'Reilly's governorship, when provisions rose 
very high in price, and there was an actual scarcity of flour and other food products, 
in consequence of the non-arrival of the Spanish supply ships upon which the peo- 
ple of Louisiana depended exclusively, one Oliver Pollock, of Baltimore, entered 
the port of New Orleans with a cargo of flour, which he sold to the governor for $15 
a barrel, two-thirds of the then current price, in return for which O'Reilly granted 
Pollock the right of free trade with New Orleans during his life-time. Pollock 
was the first American merchant to establish himself in New Orleans, and had his 
agents and representatives in the city, who did a very large business. This com- 
mercial venture proved of the utmost importance to the American cause in the end, 
as much of the ammunition and arms furnished the Continental army was ob- 
tained through Governor Galvez, being carried by boat up the Mississippi and Ohio 
to Pittsburg, and thence distributed to the American forces. At the close of the 
Revolutionary war New Orleans was receiving produce to the value of $225,000 a 
year from the settlements in Tennessee and Kentucky, mainly flour, tobacco and 
similar produce, and was supplying in return manufactured goods, principally cot- 
tons and other dry goods, imported from France. At that time there were several 
American merchants in New Orleans engaged in that character of business, most 
of them from Philadelphia and Baltimore. 



546 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

Governor Galvez, who always showed himself deeply interested in the pros- 
perity of the colony, and particularly of New Orleans, was anxious to make that port 
a free one, with the right to do business with any country. The traditional Spanish 
colonial policy would not permit this ; but Spain made exceptional concessions, ap- 
parently realizing the commercial possibilities of the city. 

By a royal decree made public in New Orleans in the spring of 1782, the re- 
shipment to any South American colony of goods received from Spain was per- 
mitted, but this was not permissible with goods from other countries. Xegroes were 
allowed to be imported free of duty from the colonies of neutral or allied powers, 
save from Martinique, whose negroes had the reputation of being too partial to 
voudouism. Foreign vessels could be bought and registered as Spanish bottoms. 
The export duty on staves shipped to Spain, which trade had reached very large pro- 
portions then, and has continued large to this day, was renewed, but other duties 
were advanced in order to produce a war revenue. 

The importance of the Mississippi commercially was now fully recognized by 
all the countries interested ; and in the next twenty years American politics centered 
around "the Father of Waters" and New Orleans. The treaty of Ghent, which re- 
stored peace between Great Britain, France, Spain and the United States, provided 
that the Mississippi river from its source to its mouth should forever remain free to 
the United States and Great Britain. 

This stipulation was never carried out in good faith by Spain ; but it became the 
origin of a series of Spanish and American intrigues, the aim of the Spaniards being 
to keep the Yankees away from New Orleans, and of the Americans to secure the 
free use of the river, if not to annex New Orleans and the adjacent territory, as 
necessary for the prosperity of the co\mtry above, whose outlet was through "the 
Crescent City." In ITSe a large number of American flatboats loaded with pro- 
visions and breadstuffs, which had been floated down from the Ohio and the Cum- 
berland, were seized at New Orleans and confiscated by the Spanish government 
on the ground that they had violated some of the revenue laws of the colony. In 
1787 General James Wilkinson succeeded in obtaining valuable commercial con- 
cessions from Governor Miro, and the flatboatmen were no longer interfered with. 
He also succeeded in shipping several cargoes of manufactured goods up the Mis- 
sissippi to the American settlers above. The uncertainty of the trade, however, 
and the obstacles placed in the way of the American flatboatmen, led the Ohio set- 
tlers to demand of Congress that it show itself more interested in their affairs and 
better protect their interests; indeed the demand was coupled with threats, and the 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 547 

Kentucky pioneers talked secession very loudly at the time and threatened to sever 
their connection with the Atlantic States, with which they had free commercial re- 
lations. The result of their agitation was the treaty of St. Ildefonso in 1795, the 
first treaty made by the United States with Spain. It defined the 
boundaries between the two countries, but the most important provision it contained 
was in regard to the Mississippi. This was not only made free to the Americans, 
but they were given the riglit of deposit for three years at New Orleans, without 
the payment of any duties or charges, save for storage. It was also provided that at 
the end of these three years a new arrangement of some kind should be made, where- 
by their right of deposit could be continued, Spain reserving the right to select 
another point than New Orleans where American goods could be stored. 

At that time, wliich was only thirty-two years from the date of the Spanish 
acquisition of the colony, the trade of New Orleans had increased more than four- 
fold, and had very radically changed. Indigo no longer constituted the largest item 
in the exports, for indigo was fast disappearing as a paying crop in Louisiana and 
sugar was taking its place. The largest single item was Western produce, which con- 
stituted more than one-third of the total. The several items were as follows : Cot- 
ton (200,000 pounds), $50,000; furs, $100,000; boxes (shipped to Cuba for the 
sugar crop), $225,000; .sugar (40,000,000 pounds), $320,000; indigo (100,000 
pounds), $100,000; tobacco (200,000 pounds), $10,000; timber, $50,000; rice (2,- 
000 barrels), $50,000; Western produce, $500,000. Total, $1,421,000. The furs 
came from the North and Northwest; the sugar, indigo, rice and timber from the 
Spanish possessions in Louisiana ; and the rest from Kentuckj-, Tennessee and Ohio. 

The treaty of San Ildefonso and the opening of the Mississippi gave a stimulus 
to the American trade through New Orleans. In 1798 the Western produce re- 
ceived there was valued at $975,000, and was increasing at the rate of $300,000 a year 
with the heavy emigration then pouring into the Ohio A^alley. For some reason, 
however, when the three years during which the right of deposit at New Orleans 
was to continue expired, Spain made no provisions for carrying out the ether con- 
ditions of the treaty, to fix another depot. Her attention was called to this by 
the American government; but no action was taken. The Kentuckians became dis- 
turbed over this condition of affairs and called for action. If Spain did not want 
them to come to New Orleans let her fix another depot, they said. But the Spanish 
intendant, Morales, declined to do so. He interpreted the treaty to mean that with 
the lapse of three years the Americans lost all right of deposit at New Orleans. It 
was a fatal decision for Spain and lost her New Orleans within a few years. If 



-tX 



548 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

Senor Morales had seen the consequences, or understood the sentiments of the peo- 
ple of Kentucky and Tennessee, he would never have been guilty of so great a folly 
which hastened the expulsion of Spain from America. The freedom of the Missis- 
sippi became at once the aim of American diplomacy; and the United States was 
convinced that the stability of the republic and the commercial necessities of the 
West required the possession of Xew Orleans as the port of this new country that 
was being opened to civilization. For the next four years the problem of the Mis- 
sissippi river and the purcha.se of Louisiana were the chief subjects of discussion 
in Congress, and the American statesmen at home and abroad worked earnestly to 
prevent New Orleans, from which so much was expected commercially, falling from 
the hands of a weak power like Spain into those of a strong one like England or 
France, both of which had their eyes on the city and the rich and fertile valley whose 
port it was and whose wealth the world was Just beginning to recognize. 

For some time it looked as though the closure of New Orleans as a depot and a 
port to the people of the upper valley would plunge the United States into war. 
There was loud talk of an expedition to seize the city, and it was estimated that there 
were 20,000 men ready for this filibustering expedition. Petitions innumerable 
poured into Congress, beginning with the declaration "The Mississippi is ours by 
the law of nature." The difficulty was definitely settled by the action of President 
Jefferson in purchasing Louisiana, and the people of the Mississippi Valley were 
more than satisfied; for not only was the great river thrown open to them, but it 
belonged to them exclusively. 

During the period from 1795 to 1802, while the Americans and Spaniards 
were discussing the navigation of the Mississippi and the right of deposit at New 
Orleans, the outward ocean commerce of the city was also undergoing important 
changes, favorable to the Americans. At the time that the Spaniards took possession 
of Louisiana, and for some little while afterward, the dominant influence com- 
mercially had been the English, mainly through a smuggling and contrabrand trade. 
The Kevolutionary war, but more particularly the war between France and Spain 
on the one side and Great Britain on the other, naturally cut off the English from 
trading with the Spanish colony of Louisiana, and the New Orleans merchants, who 
were almost all of French descent, made their purchases in France. But again the 
lines of commerce were changed. The success of the Eevolution in France and the 
British blockade of French ports broke up most of the trade between Louisiana and 
these ports; and the Americans profited by it. Marseilles, Nantes and Bordeaux 
lost their hold on the commerce of New Orleans, to be succeeded by Philadelphia, 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 549 

which then ranked first in enterprise among American cities, Boston, New York and 
Baltimore. This business was severely interfered with for some little while by the 
French privateers, who were nowhere more numerous than in the Gulf of Mexico; 
and it is largely from these privateers that the "French spoliation claims'" sprang 
which have occupied the attention of Congress so many years. 

On October 13, 1795, one of these French privateers entered the mouth of the 
Mississippi, seized the Spanish naval station at the Balize and occupied it for eight 
days. The Spanish governor sent down troops to dispossess them, when the French- 
men destroyed the station and put to sea. When the war ended a number of Ameri- 
can vessels which had been captured by privateers in the gulf were brought to New 
Orleans as prizes and sold there. 

The purchase of Louisiana by Jefferson opened a new commercial epoch for 
New Orleans and offered that city the first opportunity it had ever enjoyed to prove 
its commercial advantages. While these had been recognized for some time, and the 
several powers — Great Britain,Spain,France and the United States — had been work- 
ing and intriguing to secure possession of the city, and while its commerce had very 
naturally increased, this was accomplished under the most unfavorable conditions, 
with every possible restriction that could be devised by the Spanish. The city was, 
under the American dominion, to spring forward as one of the great commercial 
cities of the world, and for a time it promised to realize all Jefferson predicted for 
it — that it would be greater than even London itself. 

The annexation of Louisiana to the United States was followed by a large in- 
crease in the trade of New Orleans. In 1795 its exports were $1,421,000, of which 
$500,000 was estimated as coming from the West (Kentucky, Tennessee and Ohio). 
In 1801 the shipments from the districts of Kentucky and Mississippi alone were 
$1,626,672, and from all the American possessions in the Mississippi Valley, $2,111,- 
672. In 1802, the last year of the Spanish rule, the trade ran up to $2,637,- l^ 
564. This was divided as follows : Western Pennsylvania and territory northwest 
of the Ohio, $700,000; Kentucky and Tennessee, $1,522,064; Mississippi Terri- 
tory, $412,500. From the Spanish possessions there came $120,000 from Upper 
Louisiana (mainly furs and skins) and $1,720,800 from lower Louisiana (what now 
constitutes the State of that name). The total receipts of produce at New Orleans, 
therefore, were $4,475,364, of which nearly two-thirds were from American terri- 
tor}'. The produce received included 34,500 bales of cotton, of an average weight 
of 300 pounds each, the bale being smaller than now ; 4,300 hogsheads of sugar, of an \/ 
average weight of 1,000 pounds; 800 casks of molasses, of 125 gallons each, equal 



\ 



5 so STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

to 2,000 of the barrels in -nliich molasses is exported to-day ; 4,000 casks of taiia or 
rum made from Louisiana molasses, each of 50 gallons; 3,000 pounds of indigo; 
lumber and (sugar) boxes to the value of $300,000; peltries and skins to the value 
of $120,000; rice and various other products amounting to some $80,000. These 
were the products of Louisiana. 

Among the chief articles of Western produce coming from American territory 
were 50,000 barrels of flour, 2,000 barrels of pork, 1,200 barrels of beef, 2,400 hogs- 
heads of tobacco, 25,000 barrels of corn, besides butter, hams, beans, lard, staves 
and cordage. 

Not only did the Americans control the interior trade, but they were rapidly 
getting control of the exterior or ocean trade of New Orleans, for of the ocean ves- 
sels leaving that port in 1802 a total of 265, of a tonnage of 31,241, there were 158 
Americans and 104 Spanish and French. The British were shut out altogether by 
the war. 

Such was the condition of affairs when the purchase of Louisiana by the United 
States opened a new commercial future for New Orleans and a chance to realize 
Jefferson's prophetic words in his message to Claiborne, the first American gov- 
ernor : 

"New Orleans will be forever as it is now, the mighty mart of the merchandise 
brought from more than a thousand rivers, unless prevented by some accident in 
human affairs. This rapidly increasing city will in no distant time leave the em- 
poria of the Eastern world far behind. With Boston, Baltimore, New York and 
Philadelphia on the left, Mexico on the right, Havana in front and the immense 
valley of the Mississippi in the rear, no such position for the accumulation and per- 
petuity of wealth and power ever existed." 

If this prophecy has not been fully realized in the century that has passed since 
then it must be attributed to that accident in human affairs which Jefferson spoke 
of as possibly interfering with his dream of the commercial prosperity of New Or- 
leans. 

The transfer of Louisiana to the United States saw a large immigration of 
American merchants into New Orleans. There had been a number of Americans 
already settled there even during the Spanish days ; but with few exceptions, notably 
that of Oliver Pollock, they had been regarded with suspicion. Of the new-comers 
nearly all were from the Atlantic coast cities, Boston, Philadelphia, Baltimore and 
New York. Among those prominent in commercial circles were John McDonogh, 
general merchant, whose magnificent donation has done so much for the public 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 551 

school system of New Orleans; Chew and Relf, ship agents; George Morgan, general 
merchant and dealer in liquors ; P. Madan & Company, ship agents ; Earle Jones & 
Company, dry goods; Henry O'Hara, hardware; Judah Touro, of Newport, Rhode 
Island, to whom New Orleans owes so many charities; Stephen Gorton, dealer in 
coal ; Samuel Packwood, wholesale grocer ; John Poulteney & Company, James P. 
Sanderson, Ludlow & Conwell, Clark & Rogers, Richard Thomas, Richard Clague, 
George T. Phillips, Amory & Callender, Kenner & Henderson, George Pollock, 
Meeker, Williamson & Patton, and John Myers. Not a few of these merchants 
dealt in slaves also, as a side issue to their regular business. Of other Americans 
settling in New Orleans during the first five years of American dominion may be 
mentioned McMaster and Adams, Williamson, H. Munro & Company, White & 
Morris, William Simpson, Flower & Faukner, Rezin D. Shepherd (the chief legatee 
of Judah Touro) and Talcott and Bowers. It will be seen at a glance how few of 
these firms survive to-day in any form. 

The first few years of the American dominion did not see as large an increase 
in the commerce of New Orleans as was expected. The receipts of Western produce 
were $4,275,000 in 1804, $4,371,545 in 1805, $4,937,323 in 1806 and $5,370,535 in 
1807. In the latter year the produce reached New Orleans in 314 keel-boats and 
barges and 110 flatboats, and was shipped to market in 350 sea-going vessels of a ton- 
nage of 43,220 tons. 

The flatboat and keel-boat period lasted for about ten years, and they were 
years of commercial progress and prosperity, in spite of the disadvantages under 
which transportation labored from the rude vessels then employed. The traffic was 
nearly all down stream, because the boats, having no propelling power, could not 
stem the current of the Mississippi. The flatboatmen, after making the voyage to 
New Orleans and selling their cargoes, generally broke up their boats for lumber and 
sold them and walked home to the Ohio or Cumberland overland. The up freight 
was almost prohibitive, five or six cents a pound, with not much profit in it even at 
those figures. 

The barges and flatboats generally landed immediately above the corporate 
limits of New Orleans, in front of what is now the first district of that city, and 
around their landing place soon grew up a settlement, which was first of a very 
cheap and wild character, but which is now the wholesale district. Further 
down and immediately abreast of the city and the Place d'Armes (now Jackson 
Square), at what is the sugar and ship landings of to-day, lay the ocean-going ves- 
sels, averaging some 20 or more at a time and ranging from 100 to 200 tons each. 



552 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS, 

There were no ship lines or cqmpanies, the vessels sailing under charters and having 
no fixed hour of departure, but going when they had received their cargo. 

The next ten years saw a steady growth in the commerce and business of Xew 
Orleans, restricted, however, by the lack of good transportation facilities, and it was 
not until Fulton"s invention of the steamboat that the city could fully enjoy the 
great advantages possessed in having the Mississippi, with its many tributaries, at its 
door. In 1810 the arrivals by river were 679 flatboats and 392 keelboats, a total of 
1,071. These brought to New Orleans a most miscellaneous character of products, 
which included sugar, molasses, rice, cotton, flour, bacon, pork, whisky, apples, 
cider, corn, oats, cheese, beans, lumber, butter, lard, onions, potatoes, hemp, yarn 
and cordage, linen, tobacco, beer, horses, hogs, poultry, etc. Three-fifths of these 
products originated above "the falls of the Ohio" (Louisville) and two-fifths below 
that point. 

In 1811 the arrival of the Xew Orleans, the first steamboat to navigate the 
Mississippi, created a revolution in the river business of New Orleans. The 
change was somewhat slow at first, because the steamers were possessed of so little 
power that they could with ditficulty resist the mighty current of the river, and 
found it a most difficult, slow and tedious matter to go up stream. There were only 
five steamboats built in as many years. Moreover, the navigation of the Mississippi 
was handicapped by the attempt of the Louisiana Legislature to establish a mon- 
opoly. A company had been formed, at the head of which were Fulton and Living- 
ston, who had made the first experiments with steam on the Ohio and the Mississippi. 
This company had obtained from the Louisiana Legislature an act granting them the 
exclusive right of navigating the waters of Louisiana with steam vessels for 14 
years, with the privilege of renewing their charter at the expiration of that time. 
Any violation of this monopoly subjected the violator to a fine of $500. But in 
1815 the Washington, the first high-pressure steamer on the Mississippi, openly 
violated the Fulton monopoly, carried the matter into the courts and won, the court 
declaring that the Mississippi river was the heritage of the people, and that neither 
Congress nor any State Legislature had the right to give control of its navigation to 
any person or company. 

This decision served as a stimulus to the steamboats, which from this time for- 
ward took the place of the flatboats in carrying the traffic of the Mississippi. In 
1814 the arrivals at New Orleans consisted of 508 flatboats and 324 barges, of a 
total tonnage of 88,350, and 21 steamboats, of 2,098 tons. These steamers were the 
New Orleans, Vesuvius and Enterprise. The sea-going vessels leaving New Orleans 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 553 

that year were 351, of which 188 were ships, {)5 barges and 5";! seliooncrs, with a 
total tonnage of 81,180 tons. The chief products received from the interior were 
58,220 bales of cotton, 110,872 bushels of corn, 73,820 barrels of flour, 11,640 hogs- 
heads of sugar, 11,220 barrels of molasses, 7,225 barrels of pork, 7,500 barrels of 
rice, 3,205 casks of rum, 6,210 hogsheads of tobacco and 16,200 barrels of whisk}'. 

The return trade, that is the supply of manufactured goods, mainly of Euro- 
pean make, came by way of the East from Philadelphia, New York and Baltimore 
overland. Xor did the discovery of steam as a motive power for river boats cause 
much change in the business. New Orleans increased its shipments up the river 
when a better means of stemming the current was discovered, but the bulk of its 
shipments to the Ohio Valley were heavy articles that could be transported cheaply. 
Most of the importers in Xew Orleans were Creoles or French, who imported French 
goods. As a consequence the Kentuekians or Tennesseeans of eighty years ago were 
supplied from New Orleans with French prints and broadcloths, while their brethren 
on the Atlantic wore almost wholly the products of British looms. This early French 
influence, due to the large French population in New Orleans, made itself felt 
throughout the Lower Mississippi Valley almost to the outbreak of the civil war; 
and in many portions of the country the demand was for French rather than for 
English goods. The United States at that time was manufacturing very little in 
the way of calicoes and cottons, save of the lowest grade. Nothing better illustrates 
the early commercial influence of New Orleans than this very fact — that for years 
it set the fashion in the goods used tliroughout a large portion of the Mississippi 
Valley. 

The introduction of the steamboat as a means of transportation on the river 
brought about a radical change in trade lines and gave an immense impetus to the 
business of New Orleans. The quarter of a century between 1815 and 1840 was tiie 
golden age commercially of that city, when it saw its greatest prosperity. Its trade 
is larger in the aggregate to-day, but not relatively and proportionately, and there 
is not as much profit in it. During the early steamboat period New Orleans, in 
spite of epidemics, rose to be the wealthiest city in the Union, the third in point of 
population, and disputed with New York the rank of the first port in America. It 
was the metropolis of the great valley, leading in all industrial, financial and com- 
mercial enterprises ; indeed, no other American city ever occupied the metropolitan 
position that New Orleans filled for half the century during its "flush days." 

The opening of the Mississippi to steamboats without let or hindrance in 1816 
saw a total of $8,052,540 of produce received at New Orleans, about double the re- 



A 



554 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

eeipts of the first year of the American dominion. Cotton still constituted only a 
small part of this commerce, amonnting to 37,371 bales, or twelve per cent in value, 
and the bulk of the receipts were from the Ohio Valley and included breadstufEs, 
provisions, tobacco, and other Western produce, or eighty per cent in value of the 
receipts. New Orleans was the center not of the cotton and sugar trade alone, 
but of the grain, tobacco and provision trades, and received more tobacco then than 
it does to-day. The river traffic of Xew Orleans at that time required six steamboats, 
594 barges and 1,287 flatboats, of a total tonnage of 87,G70. The trip down the 
Mississippi was full of danger, because of the many snags and other river accidents, 
and a rough estimate placed the losses at 20 per cent; that is, only 80 per cent of 
the goods which started down from the Ohio to Xew Orleans ever reached that port, 
the remaining fifth being sunk or burnt in the Mississippi on its way down stream. 

From 1816 the river trade destined for Xew Orleans increased rapidly, thanks 
to the steamboats. It had been $8,062,-540 in 1816; it was $9,749,253 in 1817; 
$8,773,379 in 1818; $13,501,036 in 1819, and $16,771,711 in 1820, having doubled 
in the short period of four years; nor did the improvement stop then. The trade of 
New Orleans with the interior country continued to increase with years in spite of 
the heavy losses of the river and the very expensive commercial methods that pre- 
vailed, until the construction of the Erie and other canals diverted some of the busi- 
ness of the Upper Ohio. The merchants of New Orleans did not notice this diversion 
at the time, nor as a matter of fact did it make itself felt upon the aggregate trade of 
the city until long afterward. The Mississippi Valley was growing so rapidly in 
population and production that there was a? much as New Orleans could handle, 
notwithstanding diversions of business to the East. 

The chief feature of this quarter of a century, from 1815 to 1840, as far as New 
Orleans was concerned, was the war between the steamboat and the flatboat — be- 
tween the old, rough and piimitive way of doing business and a more systematic 
method with boats running on schedule time and with fixed charges, and with the 
trade in the hands of merchants instead of fiatboatmen. It is needless to say that the 
steamboat and civilization triumphed over the primitive flatboat, but not immedi- 
ately, as one would have imagined. Flatboats continued to be used to a large ex- 
tent up to the time of the civil war, and some reach New Orleans even to-day, but 
generally in tows. However, the steamers steadily gained on them, handling a larger 
share of the trade each year and relegating the old "arks"' to the transportation of 
apples, potatoes and similar articles that can be carried in bulk. 

The first steamboat, the New Orleans, had reached New Orleans the dav before 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 



555 



Christmas, 1811. In 1815, when the river was declared open to all steamers and the 
Fulton-Livingston monopoly was pronounced unconstitutional, forty steamers 
reached jSTew Orleans; in 1880 the arrivals were one hundred and ninety-eight; and 
they continued to increase as follows : 









Value of produce 






Value of produce 




Steamers arri' 


red 


received at 




Steamers arrived 


received at 




at Nc 


3W Orleans. 


Xew Orleans. 




at New Orleans. 


New Orleans. 


1821 




202 




$11,967,067 


1831 


778 




26,044,820 


1822 




287 




15,126,420 


1832 


813 




28,238,452 


1823 , 




392 




14,473,725 


1834 


1,280 




29,820,817 


1824 , 




436 




15,063,820 


1835 


1,081 




37,566,842 


1825 




502 




19,044,640 


1836 


1,272 




39,537,762 


1826 




608 




20,446,320 


1837 


1,374 




43,515,402 


1827 




715 




21,730,887 


1838 


1,549 




45,627,729 


1828 




698 




22,886,420 


1839 


1,551 




42,263,880 


1829 




756 




20,757,265 


1840 


1,573 




49,763,825 


1830 




989 




22,065,518 


i841 


1,958 




49,822,175 



In this period of twenty years, during which the trade of New Orleans was 
transferred from the flatboats and other lesser craft depending entirely upon the 
current for their motive power to take them to New Orleans, to the steamboats, the 
receipts of produce from the interior increased fourfold and the ocean traffic 
showed a similar improvement. The increase in the number of steamboats reaching 
New Orleans does not fully show the improvement which took place because the 
steamers not only became more numerous, but of larger tonnage and could therefore 
carry more freiglit. The tonnage of the steamers reaching New Orleans in 1815 was 
only 77,220, whereas in 1840 it was 537,400 tons. 

In regard to the flatboats and other craft during this period there is no 
sufficiently definite information. It should be said that while the steamboats sup- 
planted the barges and other floating vessels in many lines, they did not entirely 
drive them from the river. The Mississippi counted some hundred or more tributaries. 
On some of these tlu- settlements were sparse and the surplus to be exported to 
market afforded at best only one or two cargoes a year and these were sent far 
more cheaply and conveniently in flatboats and barges than in steamers. As late 
as 1840 one-fifth of the freight reaching New Orleans was carried by flatboat, keel- 
boat or barges. The early flatboats had depended exclusively on the current of 
the river to carry them to New Orleans. The system of towing, so general now. 



556 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

and used almost exclusively in the coal and grain trades, was tried as early as 1829 
and a small steamer — it would be called a tug to-day — was successfully used in 
towing keel-boats down and up stream, thus doing away with the necessity of 
selling the boats when they reached New Orleans, as had formerly been the 
practice. 

During this quarter of a century the steamboat had secured a practical 
monopoly of the trade of the Mississippi; and New Orleans, as the city to which 
all the steamers of the Mississippi and its tributaries went, became the commercial 
center of the great valley. The other river towns, particiilarly St. Louis and Cin- 
cinnati, prospered, but none did as well as New Orleans. Of the 362 steamers 
navigating the Mississippi and its tributaries in 1840, none were over eight years 
old. Their average tonnage was 302 tons, and only four exceeded 500 tons. 

The ocean commerce of New Orleans had increased in exactly the same pro- 
portion with the river business. The city was not a manufacturing one, and but a 
small proportion of the produce received there was consumed. New Orleans was 
simply a point of transshipment, which took what it got from the South and West 
and exported it, sometimes not even repacking it ; hence its exports were within a 
few millions of the receipts, the difference being such breadstufEs and provisions as 
entered into local consumption. A number of changes occurred, but they were not 
of great importance. These changes were in the size of the vessels coming to the 
city, the gradual displacement of sailing by steam vessels, the substitution of foreign 
for American bottoms, and again the change in the ports to which the exports from 
New Orleans were shipped. 

At the time that JefEerson purchased Louisiana the ocean trade of New Orleans 
was almost exclusively with the American colonies and consisted in the shipment in 
American vessels to the towns of the Atlantic seaboard, of the products of the 
vast interior country, the basins of the Ohio and Mississippi. The merchants of 
Baltimore and Philadelphia had been the first to establish agencies in New Or- 
leans, doing so while the city was still under the control of Spain. Next in im- 
portance was Boston in the receipts of produce from New Orleans, while New 
York, Charleston, South Carolina, Newport, Ehode Island, and other seaboard 
towns did some business with "the Crescent City." In the first years of the acquisi- 
tion of Louisiana, this coastwise trade between New Orleans and other American 
ports far exceeded the foreign commerce of the city; and from three-fourths to 
four-fifths of the vessels entering and leaving New Orleans were American bottoms. 
Cotton for Europe had not yet become the chief export article, and indeed 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. SS7 

cotton was one of the smaller items in the commerce of the city in those daj's, the 
bulk of the exports being flour, pork, tobacco, sugar and similar produce. The 
vessels engaged in this trade were small sloops and schooners of 250 tons burden 
or thereabouts, in the handling of which the American seamen of the day were 
unexcelled. 

It was not until 1830 that the foreign commerce of New Orleans exceeded 
its coastwise shipments, when the two stood as follows: Exports to coastwise 
ports, $8,357,788; to foreign ports, $9,868,328. The coastwise traffic of New 
Orleans has improved very considerably since then, but it never afterward caught up 
with the foreign trade. In 1840 this coastwise traffic reached a total of $21,960,- 
859. It remained for years at or near that figure. The opening of the Erie and Ohio 
canals, followed soon afterward by the construction of railroads, diverted the 
Western produce of the Ohio Valley to New York and Philadelphia. New Orleans 
began to devote itself more exclusively to cotton and other Southern products, 
which were shipped to Europe rather than to the American seaports. A radical 
commercial change was going on which in time completelj^ revolutionized the trade 
of the city. 

With the prosperity of the steamboats came also the prosperity of the ocean 
commerce of New Orleans. At the beginning of the steamboat epoch, 1815, the 
imports at New Orleans were half as great as the exports of Southern and Western 
pz-oduce; that is, the people of the West supplied themselves through New Orleans 
with nearly half the manufactured goods which they needed. This continued up to 
the time when the canals and railroads began to invade the Mississippi Valley. In 
1840, the imports were still one-third of the exports, but they dropped to one-fourth 
in 1850 and to one-fifth in 1860. 

The size and character of vessels engaged in the commerce of New Orleans 
were radically changing during all this period. Merchants, the world over, were 
finding that they could send their goods more profitably in larger vessels and the 
average size of the merchant vessel was constantly increasing, although the low 
water on the bars of the Mississippi had a very material influence in delaying this 
growth, as shipyards, especially the American ones, were unwilling to turn out 
vessels which could not engage in the most profitable trade then known — that of 
New Orleans. 

In the earlier days American bottoms had handled nearly all the trade of 
New Orleans, and even as late as 1857 eighty-three per cent of imports at this port 
came in American ships, and only seventeen per cent in foreign ones, whereas, 
to-day the American vessels carry only eight or nine per cent of the total. 



558 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

At the beginning of the century the average tonnage of the vessels trading with 
New Orleans had been 150 tons. They increased slowly to 236 tons in 1840, which 
would be regarded as a pleasure boat to-day; to 376 tons in 1857; and to 531 tons 
in 1860. Of the arrivals in 1846 only 109 were steamers, against 2,863 sailing 
vessels, consisting of 1,997 ships and brigs and 875 schooners. Even when the 
Civil War broke out the number of steam vessels calling at the port of New 
Orleans was barely 300 a year, against from 1,000 to 1,200 sailing vessels. The 
following gives the gradual growth of the ocean tonnage of New Orleans, by 
decades, and will furnish some idea of the troubles encountered at the bar : Aver- 
age size of vessel engaged in the New Orleans trade: 1820, tons 183; 1830, tons 
217; 1840, tons 236; 1850, tons 362; 1860, tons 521; 1870, tons 645; 1876 (con- 
struction of the jetties), tons 732; 1880, tons 998; 1890, tons 1,193; 1899, tons 
1,702. The increase in the last ten years is really larger than these figures of the 
average vessel indicate, being pulled down slightly by the development of the 
Central American trade, the steamers in which have to be small and of light draft 
in order to enter the shallow harbors on the Atlantic coast of Honduras and 
Nicaragua. 

The height of New Orleans' commercial prosperity and prestige was reached 
about 1840, when there seemed every certainty that it would become the greatest 
port in America, but about that time new conditions arose which threatened New 
Orleans' monopoly of the trade of the Mississippi Valley. The merchants of the 
city did not see the danger at the time, and did not fully realize that their territory 
was being invaded. To the superficial observer, it was impossible to see that the 
commerce of the city was affected when its receipts of produce and its exports and 
imports continued to grow larger from year to )'ear. None the less the city was rela- 
tively losing ground commercially, for it was losing its hold upon the trade of the 
great West, then forging ahead so rapidly in population and production, and was con- 
centrating itself too much on handling a single product — cotton — which the South 
unfortunately believed to be the king and master of the commercial world. New 
Orleans had, up to that time, been the port not for a section onlj', but for the 
whole great valley ; it had handled the sugar of Louisiana, the tobacco of Kentucky, 
the flour of the Ohio, and the products of all the States of the Ohio, Mississippi 
and Missouri valleys. It let these slip away from it to worship at the shrine 
of cotton. 

The first diversion came from the canals which entered the field as com- 
petitors with the Mississippi river, upon which New Orleans placed all its de- 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 559 

pendence, imagining that its prosperity was coincident with that of the river 
traffic. The Erie and Ohio canals were begun in 1853. By 1832 the waters 
of the Upper Ohio were connected witli Lake Erie by canal and the latter with 
the Hudson river by the Erie canal. This gave New York a direct all-water 
route to the Ohio valley. It was a somewhat long and circuitous route, slow, 
because of the many locks in it, and completely closed during the winter ; but on 
the other hand, the route to New Orleans down the Ohio and Mississippi had many 
obstacles and difficulties. The river was full of snags and lined with wrecks, and 
the winter closed the OKio as well as the canals. In 1835 the State of Ohio alone 
shipped 86,000 barrels of flour, 98,000 bushels of wheat and 2,500,000 staves 
to New York, all of which had formerly come to New Orleans. It was a startling 
commercial change, the first blow that the trade of the city received. Hitherto 
all the heavier products had gone down the Ohio and the Mississippi to New 
Orleans to be shipped thence to New York, a roundabout route of 3,000 miles, 
whereas, the direct distance by canal was not more than five or six hundred miles. 
Many shipments were now made by way of Cleveland and Buffalo. New Orleans 
scarcely felt the diversion at first and paid too little attention to it. It had as much 
business as it could well handle and did not see anything to fear from the com- 
petition of the canals ; and indeed, though the canals continued to improve tlieir 
business, and to handle each year a large amount of Western produce, they did 
not seem to affect the trade of New Orleans in any material way. The period 
between 1825 and 1850 showed a greater increase in the river than in the canal 
trade; and it became at once apparent that the canals were only a makeshift, and 
were not destined to control the commerce of the country. The fifteen years of 
competition from 1825 to 1840 between the canals, representing New York, and 
the river, representing New Orleans, showed the latter to still hold its own well. 
The products of the lake country of Northern Ohio and those of Western Penn- 
sylvania found their way to the seaboard by the canals, but as far up the Ohio 
as Wheeling goods were shipped mainly by river. The competition was scarcely 
felt at Cincinnati before 1850. All the leading tributaries of Ohio, 
but particularly the Cumberland and the Tennessee, sent all their produce down the 
river to New Orleans in steamers and flatboats. A comparison of the business done 
by the rivers and canals in 1840 shows that the increase in the canal traffic did 
not keep pace with the rapidly increasing population and production of the valley. 
But a new and more dangerous competitor was entering the field, one that 
was destined to seriously cripple the commerce of the New Orleans, and to transfer 



56o STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

to other ports much of the trade it had monopolized. A few miles of railroad had 
been constructed in 1830. The experiment was successful and the railroad mileage 
increased each year. For the first fifteen or twenty years the railroads were almost 
wholly local, and of very short mileage. There was no idea of competition with the 
water routes, and the roads were regarded as excellent institutions to supply trans- 
portation to market where there were no waterways open. For many years there 
was no through line connecting the seaboard with the West. There were breaks 
and gaps in all of the then existing companies. From such transportation as 
this New Orleans had nothing to fear, and the merchants of the city unfortunately 
flattered themselves with this idea, that they would be safe years after the railroads 
had proved their strength and shown that they were likely to control the trade of 
the country. 

In Spanish days, about forty per cent of the exports of New Orleans had 
consisted of Louisiana products and sixty per cent came from the Ohio valley, and 
was what is called to this day "Western produce." With the annexation of Louisiana 
to the United States, the Western produce became a larger element in the com- 
merce of the city. About 1815, when the steamboat came into vogue, cotton 
constituted only 12 per cent of the commerce of New Orleans, and all the Southern 
products only 20 per cent, while 80 per cent of the articles reaching New Orleans 
were from the West, the upper Ohio and the Mississippi. By 1840 the Western 
produce had fallen to 61 per cent of the total commerce of New Orleans and 28 
per cent was from Louisiana and the neighboring States. From 1840 on, the 
proportion of Western products reaching New Orleans steadily decreased and 
cotton correspondingly grew in importance. 

Some of the more far-seeing political economists of the time, and a few, but 
only a few, of the merchants of New Orleans began to see that the city was losing a 
very valuable part of its trade; and there were demands upon Congress that it 
improve the Mississippi so as to get rid of the dangers to navigation at the bar. 
It was still insisted that the river would suffice for all the needs of the valley if 
only it was put in good condition, the snags removed, the rapids and falls obviated 
by means of canals around them and the shallow places deepened. 

At the time of the meeting of the great Memphis convention of 1845, over 
which Henry Clay presided, and which called for the improvement of the Missis- 
sippi and its tributaries by the Federal government, it was found that two-thirds 
of all the steamboat tonnage was owned and controlled in New Orleans, which 
had regular steamers running as far up the Ohio as Pittsburg and on the Missis- 
sippi as St. Paul. 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 561 

In 1849 the river commerce of Xew Orleans, that is the receipt of produce at 
that port from the interior, had in spite of canals and railroads, reached the mag- 
nificent total of $81,989,692. It was at this time that New Orleans began enter- 
ing on its career as the great cotton cit}' of the world. The twenty years between 
1840 and 1860 were years of great prosperity in New Orleans, when its merchants 
won fortunes and could rank among the mereatores principes of the world; but 
it cannot be said that the commerce of the city was in as good a condition as in 
the previous quarter of a century. New Orleans was devoting itself too exclu- 
sively to one article. Instead of being the port for the valley, it was becoming 
the port only for the cotton country. Its prosperity was based on cotton and on 
slavery, and any injury to either of these meant a commercial downfall. The 
South insisted on the sovereignty of King Cotton, and New Orleans claimed, like 
Mahomet, to be its prophet. It was overflowing with money in those "flush times."' 
Its banks had larger capitals and larger deposits than they have even to-day, 
and they loaned their money readily, thus establishing the credit system which 
became universal among the planters, particiilarly those engaged in raising cotton 
and sugar. New Orleans became not only the lender of money at a high rate of 
interest, but the depot of AVestern supplies — corn, pork, etc., which it advanced 
in large quantities to the planters in the vast region tributary to it. The whole 
agricultural country along the lower Mississippi became in a manner commercial 
slave and was not allowed to sell to or to buy of any one else. The Western produce 
shipped down the river did not stop at the plantations, but went direct to the city, 
and was transshipped thence and sent up the river to the plantations by the very 
same route it had come down. 

The prediction that Jefferson had indulged in when he purchased Louisiana, 
that New Orleans "will be forever the mighty mart of the merchandise brought 
from more than a thousand rivers, leaving the emporia of the Eastern world far 
behind," was again repeated and thoroughly believed in by New Orleans. So 
disinterested a witness as the British Quarterly Eeview declared that New Orleans, 
because of the Mississippi, must ultimately become the most important commer- 
cial city in America, if not in the world ; and that eminent statesman and political 
economist, De Boro, stated that "no city in the world has been advanced as a mart 
of commerce with such gigantic strides as New Orleans." 

Nor was this an idle boast. Between 1830 and 1840 no city in the United 
States kept pace with it. When the census of 1840 was taken it was 
fourth in population, exceeded only by New York, Philadelphia and Baltimore; 



S62 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

and it stood fourth in point of commerce among all the ports of the world with 
only London, Liverpool and New York ahead, and only slightly behind the last 
of these cities, with every prospect that it would pass it before the century ended. 
It was ahead of New York in the exports of domestic products, but unfortunately 
its import trade was small. It shipped coffee, hardware and many heavy articles 
up the river, but it left the West dependent upon New York and the other Atlantic 
cities for nearly all the finer class of manufactured goods. Later on, when Cin- 
cinnati, Pittsburg and other Western cities engaged in manufacture. New Orleans 
bought their goods and reshipped them to the plantations. Of these shipments 
up-stream more than 75 per cent, strange to say, were articles which had pre- 
viously been shipped down-stream. There was no trade between the Western 
manufacturing cities and the Southern plantations, very little even with the 
towns on the lower Mississippi. All this traffic paid tribute to New Orleans. Some 
thirty-two steamboats of a tonnage of 48,726, was required for the trade between 
St. Louis and New Orleans, and thirty-six steamers, of 26,932 tons, for the 
Cincinnati trade. 

The change in the commerce of New Orleans from Western to Southern 
produce is most marked during the second decade of the period. In 1815 cotton 
had constituted only 12 per cent of the receipts of the city. In 1850 the value of 
the cotton received at New Orleans was $41,885,156, against $55,012,675 for all 
other articles, cotton being then 43 per cent of the total trade. It continued to 
increase both in the aggregate and proportionately up to the outbreak of the Civil 
War. In 1855 the value of the cotton received at New Orleans was $51,390,729 ; 
in 1856, $70,371,729; in 1857, $86,255,079; in 1858, $88,127,340; in 1859, $92,- 
037,794; and in 1860, $109,389,228. All the other exports amounted to only 
$75,822,026. Cotton constituted 58 per cent of the total trade of the city. If the 
other Southern products — sugar, molasses and tobacco — be included, only $42,- 
881,486 remained for Western produce. Those articles which had contributed at 
one time 80 per cent of the commerce of New Orleans had sunk to only 23 per 
cent. The city had largely abandoned its Western trade for what it believed to be 
more profitable — the cotton business. 

In 1845 it was estimated that half the produce of the Mississippi Valley 
shipped to seaboard found its way to market via the canals, railroads and other 
routes, and half by way of the Mississippi to New Orleans, thus showing how much 
business had been diverted as compared with the period when New Orleans had a 
practical monopoly. In 1846 the receipts of flour and wheat at Buffalo exceeded 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 563 

those of New Orleans for the first time. This created somewhat of a sensation 
and was discussed at length in the newspapers. The New Orleans press expressed 
the sentiment that this diversion was merely temporar}', that an artificial waterway 
could never compete successfully with a natural one; and that sooner or later this 
flour and wheat trade would return; but it never did return. On the contrary, 
Western produce was more and more diverted over the Eastern route. The Erie 
canal captured the flour trade. The Pennsylvania canal took annually some twenty 
thousand' hogsheads of tobacco that had formerly been marketed in New Orleans, 
all the pig iron manufactured in the Pittsburg district, and large quantities of 
lard, bacon and other Western produce from the upper Ohio. It supplied in re- 
turn manufactured goods, china ware, drj' goods, hardware, hats, shoes, etc., and 
as early as 1846 it furnished the Ohio basin with more manufactured goods than 
New Orleans did. 

In 1846 the rate on flour from Cincinnati to New York was $1.53 per barrel 
by the Erie canal; $1.40 per barrel by way of Pittsburg and the Pennsylvania 
canal, and $1.30 by way of New Orleans, but on the other hand the river route 
was much the longer, and far more dangerous, so that, the insurance added, it 
was really more expensive than to ship the flour by canal. 

The result was the loss of the grain and flour trade, save such flour as New 
Orleans reshipped to the cotton and sugar planters of the territorj' tributary to 
it, or exported to Cuba, and other countries of Latin America. It lost, also, and 
from the same causes, its tobacco trade, which in the earlier days, had outranked 
cotton in importance. In 1852, the lead trade of Illinois and Missouri, which had 
formerly passed through New Orleans, was lost to it, in consequence of the railroads 
having made through connection with Galena, the center of the lead indiistry. In 
1846 New Orleans had received a maximum of 785,495 pigs of lead, and the average 
for the decade was 600,000 pigs. The trade sank suddenly. In 1856 New 
Orleans received but 15,291 pigs of lead, and soon afterward the trade disappeared 
altogether from the commercial records, or was of too little import- 
ance to deserve separate enumeration. The merchants of New Orleans took 
their losses philosophically and congratulated themselves upon the fact that there 
was more money in the cotton business than in these other lines of trade diverted 
elsewhere. The exports of Western produce had become, they said, merely a transit 
business. The wheat, flour, etc., from the West left but little money in the 
city, whereas the cotton trade paid splendidly. They got an advance on the 
cotton, on the supplies furnished the merchant, and it returned a profit in many 
other ways ; there was, in fine, more money in it. 



$64 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

But about this time another difficulty assailed the trade of Xew Orleans, 
which proved extremely injurious to it and affected it for nearly thirty years, 
until Congress took the matter in hand; this was the difficulty of getting the 
produce from New Orleans to the ocean on account of the bar at the mouth of 
the river. The use of steam had greatly increased the size of vessels engaged in the 
New Orleans trade. As early as 1829 attention had been called to the mouth of 
the Mississippi and the changes which were going on there in consequence of 
the formation of bars. In 1837 Northeast Pass, through which a majority of the 
vessels had previously entered the river from the Gulf, shoaled up and became use- 
less. Southwest Pass then came into vogue and was used by most of the entering 
vessels up to 1850, it being from fifteen to sixteen feet deep. The draft of many 
of the vessels was sixteen feet or more and those of one thousand tons or over 
encountered great difficulty in getting over the bars in this Pass. In 1853, within 
a few weeks there were forty vessels aground on the bar, suffering a detention 
there of from two days to eight weeks. Many of them could not get over the bar 
with their cargoes and had to discharge the latter into lighters. In 1853 the same 
difficulties occurred, and in a memorial presented to Congress by the merchants of 
New Orleans, it was represented that vessels with cargoes valued at $7,367,339 
were delayed at the mouth of the Mississippi, being unable either to get into it 
or to get out. This n<iturally increased the freight rate from New Orleans and 
tended to injure the commerce of the city. The trouble was constantly recurring for 
the next twenty years or more, and was only cured in 1874 by the construction of 
the Eads jetties. It is difficult to determine to what extent the trouble about low 
water at the passes affected the trade of New Orleans. That port had always 
been a very expensive one from the earlier days, because of the high insurance rates ; 
but it could afford to be expensive. As the rates of transportation were decreased 
elsewhere it began to feel the influence of the decline and it became evident tliat New 
Orleans would have to cut down its port charges and expenses and that freight could 
not stand se^'eral weeks' detention at the passes. 

The decade which ended at the outbreak of the Civil War saw New Orleans 
at the height of its commercial prosperity according to some ; but in reality, having 
failed in its great destiny, what Jefferson and other enthusiasts had seen for it 
was that it would become the port and emporium of the entire Mississippi valley, 
shipping all its products to the markets of the world and supplying it in return 
with all it needed in the way of European or manufactured goods. There seemed, 
indeed, at one time every chance of this prediction coming true, and New Orleans 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 565 

narrowly missed this destiny, which would have made it the greatest commercial 
city of the world. The lack of a power that would take its boats up-stream stood in 
the way of success at first. There was no difficulty in getting the produce to the 
city and thence to market, either in Europe or on the Atlantic seaboard of America ; 
but there was a difficulty in furnishing return supplies, such as the people of the 
interior needed. The discovery of steam and its application to boats so that they 
could ascend the river against the current overcame the difficulty and gave the 
merchants of Xew Orleans an opportunity of controlling and monopolizing the 
entire commerce of the Mississippi Valley, the imports as well as the exports; and, 
for a time, it looked as though they would do so, in which event New Orleans 
would have accomplished all predicted of it; but the chance had been lost and, 
instead of becoming the port of the whole valley, it had been satisfied to pin its 
faith on cotton, to become the metropolis of only a section. It had allowed the 
canals and afterward the railroads to divert a large amount of business to the 
Atlantic ports, and this diversion was at its height when the firing on Fort Sumter 
brought on the cataclysm in which the commerce of New Orleans was, for a time, 
completely overwhelmed, and the city had to go to work to build up its trade once 
more and on entirely new lines. 

When the Civil War came on, a few far-seeing economists saw the danger ahead 
of New Orleans and issued frequent warnings to its merchants, declaring that the 
trade of the city, however prosperous it might appear to be, was not built on safe 
foundations, and that there was a danger lest it might be lost. But these warnings 
were as futile as those the prophetic Cassandra sang to the Trojans. Mr. De Bow, 
editor of De Bow's Keview, the leading commercial authority of New Orleans, and 
one of the best commercial and financial papers ever published in the United 
States, complained, month after month, of the apathy that the merchants of New 
Orleans showed in the matter of railroads ; pointed out that the railroads were 
likely to become the chief means of transportation, and that the Eastern ports, 
by constructing them in to the West, territory formerly tributary to New Orleans, 
were diverting from that city trade rightly belonging to it. Mr. De Bow suc- 
ceeded in arousing interest among some of the Southern financiers and capitalists 
in this matter. A railroad agitation was started, which resulted in the construc- 
tion, largely through the assistance of New Orleans, of a line which was to connect 
with the Ohio river and thus bring back to the city the trade it had recently lost. 
This road was completed in part on the very eve of the Civil War, but New Orleans 
had no fa\orable chances to test what it could do. Save the Opelousas railroad. 



566 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

running some eighty miles westward to Morgan City, the old Pontchartrain rail- 
road, one of the first constructed in the country, had been, for twenty odd years, 
the only line New Orleans possessed. Thus it will be seen, that New Orleans, after 
starting out with the Pontchartrain road to build railways had stopped there, 
and, like Eip Van Winkle, had slept for twenty years, while the Atlantic seaboard 
cities were extending their railroads into the interior. 

Whether the railroad agitation, which began in New Orleans in 1858-GO, 
would have accomplished any important results in keeping the trade of the West 
can only be surmised, for the work was completely stopped by the Civil War. It 
is doubtful if the people of New Orleans could at that time have been brought to 
realize the possibilities of railways. Public sentiment was decidedly hostile to 
them. It was a prevalent idea that it was a great commercial battle between New 
York, for whom the railroads were fighting, and New Orleans, whose success de- 
pended on the Mississippi, and it was impossible to convince the people of the lower 
valley that any transportation could be as cheap and as satisfactory as the river, 
free and open to all. The railroads were regarded in the Southwest simply as feeders 
to the Mississippi or its tributaries, and it remained for a future year to see rail- 
roads built parallel to the river and along its very banks in the face of the steam- 
boats. 

The season before the Civil War, 1859-60, saw the largest receipts of produce 
at New Orleans, and the heaviest and most profitable trade the city had ever done ; 
and it stands on record to-day as the summit of its commercial prosperity. The 
number of steamboats arriving at New Orleans was, it is true, not as great as in 
1846-7, but the boats had, in the meanwhile, more than doubled in size, and the 
tonnage reaching New Orleans by the Mississippi has never been equaled since. 
The total receipts of produce amounted to 2,187,560 tons, and the total trade in 
the receipts and shipments of produce and in the exports and imports coastwise, 
and to foreign ports was: Eiver trade, $289,565,000; ocean trade, $183,725,000; 
total commerce of New Orleans, $473,290,000. To-day, forty years afterward, when 
the production and wealth of the country have increased five-fold, the trade of 
New Orleans is no greater than it was in the last year of peace. 

The wide extent of the river trade then is well shown in the several regions 
or districts with which New Orleans was carrying on business. No less than thirty- 
rhree different lines, or rather, different points of communication, are given in the 
commercial reports of the day. Not only did New Orleans have a complete 
monopoly of the business of the adjacent States of Louisiana and Mississippi, but 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 567 

it had no less than twelve steamboat arrivals from Cairo, Illinois, in direct com- 
munication with New Orleans. From Cincinnati 206 steamboats arrived during the 
year; from the Cumberland river, 66; from Evansville, Indiana, 8; from Louisville, 
173; from Memphis, 110; from Pittsburg, 526; Paducah, Kentucky, and St. Louis, 
472; Tennessee river, 16; Wheeling, 9; and White river, Arkansas, 4. 

Divided by States in order to give some idea of the region commercially tribu- 
tary to New Orleans at that time, the arrivals of steamboats and other vessels 
navigating the Mississippi, the following is interesting : 

ARRIVALS AT NEW ORLEANS OF RIVER VESSELS BY STATES 

Louisiana 1,835 Pennsylvania 134 

Missouri 672 Illinois 112 

Mississippi 388 Indiana 108 

Ohio 306 Texas 48 

Tennessee 236 Virginia 9 

Kentucky 226 Alabama 10 

Arkansas 140 

Two-thirds of this business was lost by the merchants of New Orleans during 
the Civil War and has never been regained. It can only be surmised what the 
results would have been had the war not come on us. Certain is it, however, that 
unless New Orleans had realized the importance of railroads, as it did not fully 
do until years afterward, unless it had contributed from its superabundant capital 
toward their construction, instead of placing too much confidence on the Missis- 
sippi river and its "unequaled advantages," it would have lost the region commer- 
cially tributary to it, war or no war, but it would have taken decades to do what 
four years of Civil War brought about. 

New Orleans was losing, at that time, another branch of business, the im- 
portance of which it never fully recognized. When the immense tide of foreign 
immigration poured into the country in the last of the forties, in consequence 
of the great famine in Ireland and the political disturbances in Germany and 
other parts of the continent, growing out of the revolutions of 1848, the bulk of 
the immigrants made the Mississippi Valley their destination. They passed on 
through New Orleans by the thousands and tens of thousands, and went up the 
river to their destination in Illinois, Ohio, Indiana or Missouri; although many 
thousands remained behind in New Orleans, to give that city its cosmopolitan 
population. It cannot be said that New Orleans ever appreciated this immigra- 
tion or saw what it meant for the development of the country. There was a dis- 



568 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

tinct prejudice against it, growing out of the slavery issue, and tlie eity made 
80 few efforts to keep this business, which was once largely centered hero, that 
the immigration drifted to New York, where it did much to build up that city 
into a great manufacturing center. Here, again, was another opportunity lost. 

Yet in spite of all these neglected opportunities New Orleans was at the 
outbreak of the Civil War one of the great ports of the world, and to all ap- 
pearances the most prosperous commercial city in America. It ranked second to 
New York City in the amount of commerce it handled, but it was further lidiiud 
that city than it had been in 1840, and there seemed little chance of its ever dis- 
tancing Manhattan, as had seemed probable twenty years previously. Its cotton 
trade yielded a larger profit than the grain, flour and provision trade, which had 
been diverted to New York. Its banks were running over with gold, and had money 
to contribute to all important commercial enterprises. It was New Orleans capi- 
talists who stood at the van and were agitating and preparing for the continuation 
of a railroad or canal across the isthmus of Panama or Tehuantepec in order to 
give us an outlet to the Pacific. Its banking and financial system was regarded as 
the safest and soundest in the Union, and even New York was glad to borrow 
some ideas from it. Its commercial and financial supremacy over all the country 
tributary to it, which included some half a dozen States, was undisputed. New 
Orleans supplied the capital for the cultivation and movement of cotton, sugar and 
the other crops of the South. The planters almost without exception were in- 
debted to its merchants and could not send their produce to any other port, nor 
buy what they wanted elsewhere. The consequence was that no other comniennal 
towns existed in the neighborhood of New Orleans; that city swallowed up all the 
trade and business of its section. Louisiana and Mississippi were signally deficient 
in the cities of the second class, which were springing up throughout the North 
and West, and even in the Southern Atlantic States. The policy of commercial 
centralization was marked and operated in the interests of New Orleans and its 
merchants. 

These merchants were men of the highest character and integrity, far-seeing 
in their business, but unfortunately accepting the doctrine of the kingship of cotton; 
and they thought that slavery, upon which the commercial system of New Orleans, 
as well as the industrial system of the South, was founded, was safe and beyond 
the danger of destruction. New Orleans was a most cosmopolitan city, and its 
merchants, like its population, came not only from all parts of the country, but 
from all parts of the world. The Southern element was the largest and gave 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 569 

direction to the course of commercial sentiment ; but some of the leading business 
men were of Eastern and even of New England origin. With their life in New 
Orleans, however, they soon became pro-Southern in their sentiments, habits and 
views of life. The West was but poorly represented in commercial life, and this 
fact, and the political prejudices which were growing up in the country over the 
slavery question, contributed toward the loss of the Western trade. The Creoles, 
or French of Louisiana descent, still controlled the sugar trade, which ranked 
next to cotton in importance. The foreign element was largely represented, mainly 
by the English and French, engaged, however, principally in the import trade, 
in supplying the markets of New Orleans and the South and such parts of the 
West as still received their goods through the Southern metropolis with the manu- 
factured products of Europe. The slave business, although it was not too con- 
spicuous, constituted an important element of the trade of New Orleans. That 
city was the best slave market in the South, negroes bringing the highest prices 
there, and it handled thousands of them each year, selling them to the planters en- 
gaged in opening up new cotton and sugar lands. 

The commercial methods and practices were quite different from what they 
are to-day, and if more expensive were more picturesque. There were no commer- 
cial exchanges then, where quotations of produce could be obtained, and business 
was handled more or less in the saloons, which called themselves "exchanges," and 
made some attempt to give the standard prices of the leading commodities; but, 
as might be expected, these prices fluctuated widely. The commercial business of 
the city, instead of being hidden away as it is to-day, at the railroad depots, was 
concentrated on the le\-ce; and "the levee" was one of the show places of New 
Orleans, to which strangers were taken to give them some idea of the city's im- 
mense commerce. It seems to have impressed them all, for they declared without 
exception that they had never seen anything like it. The description of the levee 
in those ante-bellum days reads like fairy tales from The Arabian Nights. The 
levee was the storehouse for all the great Mississippi Valley. Along the wharves 
lay steamboats or steamships two or three deep, for the wharfage was not sufficient 
to accommodate all the vessels loading at the port. All was action; the very 
water was covered with life. It was beyond all question the most active com- 
mercial center of the world, with which not even the docks of Liverpool and 
London could merit comparison; and whenever any one expressed fear that the 
railroads would sap the commerce of New Orleans, he was taken to the levee 
and asked if that looked like commercial decav. 



S70 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

In the midst of all this, in the very height of New Orleans' prosperity as a 
cotton market, when it exported half of the cotton crop of the country, came the 
shock of Civil War. The previous season, 1859-60, had been one of the most 
prosperous in the history of the city, and New Orleans, which, like the rest of the 
South, anticipated a very short war, if any, took a most roseate view of the future, 
and had no idea that the four j'ears' struggle which was to ensue meant its com- 
mercial ruin and its setback a generation or more. 

Anticipating the blockade of the port, a very earnest effort was made to market 
the cotton crop at as early a day as possible and before the Federal fleet could get 
off the mouth of the Mississippi. Wonders were accomplished in that direction, 
but it was of course impossible to get all the cotton exported in time. The receipts 
of produce at New Orleans, however, for the season 1860-1 showed only a slight loss 
from the previous year, being $155,863,564, as compared with $185,211,25-1: for 
1859-60, not a bad showing for a blockaded port. 

The history of the next four years is military rather than commercial. When 
the Civil War shiit up the mouth of the Mississippi to the Western States, a de- 
mand went up from them to the Federal government that it be opened. Yet this 
demand, if compared with that made by the settlers in the upper valley, in 1798, 
showed that the Mississippi had lost some of its importance as far as they were 
concerned. In 1798 the people of the Ohio Valley had declared that they could 
not get along without the navigation of the river; but in 1861 they found that 
it was not absolutely necessary to them, although advantageous. None the less 
President Lincoln saw how important from a military, if not a commercial, point 
of view, was the possession of New Orleans, and the control of the Mississippi, 
and almost his first expedition was that which, under Farragut and Butler, occu- 
pied "the Crescent City" in a little over a year from the time Louisiana had seceded 
from the Union. 

In April, 1863, the Federal fleet passed the Confederate forts defending the 
mouth of the river and appeared before New Orleans. It was greeted with a 
scene of wholesale destruction, characteristic of the then commercial conditions. 
All the steamers in the river which could not escape up-stream were set fire to and 
sent floating down the river in flames, lest they might fall into the hands of the Union 
forces. Cotton being deemed at that time a contraband of war, the possession 
of which would strengthen the Union cause, was ordered destroyed by a special 
committee appointed for that purpose, hauled from the warehouse to the river 
front, piled up on the wharves and publicly burned ; and the city was full of cotton 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 571 

at the time, the crops of 18G0-1 and 18G1-2, which had not yet been marketed, 
because of the blockade, being still stored there. A quantity of sugar, molasses 
and other products was similarly destroyed, through a misunderstanding of the 
order issued. 

The statistical reports of the commerce of New Orleans for the four years 
of the Civil War are misleading and give a false idea of the commercial condition 

of that city. They are as follows : 

No. of steam- Value of prod- 
boat arrivals. uce received. 

1861-2 1,456 $ 51,510,900 

1862-3 655 29,766,451= 

1863-4 1,414 79,233,987 

1864-5 1,481 113,649,280 

The value of the produce received at New Orleans during this period is 
apparently very large for a city surrounded by a hostile army and with only a 
small region tributary to it. This is due mainly to the greatly inflated value of 
goods, and particularly Southern products then. In actual volume, the receipts 
of produce at New Orleans during the first year of its occupation by the Union 
forces were the smallest since Louisiana had been purchased from France. There 
was tributary to the city only one hundred and forty miles of river, for the Missis- 
sippi was closed at Port Hudson, thus cutting off the Red river and all the tribu- 
taries except the Lafourche. Over this small stretch of country some few steamers 
ran, picking up whatever freight there was, carrying supplies to the planters or the 
Union forces, but the business was small and risky. The receipts of New Orleans 
for the season were just enough to feed the population of the city. There were 
no exports save of such cotton as could be raised inside the lines or smuggled in. 
In 1859-60 New Orleans had received 2,185,600 bales of cotton. This dropped 
to 38,880 bales in 1861-2, and to 20,774 in 1862-3. With the capture of Port Hud- 
son and Vicksburg, its business improved somewhat in 18G3-4, the total number 
of bales received running up to 131,144. The last year of the war, 1864-5, showed 
a still greater increase to 275,015 bales. During this period the commerce of New 
Orleans was practically dead. Its merchants, with few exceptions, had left the 
city, and the business was handled entirely by foreigners or by those connected with 
the army who could get special favors from the authorities. So dead was 
New Orleans, for it had no manufactures to fall back on, that in spite of the fact 
that its population was much smaller than it had been, in consequence of the large 



572 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

muiibcr of OrleaniaBS who had gone out into the Confederacy, it was not self- 
supporting, and the military authorities were compelled to distribute relief and 
feed a considerable proportion of the poorer classes left without the means of 
living, in consequence of the decay of the city's commerce. 

An effort made in 1865, when peace had come, to find what New Orleans had 
lost by the Civil War made a most melancholy showing. It was found that the 
Western States were getting from New York their coffee, sugar and other supplies 
which they had formerly obtained through New Orleans, and the shipments of 
Western produce through the Crescent City had declined 75 to 90 per cent. Thanks 
to the embargo of the war, the railroads had gained in four years an advance 
on the river route with which the commercial prosperity of New Orleans was so 
closely identified that they could not have otherwise gained in twenty years of 
ordinary competition. 

With the return of peace the merchants of New Orleans found that the 
commerce of this city was almost completely destroyed and that they would have 
to rebuild it from the very foundation. They took a most hopeful view of the 
future, under the belief that the conditions that prevailed at the time of the out- 
break of the war would be resumed at once. This optimistic sentiment was reflected 
in the commercial activity shown in 1866, and the great advance which took place 
in all property values — an advance which would be called "a boom" to-day. The 
merchants found their task harder than they had imagined. The ways of doing 
business had radically changed during the interim and New Orleans had to con- 
form itself to these new ways. It had, in the old days, had no commercial ex- 
changes, and the bulk of the business had been transacted immediately on the 
levee. The necessity was recognized of having some place where information could 
be obtained as to the movement of crops and current prices, and the Merchants' 
Exchange was established on the model set by the Northern and Western cities. 

New Orleans was still deficient in railroads, and an earnest effort was made 
to extend them, but at first in vain ; and the city was compelled to depend mainly 
upon the Mississippi and its tributaries. Its merchants saw the trade of the great 
Empire State of Texas slipping away from them from lack of railroad communi- 
cation. An attempt was made to retain this trade with steamboats running up 
the Eed river to Jefferson, but the river route was uncertain because of the low 
water, and was expensive. The old difficulty at the mouth of the river, growing 
out of the low water on the bars, grew steadily worse, in consequence of the larger 
size and greater draft of vessels engaged in ocean commerce. The delay of vessels 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 573 

at the passes, waiting for a favorable tide or rise in the river to take them out, the 
cost of towing them over the mud-heaps, were expenses that preyed on the com- 
merce of New Orleans. In all the conventions held at that time the merchants 
called attention to the trouble and asked favorable action on the part of Congress. 

The railroads had been able to considerably . reduce their freight charges by 
several improvements and devices, and it was felt that New Orleans must make 
a similar cut from the rather high charges which the steamboats still demanded. 
This reduction was brought about by the introduction of barges built entirely for 
freight transportation and not encumbered by the magnificently fitted up saloons, 
which had formerly been considered a sine qua non in river steamers. This im- 
provement had a marked effect in reducing river rates, and, for a short period 
in the seventies, New Orleans enjoyed a large share of the grain trade. But even 
with cheaper river rates the situation was not altogether satisfactory. The railroads 
continued to divert trade from New Orleans. In 1859-60 this city had handled 
46 per cent of the cotton crop ; in 1866-7 its proportion was only 35 per cent. It 
dropped to 33 per cent in 1870-1, and to 27 per cent in 1876-7, 

A new era then began to dawn upon New Orleans — the era of railroads. The 
city had previously been almost hostile to railroads, confident that the water route 
was the cheaper; but at last it was beginning to see that it needed the railroads as 
well as the Mississippi. In 1870 it secured its third road, the New Orleans, Mobile 
& Texas, a short line, and largely competing with the river ; but a step in the right 
direction. In 1871 was noted the fir.st receipt of produce in New Orleans by 
rail from a river town. This was a large quantity of flour which came from St. 
Louis by rail, whereas, previously all such shipments had been made by river. 
The flour was brought from St. Louis for seventy-five cents a barrel, the same 
rate it would have cost had it been brought on a steamer, but it saved the ex- 
penses of insurance. This movement, prophetic of the future, was one to cause a 
groat deal of surprise, because New Orleans had close, excellent and cheap water com- 
munication with St. Louis at the time, and boasted loudly of its barge line of 
seventy-three river barges. 

The last twenty-five years have seen a radical change in the commerce of New 
Orleans and a steady improvement for the better. The turning point may be 
considered to be 1874-5, when the jetties were begun. The bad condition of the 
passes had been a source of constant worry and a serious hindrance and expense 
to commerce. It was evident that New Orleans could not hope to compete with 
other ports if vessels of over one thousand tons were completely shut out or 



574 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

admitted only after long delay. In the seventies the question came to a focus. 
Three plans had been proposed; a canal, dredging, and jetties, which by contract- 
ing the river would increase its current and enable it to wash away the obstructive 
bars. The dredging was tried and proved a failure; and Congress then, with rare 
good luck for New Orleans, allowed Captain Eads to try his Jetty plan. It was a 
grand success. Completed in 1879, it afforded a depth of thirty feet in the center 
of the channel and opened New Orleans to the largest vessels then afloat. To the 
jetties New Orleans owes much of its commercial prosperity to-day. They ex- 
pedited what had long hung fire — the construction of railroads to the city. In 
the days immediately succeeding the Civil War every inducement had been held 
out to the railroads to build to New Orleans. They were offered bonds, financial 
assistance and public lands, but they could not be induced to build. It was not 
until 1873 that New Orleans was connected by rail with the neighboring city 
of Mobile, only one hundred and forty miles away. But when the railroads saw 
that New Orleans had deep water, that it was one of the best ports from which to 
ship, they exhibited as great a desire to have terminal facilities there as they had 
shown disinclination before. The result was the completion of several trunk lines, 
making New Orleans the terminus of five of the largest railroad systems of the 
country. 

By the purchase of the Mississippi Central and the New Orleans, Jackson & 
Great Northern, the Illinois Central obtained a direct rail route from Chicago and 
the grain fields of the Northwest to the Gulf, which connection was afterward 
strengthened by the purchase of the Yazoo & Mississippi Valley system. Similarly, 
by the purchase of the New Orleans & Mobile Railroad, the Louisville & Nashville 
system, with its lines through the States of Alabama, Kentucky and Tennessee, 
found an outlet on the Gulf at New Orleans. The Cincinnati Southern and the 
Great Southern Railway system, running through half a dozen States, secured en- 
trance to New Orleans over the New Orleans & Northeastern. 

On the west bank New Orleans, which had so long lacked railroad con- 
nection with Texas, secured two lines to that State. The Southern Pacific extended 
the old Opelousas road to connect with its Texas lines: and the Texas & Pacific 
road did the same for the old New Orleans, Mobile & Texas Railroad, building it 
to Shreveport, Dallas and Fort Worth. 

The continuation of these several lines had a material effect upon the com- 
merce and trade of New Orleans, and the city regained much of its old business. 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 



575 



How much the railroads have contributed to this improvement the following figures 
show : 

RAILROAD BUSINESS OF NEW ORLEANS. 



Year. 

1872-3 . 
1873-4 . 
1874-5 . 
1875-6 

1876-7 

1877-8 

1878-9 

1879-80 

1880-1 



Tons of freight 
forwarded. 



372,9()4 



1881-2 493,297 



1882-3 
1883-4 
1884-5 
1885-6 
1886-7 



603,912 
640,820 
642,820 
662,600 

685,447 



1887-8 720,840 

1888-9 1,324.208 

1889-90 1,486,515 

1890-1 1,493,226 

1891-2 1,452,620 

1892-3 1,403,538 

1893-4 1,412,541 

1894-5 1,374,677 

1895-6 1,386,378 

1896-7 1,530,481 

1897-8 1,608,505 

1898-9 1,534,234 



Tons of freight Total tons of 
received. freight handled. 

464,240 

530,224 

615,963 

729,')30 

807,672 

714,842 

722,213 

998,788 

937,624 
1,223,939 
1,505,958 
1,662,200 
1,754,282 
1,777,811 
1,940,063 
2,009,576 
3,074,200 
3,456,197 
3,555,742 
3,850,968 
3,958,022 
4,014.072 
4,106,599 
4,516,193 
4,932,212 
5,573,002 
5,464,615 



564,660 
730,642 
902,046 
1,022,272 
1,113,462 
1,165,211 
1,254,616 
1,282,736 
1.749.892 
1,969,681 
2,064,516 
2,398,368 
2,554,484 
2,601,-531 
2,731,932 
3,129,815 
3,401,371 
3,964,497 
3,390,381 



The total commerce of Xew Orleans for the year season 1898-9 was as follows: 

Tonnage. Value. 

Receipts from interior by river, rail and canal 5,096,660 $147,731,618 

Imports by coastwise vessels 505,819 59,986,872 

Imports by foreign vessels 1,478,124 11,946,344 

Total receipts 7,080,600 219,664,834 

Shipments by rail and river 1,740,500 $82,165,860 

Exports, coastwise 512,015 47,762,812 

Exports, foreign 1,465,418 90,121,115 

Total shipments 3,717,633 $220,059,787 

Grand total of commerce of the port 10,798,233 $430,724,621 



576 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

This port compares as follows with previous seasons : 

Total Com- 
merce of New 
Season. Orleans. 

1876 $371,664,126 

1886 456,063,948 

1889-90 531,484,618 

1890-1 531,764,118 

1891-2 496,465,741 

1892-3 537,830,632 

1893-4 483,507,065 

1894-5 455,659,431 

1895-6 419,580,908 

1896-7 479,751,019 

1897-8 486,131,713 

1898-9 439,734,631 

The maximiim commerce would seem to have been reached in 1890-1. These 
figures, however, are somewhat misleading, for ftiis reason : that the prices of staple 
products were much higher than they were later, so that the total does not 
really represent more in volume than the business of the later years. The last two 
years show some loss on account of the interruptions to business and the diversion 
of trade due to quarantine embargoes. The average business of New Orleans 
has materially changed from previous years. First the bulk of the products from the 
interior are brought to the city by rail instead of river. A much larger share is 
mere transit goods, not handled at all in the city, but sent there in transit for ship- 
ment abroad, and consequently leaving a smaller percentage of profit in the city. 
The business is done largely through the exchanges, the cotton and sugar e.xchanges 
and the board of trade, and the fluctuations are less marked than formerly. Exports 
are carried mainly in foreign vessels. Probably one-fourth of the exports are coast- 
wise, mainly to New York, the other Atlantic cities having little ocean trade with 
New Orleans. Philadelphia, Baltimore and Boston occasionally send cargoes 
or receive produce from New Orleans, but the trade is uncertain and 
there are no regular lines, as to New York. On the other hand steamship, 
lines run regularly to most of the European ports, especially Liverpool, London, 
Havre, Bordeaux, Antwerp, Bremen and Palermo ; and the bulk of the trade is in 
the hands of these vessels instead of the tramp steamers, as formerly. The direct 
import trade has shrunk very materially, although the imports are really much 
larger than ever before ; but they come by way of New York and the coastwise steam- 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. $77 

ers from that port. These steamers handle twice or three times as much in the way 
of imports to New Orleans as the foreign lines. 

In the past few years the railroad rates between New Orleans and the interior 
were very greatly reduced, with the result that the city had become in 1896 
the third largest grain port in the Union, and was handling a much larger share of 
the trade in Western produce, — flour, grain, pork, etc.; but this subject is more 
fully treated elsewhere in the commercial and other advantages of New Orleans. 
At the end of the nineteenth century New Orleans occupies a less exalted position 
relatively in the commerce of the world than it did at the beginning of the century, 
but it still possesses the same advantages and opportunities, only awaiting their 
utilization. Nor does commerce exercise the same supremacy in the city as of old. 
Up to 1860, New Orleans devoted itself almost exclusively to commerce and did 
little to encourage manufacture, whereas, in 1900, the latter industry gave employ- 
ment to more persons than all the branches of mercantile and commercial life. 
The promise seems to be a city equally divided between the two — a great mart 
of the world's trade, and a great manufacturing centre. 



CHAPTER XXIII. 



BANKING AND FINANCE. 
By Norman Walker. 

THE history of banking in New Orleans is interesting and instructive, and 
not wholly local; that is, not New Orleans alone but the entire country is 
interested in the development of banking in that city. During the period 
previous to the Civil War, from 1820 to 1860, New Orleans occupied a far more 
important position in the commercial and financial system of the country than 
it does tc-day, and from practice and experiment it built up a banking system 
founded on such strong principles, so well adapted to the needs of the country, 
with a currency so elastic yet so well protected, that the banking law of Louisiana 
was imitated or copied in a number of the States, even in the older East; and 
some of the principles which first saw the light in this law have been incorporated 
in the National Bank system of to-day. New Orleans had the benefit of the experi- 
ence and knowledge of financiers who had graduated in the best banking schools 
of Europe. When the development of steam navigation gave it control of the com- 
merce of the Mississippi Valley, it became also the banker of the immense popula- 
tion residing in that valley. It was through the New Orleans banks that the exchanges 
were made and the European purchasers paid the Southern and Western farmers 
for their cotton, sugar, floiir, etc. ; so that these banks were better known at the 
time in Paris, London, Amsterdam and other monetary centers than even those 
of New York. To maintain this necessary credit, the laws had to be such as to 
assure the European bankers againsf all possibilities of loss; and this was a more 
difficult matter then than to-day, because American credit had been seriously 
crippled by several ugly failures and even by repudiation. The home conditions 
also required the adoption of some plan by which the people of the interior could 
obtain without difficulty such capital as they needed for the development of tlie 
country, for the opening of new farms, the building of railroads and other improve- 
ments. Most of this capital, for the South at least, came through New Orleans 
and through the banks of this city. Later on, it was found possible to negotiate 





'oon "rvu/u 






STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 579 

loans in Europe and issue bonds, wliicli ultimately proved too easy a matter and 
brought on excessive indebtedness and finally a crash; but in the earlier days the 
New Orleans banks were counted on to furnish the capital needed for any 
great improvements. Hence we find many of the new improvement companies to 
be banking institutions or to have banking departments attached to them. 
The Canal Bank is one of the relics of this system, having been organized with 
the specific purpose of building the new canal. A Gas Bank was organized for 
the purpose of providing New Orleans with gas; while the Citizens' Bank had 
the special object in view of assisting in the development of the agricultural 
lands of Louisiana. The Commercial Bank was organized to provide the city 
with water-works. 

In those days, when the varied currency of the country caiised even the natives 
great confusion, and when "shin-plasters" left every one in doubt as to the value 
of notes, the bankers of New Orleans set to work to establish so perfect a system 
that their notes would never be at a discount. This they succeeded in doing, after 
some very heavy losses and a great deal of financial confusion, and it had a most 
beneficent effect on the trade and commerce of the city, ultimately compelling 
the neighboring States to adopt the same or similar systems. It was due as 
much to its splendid banking system as to its commercial position that New 
Orleans won the high position it occupied in the ante-bellum period, when it had the 
entire Southwest not only tributary to it commercially, but in debt to it and com- 
pletely under its financial control. As the banks of New Orleans are largely 
responsible, therefore, for the National Bank sj'stem of the country and for the 
credit system upon which the cultivation and moving of crops in the South are 
based, a history of banking New Orleans will prove interesting not only from a 
local but from a national point of view as well. 

The history of banking in early French and Spanish days in New Orleans 
and Louisiana — for the two are the same, there being no banks outside of the 
metropolis until of very recent years — is much like the celebrated chapter on owls in 
the history of Iceland, which simply recites, "There are no owls in Iceland." There 
were no banks in Louisiana before the coming of the Americans. The government, 
first Crozat, then France, then Spain, had securely in their own hands absolute 
control of the finances, and managed them most execrably. 

The very foundation of the colony was due to a bank ; for the famous iMissis- 
sippi Company, to which Louisiana owed its origin, and tlie Royal Bank of France, 
were one and the same thing, with the famous John Law at its head, the charter 



58o STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

of the company and its exclusive right to trade with Louisiana being one of the 
chief assets. As noted elsewhere, the bank failed and the French gov- 
ernment took charge of the colony. The company which had control 
of Louisiana wound up its affairs in 1731, and in settlement of its debts issued a 
large quantity of bonds, called "billets de caisse." These came into general use as 
the currency of New Orleans and interfered with the king's coin to such an extent 
that Governor Perier found it necessary, towards the end of 1731, to issue a procla- 
mation in which he fixed the time that those 'T)illets" should cease to be used as 
currency and should be withdrawn from circulation. Any one convicted of dealing 
in them as currency was subject to a tine of $4 for the first offense and corporal 
punishment for a second offense, — a law which will give some idea of the paternal 
government then prevailing in Louisiana and the deep knowledge of finance 
that existed then. The Perier law had the natural effect of greatly depreciating 
these "billets," which at that time constituted the principal currency of Louisiana, 
and resulted in withdrawing them from circulation. Then followed, as a natural 
consequence, because of insufficient currency — for there was very little coin in 
Louisiana at the time — a financial crisis which brought great distress upon the 
colonists. Many of them emigrated and for a time it looked as though Louisiana 
and Xew Orleans would be deserted, as the result of the unfortunate commercial 
and financial policy which the French government was endeavoring to force 
on them. 

The government sought to relieve the financial crisis it had itself caused by 
the issue of a special currency designed for Louisiana. Many coins have been dug 
up, from time to time, with the excavations made in New Orleans; but these coins 
were few and insufficient for the commerce of the colony. In 1735 the government 
endeavored to replace the depreciated paper money of the India Company (the 
billets de caisse) by pasteboard notes (known as billets de carte), which it was said 
would be worth a great deal more, as they had the government behind them as a 
guarantor instead of an irresponsible company. This change was vigorously 
opposed by Governor Bienville, but insisted on by the government and put in 
operation. The new notes did command a better value at first, but they gradually 
depreciated when the colonists found that there was no means of redeeming them ; 
and all the punitive laws passed to strengthen them proved of no avail. The billets 
de carte steadily went downward until, in 174-1, nine years after their issue, they 
were worth only 33 cents on the dollar. 

The Council of State was called together to consider the situation and see 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 581 

what could be done to remedy the evil. It declared the condition of affairs prevailing 
to be prejudicial to the finances of the government, the welfare of the colony and the 
progress of commerce. It was therefore determined to call in all the pasteboard 
notes, redeeming them at 40 cents on the dollar, which was slightly higher than 
their current value. How thoroughly bad, if not dishonest, were the financial 
ideas then in vogue, is shown in the redemption of these billets de carte; for 
the Council of State, instead of paying cash or coin for them, gave in return drafts 
on the Treasury in France ; in other words, the colonists upon handing in the notes 
were paid off not in New Orleans, but given orders on Paris. This was a large dis- 
count on these drafts, because of the delay and the difficulty of cashing them. It 
was further proclaimed that all the bills not presented within two months of the 
proclamation should be null and void, and valueless, and could not be accepted 
in payment of any debt. Thus the colonists were twice fleeced with depreciated 
currency, — first by the company which settled Louisiana and founded New Orleans, 
secondly by the government itself. 

In spite of these failures, only five years elapsed before Governor Vaudreuil, 
on his own responsibility, issued an entirely new paper currency. Finding the 
revenues not sufficient for the support of the colony and receiving no assistance from 
the home government, France, he, at the suggestion of the Intendant Commissary, 
Michel de la Eouvilliere, and to the gratification of the wishes of many of the 
colonists who found the currency too limited for the needs of commerce, manufac- 
tured and placed on the market a large amount of paper money, ranging from 
twenty livres ($4) up. These notes were given in payment of all the expenses and 
debts of the colony and were made exchangeable for all other paper money, obliga- 
tions and bonds, in the hope that they would speedily become the only currency of 
Louisiana. 

The action of Vaudreuil and de la Eouvilliere was at once repudiated by the 
home government, and the new notes were ordered retired. Governor Vaudreuil's 
attention was called to the fact that the two previous issues of notes had resulted 
most unfortunately ; and to the further fact that the governor of Louisiana had no 
power or authority to issue paper notes ; and that none of his predecessors had ever 
thought of doing so. The confusion resulting from this illegal issue of paper 
money was further intensified by the discovery that a very considerable proportion 
of the new notes in circulation were counterfeits. They were of the crudest 
character, and an investigation into the counterfeiting disclosed the fact that 
a negro by the name of Joseph, had been largely instrumental in turning out this 



582 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

first bogus money. Such was the history of finance and banking in Louisiana under 
France, — a succession of gross blunders and outrages, which kept the currency always 
at a discount, proved a millstone around the neck of commerce and upset and dis- 
turbed all values; in fact, the same wild policy which ultimately bankrupted the 
mother country (France) and brought on the Revolution, was tried in Louisiana. 

France left the currency in Louisiana in a thoroughly unsettled condition 
when it transferred the colony to Spain. There were in circulation 7,000,000 livres 
of paper money issued by the French government and for whose redemption it was 
responsible. As France drew out, it left this currency with an uncertain stand- 
ing. The colonists could not know whether the Spanish government would, as 
the successor of France, accept it or reject it altogether. If Spain redeemed it, 
it was impossible to say whether that government would take it at par or at a 
discount of 25 per cent, which the French government had established as the legal 
amount of its depreciation. In ordinary business, four dollars in paper currency 
represented one dollar in specie. The matter was laid before Governor Ulloa by 
the Intendant Commissary, Foucault, and it was pointed out to him what con- 
fusion and loss would result of Spain established a new currency and neglected the 
French currency in general circulation. Ulloa wisely realized that the disfavor with 
which the Spanish rule was received would only be increased by interfering with 
the currency and ordered the French paper to be received by the Spaniards as well 
as the French, at the rate of 75 per cent on its face value. The colonists, however, 
were not satisfied with this and attempted to make the new government give 
more than the old one had given and demanded par for their paper. Ulloa, in the 
policy of conciliation he had determined on, bought up a large quantity of this 
paper money at 75 cents on the dollar and tendered it to his Spanish soldiers, pay- 
ing them two-thirds in cash and one-third in Louisiana paper; but the troops 
refused to accept the paper; and Ulloa, finding both the French (or Creoles) and 
the Spaniards unwilling to adopt this financial policy, was compelled to abandon 
it altogether. 

Under the Spanish government the financial system slightly improved and a 
great deal of coin (almost exclusively silver) found its way from Mexico to 
Louisiana; but the Spanish government also issued a large quantity of paper 
money, called "liberanza" for the redemption of which no provision was made, and 
which soon depreciated in value, like all such currency had done in the colony. 
When Spain pulled out of New Orleans and transferred Louisiana to France, to 
be sold to the United States, it made no provision for taking care of tliis paper issue, 
which shrunk in value to almost nothing. 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 583 

It will be seen from this brief recital of the financial history of Louisiana 
under French and Spanish dominion, there was really no such thing as banking, 
that the currency was all the time in a more or less disturbed condition, and most 
of the money at a great discount; that there was never sufficient currency for the 
needs of the colony, and that the power in authority, whether the Mississippi or 
India Company, or the French or Spanish government, devoted itself to fleecing 
the colonists as much as possible, by issuing unlimited paper or pasteboard currency 
and then redeeming it at one-third or one-fourth of its face value. 

With American rule came a complete change. When Governor Claiborne took 
possession of Louisiana for the United States, he found the Territory suffering from 
a depreciated and insufficient currency. Largely through his instrumentality, 
the Louisiana Bank was founded, in 1804, — the first bank ever to be established 
in New Orleans. Its officers were Evan Jones, an American, as president, and 
Paul Lanusse, a Creole, as secretary, the desire being to unite the two races which 
made up the population of Louisiana at that time, in this financial venture. Com- 
missioners were appointed to lay before the merchants and people of New Orleans 
the purposes of the bank and to solicit subscriptions to its stock. This required 
much delicacy and judgment, because the rule of American government at that 
time was not popular with the Creoles, who resented the fact that Louisiana was 
kept under Territorial government instead of being granted full legislative power. 
When it became known that the bank proposed to issue paper notes, there was a 
loud protest from the more ignorant classes, who recalled the many disasters that 
the colonists had met with under Bienville, Vaudreuil and Ulloa from a paper 
currency. 

The commissioners, however, paying no attention to this popular clamor, 
went to work to organize the Louisiana Bank. They decided, first of all, not to 
take stock in, and thus it become a part of, the Bank of the United States, which, 
from its headquarters in Philadelphia, was endeavoring to establish a branch 
in New Orleans, as a branch here would enable it more or less to control the 
finances of the new acquisition of Louisiana and the Mississippi Valley. In the 
resolutions in which it was decided not to join fortunes with the United States 
Bank, it was recited that "the Bank of the United States is owned by Europeans 
altogether, by persons residing some thousands of miles from this country. * * * 
Whereas the Louisiana Bank, being owned altogether by inhabitants of this country, 
all the profits which it may make will de divided among them and remain in this 
countrv." 



584 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

The bank was formally organized in January, 1805, with Paul Lanusse, 
James Pitot, Julien Poydras, Daniel Clark, Michel Fortier, John Soulie, Thomas 
Harman, Thomas Urquhart, William Donaldson, John F. Merieult, Francois Du- 
plessis, James Garriek, John McDonogh, John B. Labatut and Nicholas Girod as 
directors, and with the following officers: President, Julien Poydras; cashier, 
Stephen Zacharie ; tellers, James Fitzgerald and John Thibaut. It would have 
been impossible to have scoured a better list of names in Xew Orleans for directors 
and officers of the new bank. The president, Julien Poydras, was the most 
prominent and wealthiest man in the French colony, as was John McDonogh 
among the Americans. Clark was the delegate of the Territory in Congress. Pitot 
was mayor, as Girod was afterwards. It will be seen that the directors were 
divided among the French and American elements, the former being in a ma- 
jority, as they constituted a majority of the population and merchants and busi- 
ness men of Xew Orleans at that time. 

At the same time, 1805, that the Louisiana Bank came into existence, the 
United States Bank, of Philadelphia, succeeded in establishing its branch in 
New Orleans, with Evan Jones, originally the president 'of the Louisiana Bank, 
at its head. The local directors in 1805 were Evan Jones, Benjamin Morgan, 
Thomas (.'allender. John Palfrey, Whitten Evans, J. B. Prevost, William Brown, 
Cavalier Jcnnier, Beverly Chew, John W. Gurley, Joseph McNeill, William Ken- 
ner and George T. Phillips. It will be seen, at a glance, that while the Louisiana 
Bank was attempting to unite the Creoles and Americans in financial matters, the 
branch of the L^nited States Bank was distinctly and exclusively an American 
institution, which took little account of the native French population of Louisiana. 

The Louisiana Bank was not a success.- Considerable difficulty was encountered 
in its management, and in 1810, fourteen years after its establishment, it was 
decided to go into liquidation. At that time the assets were $777,993, and the 
liabilities $821,547; and it was announced that the stockholders would not lose 
more than 11 or 12 per cent of their capital, "provided no more notes of a fraudulent 
emission sliould bo presented," — a provision of which no explanation was ever given. 
and the meaning of which is therefore completely incomprehensible to-day. The 
liquidation of the bank took a much longer time than was expected, and two ex- 
tensions had to be granted, the settlement of the bank's affairs not being completed 
until March, 1823. 

Before the failure and retirement of the Louisiana Bank, other and stronger 
banking institutions had sprung into existence in New Orleans, which continued 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 585 

np to tlie time of the Civil War, and (lisapiiciirei! then diily tliriiu,!j;h the fortunes 
of war. The first of these was the Bank of Orleans, estahlished under an act of 
the Louisiana Legislature in 1811, with a capital of $.3,0()(),00(). The first board 
of directors included E. D. Sheperd, William Kenner, Benjamin Morgan,' William 
Nott, John Taylor, Daniel Olivier, D. Eonquette and Thomas B. Williams. An 
evidence of the peculiar commercial and financial conditions prevailing in New 
Orleans at the time and the lack of facilities such as exist to-day in the com- 
mercial exchanges, is given in the fact that the subscription book for the stock 
of the bank was left open for subscriptions for some time at the Commercial 
coffee-house, — the coffee-houses, or, as they called themselves, "exchanges," being 
the places where "merchants most did congregate " and where most of the commer- 
cial transactions of the period occurred. 

The first president of the Bank of Orleans was Benjamin Morgan. He was 
followed by Samuel Packwood and the latter by Zenon Cavalier. Upon the 
expiration of its charter, a new charter was obtained, the bank securing exemption 
from the payment of State taxes by paying a bonus or lump sum of $35,000. 

The Louisiana Planters' Bank was organized the same year as the Bank 
of Orleans, 1811, for the convenience of the agricultural interests of the Territory. 
It made a specialty of discounting the notes of planters and advancing money 
for the improvement of agricultural property. Its directorate, therefore, included 
a number of the more prominent planters in Louisiana, mainly those engaged in 
the sugar industry, — Colonel Bellechasse, A. D. Duplantier, D. de la Croix, William 
Donalson, Jacob Trimble, James Johnston, S. Hillen, S. Henderson, P. Foucher, 
W. W. Montgomery, N. Cox, E. Butler, John Grieve and Samuel Packwood. 

These three banks — the Louisiana Bank, the Bank of Orleans and the Plan- 
ters' Bank — were amply sufficient for the financial needs of Louisiana for the first 
two decades under American rule; indeed, considering the fact that Louisiana had 
previoufsly been without any banking facilities at all, they would seem to be more 
than enough. They did all the business of New Orleans and the region tributary 
to it for the fifteen years that followed the annexation of Louisiana to the United 
States. In 1818, however, when the Louisiana Bank was on its last legs and 
preparing for liquidation, the State — for the Territory had become a State in the 
interim — was far more ambitious in its banking ideas, and the Louisiana State 
Bank, which was provided for by the Legislature to take the place of the Bank 
of Louisiana, was established on far greater foundations than anything that had 
been seen before in New Orleans. The new institution was quite colossal in its 



586 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

proportions. The capital was fixed at $2,000,000. Subscription books were opened 
at Xew Orleans imder the supervision of five managers and under three managers 
at each of the following places : Donaldsonville, St. Francisville, Alexandria and St. 
Martinville. The capital of the branch bank at St. Francisville was fixed at 
$200,000, while the Alexandria, St. Martinville and Donaldsonville branches had 
each $150,000 capital. The bank, in fine, was not a New Orleans one alone, but 
a State institution with no less than five different banks located in the richest and 
most prosperous portions of the State, but united under one common management. 
The first directors included F. X. Martin (chief justice of the State), L. B. 
Macartj', E. J. Forstall, I. Eoffignac (mayor of Xew Orleans), A. Chopin, John 
K. West, Henr}' McCall, Charles Harrod, H. Foster, M. Duralde, G. R. Stringer 
and John B. Dibley. The governor appointed as directors Dusnau de la Croix, 
Samuel Paxter, John Poulleney, Jr., Bernard Marigny, A. L. Duncan and Etienne 
Bore (one of the first mayors and the first producer of sugar in Louisiana). The 
bank being a State institution, in which the State of Louisiana was interested, 
the governor was entitled to appoint six of the eighteen directors, and he chose 
them from among the most eminent men in Louisiana, so that its directorate is a 
roll of honor, including senators, representatives, mayors and even future governors. 

The banking business in New Orleans at that time was in a thoroughly satisfac- 
tory condition, and it was not until more than a dozen years afterward that the 
spirit of speculation and inflation seized on Louisiana and indeed the whole South 
and West, and led to those financial excesses that brought on the great panic 
of 1837. 

The Louisiana Bank had gone down in 1818, aud had completely wound 
up its affairs in 1823, after two extensions granted it by the Legislature for the 
purpose of facilitating liquidation. Soon after its closure the Bank of Louisiana 
was incorporated, in April, 182-1. It was the largest of any of the lianks yet 
established, with a capital of $4,000,000, — many times greater than any institution 
of the kind existing in New Orleans to-day. It was modeled upon the same style 
as the (Louisiana) State Bank mentioned above; that is, the State was interested 
iin it and had a part of the stock. It maintained more or less control over the 
bank, the governor appointing nearly half the directors, six out of thirteen. This 
practice prevailed in nearly all the early banks of New Orleans. The position 
was taken by the Legislature that the State was interested in the banking business, 
that it should facilitate the people in every possible way, especially by providing 
the capital necessary for the development of their resources, and that its partici- 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 5S7 

pation in the management of the bank tlirough directors appointed by the governor, 
would prevent speculation or wild financiering. The State's subscription to the 
bank was $2,400,000, divided into four equal proportions of $600,000, made in 
bonds bearing 5 per cent interest, falling due in 10, 15, 20 and 25 years respectively. 
Branch offices of discount and deposit were established at Baton Eouge, Alexandria, 
Donaldsonvillc and St. Francisville, each with a capital of $200,000, on which 
they were to pay the mother bank 6 per cent. 

The charter of the bank continued until 1870, and contained a number of 
very stringent provisions. It provided, for instance, that the bank should at no 
time suspend specie payment on any of its notes, bills or obligations, or on any 
moneys received by it on deposit, under penalty of paying 12 per cent on these 
obligations until tliey were paid in full. 

The seven first directors chosen by the stockholders were Samuel Livermore, 
Andrew Lockhart, Samuel F. Oakey, William Brook, James Hopkins, Samuel 
B. Bennett and J. M. Fortier, with Benjamin Story as president and Joseph Saul 
as cashier. 

The Consolidated Association of the Planters of Louisiana, an institution 
which it took so many years to liquidate because of the large amount of real estate 
it held and whose liquidation was completed comparatively a few years ago, was 
organized in March, 1827, with a capital of $2,000,000, which was to be obtained 
by means of a loan, by the directors of the institution, based on the real estate put 
into it by subscribers. It was, therefore, a land bank with plantation property as one 
of its principal assets. Subscription books were opened by five commissioners for 
$2,500,000, each share to be $500. The books were to remain open for six months 
and planters only were permitted to subscribe to the stock. ,In order to procure 
the loan of $2,000,000, upon which the bank depended for capital, bonds were issued 
bearing 5 per cent interest, payable in equal proportions in five, ten and fifteen 
years, the bonds being secured by mortgage on real estate, for an amount equal to 
the shares to which each stockholder subscribed. It will be seen that the association 
or bank — for it was a bank, although not so called — was an ingenious plan whereby 
the planters of Louisiana who were in need of money to improve their property 
and to purchase slaves for its cultivation could obtain the necessary capital. They 
subscribed to the stock of the association, putting into its capital so much real 
estate as equaled in value their subscriptions. Upon tliis security, which was 
supposed at the time to be the best possible, as real estate was high and improving 
in value because of the success of the cotton and sugar industries, bonds were issued 



588 STANDARD HISTORY OF NE]Y ORLEANS. 

with a mortgage on the real estate as security. Tlie bonds were sold and produced 
the necessary capital, from which the planters could draw such money, in loans, 
as they required for their improvements. The circle of credit was therefore com- 
pleted and the only danger to the bank lay in the possibility of the crops failing, 
agriculture decaying and the land declining in value, — something which the plan- 
ters of that day did not believe possible, so great was their confidence in King 
Cotton, just then coming to his full power and strength. As in the case of the 
Bank of Louisiana, the State was appealed to and asked to take an interest in the 
new bank, on the ground that the prosperity of the planters was the prosperity 
of Louisiana. It did so in 1828, when the capital of the association was increased 
to $2,500,000, the State being recognized as a stockholder to the amount of 
$1,000,000, and pledging itself for the reimbursement of the capital. Thus 
$1,000,000 of stock was received by the State as a bonus, upon which it was allowed 
a credit of $250,000; that is, it could borrow that amount from the bank, paying 
interest thereon, upon any part of this credit it might use. 

The success of this plan of raising money for the development of the planting 
interests of Louisiana led to the formation soon after of a number of improvement 
banks with specific improvements in view. Several of these survive to-day, but very 
much modified in form. The Gas Company, for instance, is a relic of one of these 
old improvement companies, the banking part of the institution having dis- 
appeared, while the gas-works survive. The reverse is the case with the Canal 
Bank, established to construct the new canal. Here the banking feature survives, 
in one of the largest and soundest financial institutions in New Orleans, whereas 
the improvement to carry out which the bank was founded has severed company 
with it, is now whdly independent, the property of the State of Louisiana, and 
managed by a board of control appointed by the governor. 

The New Orleans Gas Light Company, the first of these improvement banks, 
was incorporated in February, 1829, with a capital of $100,000, which could be in- 
creased to $300,000 if deemed advisable, for "the purpose of introducing into the 
city of New Orleans and its fauxbourgs (suburbs) the use of gas-light. Its 
charter was for twenty-five years. The company failed to comply with its charter 
and the franchise was transferred to James H. Caldwell (who may be regarded 
as the father of gas in New Orleans) and his associates, who were given a monopoly 
of supplying gas to the city and its fauxbourgs St. Mary (now the first district of 
the city) and Marigny (now the third district) for a period of twenty-five years, 
provided they put their system in operation within two years. 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 589 

Mr. Caldwell was successful in his enterprise, but after he had succeeded in 
lighting Ne\y Orleans with gas — to the great delight of its population, for it 
was one of the first cities so illuminated in America, while most of the others 
were struggling on in the gloom of oil lamps — he was not satisfied with the charter 
under which he operated and asked for a new and grander one. It was an 
era of inflation just then, an era of grand and extravagant ideas, and New Orleans 
was at the height of its "flush times." A gas company with only $300,000 capital, 
and its business confined to the narrow limits of supplying New Orleans and its 
suburbs with gas, was too insignificant for the conditions then prevailing. Mr. 
Caldwell, therefore, asked in 1835 that the charter of his company be amended, or 
rather that it be entirely repealed and a new charter granted ; and with the success 
he had met with he had only to ask anything to have it granted. The New 
Orleans Gas Light Company disappeared, to make way for the New Orleans Gas 
Light and Banking Company ; the capital was increased from $300,000 to $6,000,- 
000, and the company was required to establish five branch banks and gas companies 
— for a division or apportionment of all privileges and franchises to the several 
sections of the State, was provided for in all the legislative acts of the time — in 
Port Hudson, Springfield, Napoleonville and Harrisonville, each with a capital of 
$300,000, and in Alexandria with a capital of $800,000. The selection of the 
places for the branches is somewhat extraordinary and shows a lack of foresight. 
With the exception of Alexandria, all the towns mentioned were insignificant then, 
and none of them, even at this day, 65 years afterward, have reached a population 
of 1,000. The charter of the Gas Bank, as it was called, was loaded with various 
other conditions in the interest of certain sections of the State, which seem onerous 
viewed from the standpoint of to-day; and the bank, in order to secure the 
privileges it asked for, was required to assist other struggling improvements then 
under way or contemplated. It was required, for instance, to subscribe to 500 shares 
of the stock of the Barataria and Lafourche Canal Company, and also to loan 
money, up to $150,000, to any railroad company which might be incorporated by the 
Legislature of Louisiana after March 20, 1835, for the purpose of building a railroad 
from Alexandria to Cheneyville on Bayou Boeuf, — the loan to run 25 years and bear 
5 per cent interest. These conditions will illustrate the financial conditions 
and opinions of the time, and the boom just then imder way for public improve- 
ments. A company is started for the purpose of constructing gas-works in New 
Orleans. It is not satisfied with this, but wants to run a banking business along 
with its gas-works, and is allowed to do so, on the condition that it will establish 



590 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

five branch banks in various parts of the State, four of them in insignificant 
villages; that it will furnish the capital necessary for the construction of a canal 
in another part of the State, and a railroad many miles distant and of purely 
local interest — the possibility of railroad building at that time being an unknown 
quantity. The charter of the Gas Bank also contained the provision usually inserted 
in the banking corporations in Louisiana at the time and intended to give stability 
to these institutions, forbidding it to suspend specie payment on any of its 
obligations. In the event that it did so, it was required to pay 10 per cent interest 
on its obligations for a period of 90 days. Suspension for over 90 days rendered the 
charter of the company ipso facto null and void. 

On the other hand, the bank was given a monopoly of lighting with gas the 
cities of New Orleans and Lafayette (now the fourth municipal district), but was 
subject to a fine of $500 per day for its failure to light the city, and $25,000 
for any failure to provide the Charity Hospital with free gas. 

Various other amendments were made from time to time in this charter, 
and the Legislature seemed determined to load the Gas Bank down with obliga- 
tions. It was required to establish another branch in St. Bernard, with a capital 
of $100,000, and still another in Franklin, with a capital of $300,000; and the 
Alexandria branch was authorized to retain $250,000 of its capital to be loaned 
to citizens of Natchitoches and Claiborne parishes. In fine, the New Orleans (Jlas 
Light and Banking Company seems to have combined a half dozen institutions, — 
gas company, bank, loan institution and improvement company. Ultimately tliese 
side issues were separated from the Gas Company, which has continued to this 
day, but confining itself exclusively to its legitimate business of providing New 
Orleans with gas. 

The next few years saw a flood of new banks and corporations. It was what 
would be called to-day a "boom," and brought the natural consequences of a re- 
action, collapse and panic. The new banks were of immense capital, far greater 
than the commerce of New Orleans and the development of the tributary country 
required. It was a case of pushing a good thing along too far, and in the crisis 
which followed some of the old banks went down as well as the new ones. The 
banks established between 1831 and 1833 were as follows: 

March 3, 1831, City Bank of New Orleans, capital $2,000,000. ]\Iarch 5, 1831, 
New Orleans Canal and Banking Company, capital $4,000,000. It, or rather its 
successor, survives to-day in the Canal Bank. April 2, 1832, Union Bank, capital 
$7,000,000. This bank survives to-day in the Union National Bank. April 1, 1833, 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 59' 

Commercial Bank of New Orleans, capital $8,000,000. April 1, 1833, Mechanics' 
and Traders' Bank, capital $2,000,000. April, 1833, Citizens' Bank, capital $12,- 
000,000. 

Thus in barely two j'cars si.x new banks had been authorized in New Orleans — 
three of which survive to-day after many vicissitudes and changes in their char- 
ter — with capital to the amount of $33,000,000. Could there be better evidence 
of overdoing the banking business? In 1835 the Legislature granted five more 
banking charters: The New Orleans Gas Light and Banking Company (of which 
mention has already been made and which was merely an amplification and modifica- 
tion of the Gas Company), capital $6,000,000; E.xchange Bank, capital, $2,000,000; 
Carrollton Eailroad Bank, capital $3,000,000. The latter survives in the New 
Orleans and Carrollton Railroad to-day. It was thought necessary, it will be seen, 
to extend the banking privileges to canal and railroad companies. The total capital 
of new banks established in New Orleans in 1835 was $16,000,000, aggregate capital 
of the banks and other similar institutions chartered by the Legislature at its 
twelfth session (that of 1835), $39,345,000. The success that had been met with 
had started the State on a policy of wild inflation almost as great as that of Law, 
which had marked the foundation of the colony of Louisiana a century and a half 
before. 

Of these several new banks only brief mention is needed. 

The City Bank of New Orleans was incorporated March 3, 1831, with a capital 
of $2,000,000 and with Nathaniel Cox, John A. Merle, Martin Duralde, George 
Eustes, Stebbins Fisk, J. J. Bordier, A. H. Wallace, F. Gardere, James P. Frcret, 
Joseph Lallande, A. Cruzat and D. S. Borderzat as directors. It was authorized 
to establish two branches of discount and deposit at Natchitoches and Baton Rouge, 
respectively, each with a capital of $200,000 and five directors. There was the usual 
provision inserted in bank charters at the time, relative to the suspension of specie 
payment, interest of 12 per cent on all such suspended papers and the forfeiture 
of charter in the event that the suspension lasted longer than ninety days. The 
City Bank was one of those that suspended payment in the great panic of 1837, but 
it was renewed afterward, and it was not until March, 1850, that it passed into liqui- 
dation under an act of the Legislature. 

The New Orleans Canal and Banking Company was one of the improvement 
banks, chartered for the construction of -i canal in the newer or American portion 
of the city, to which trade and business was at that time rapidly drifting from the 
old city, the vieux carre. It was chartered March 5, 1831, with a capital of $4,000,- 



592 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

000 under the superintendence of 17 commissioners; and it was authorized to es- 
tablish four offices of discount and deposit, one at St. Francesville, one at Alexand- 
ria, with a capital of $4,000,000, one at Franklin and one at Donaldsonville, each of 
the latter two with a capital of $250,000. 

The Canal, in the construction of which Hon. Simon Cameron, afterward Sen- 
ator from Pennsylvania and U. S. Secretary of War under Lincoln, was employed, 
was completed in 1839, although at great cost and with more difficulties and obstruc- 
tions than the company had anticipated. The canal and banking privileges were 
subsequently separated, the former passing into the hands of the State, which still 
holds and controls it, while the banking franchise is now operated by the Canal Bank. 

The Union Bank was incorporated April 2, 1833, with a capital of $7,000,000, 
to be raised by means of a loan negotiated by its directors. The faith of the State 
was pledged for the security of the capital and the guarantee of interest, and 
$7,000,000 of bonds were issued, bearing five per cent interest, one-quarter being 
payable each 12, 1.5, 18 and 20 years. The bonds issued by the State were secured 
by the stockholders' subscriptions. These were to be in cultivated lands and slaves, 
lots or houses, or other edifices yielding a revenue, or on lands not cultivated but 
susceptible of cultivation, and in vacant lots, provided that no more than one-fifth 
of said stock should be secured by such lands. No mortgages or slaves alone were 
received; they must be slaves as part and parcel of a plantation. It will be seen 
that the Union Bank was founded on much the same principle as the consolidated 
Planters' Association, except that the security was slightly broadened. The Plant- 
ers' Bank would take none but plantation property; the Union Bank included city 
as well as country real estate, houses and lots, as well as plantations — in fine any 
kind of real property, not even excluding negro slaves, at that time one of the most 
valuable assets in Louisiana. 

The charter of the bank gave it an existence of 25 years. It was to be operated 
by 12 Directors, of whom six were to be appointed by the Governor in view of the 
direct interest the State had in the bank, in consequence of supplying the bonds 
upon which its capital was based, and six elected by the stockholders. There was 
the usual provision in regard to branch banks or depositories, but the Union Bank 
was authorized to establish eight of these, more than any of its predecessors. These 
branches, with their respective capitals, were as follows : Thibodaux, $250,000 ; 
Covington, $225,000; Marksville, $220,000; Yermillionville (now Lafayette), 
$200,000; St. Martinville, $200,000; Plaquemine, $250,000; Xatchitoches, $200,- 
000 ; and Clinton, $250,000. Each of these branches were in charge of local boards 
of directors, consistins of five or seven members. 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NE\Y ORLEANS. 593 

The Union Bank, whose president was Matthew Morgan, was for the first four 
or five j'ears of its existence one of the most prosperous of the financial institutions 
in New Orleans, and during a considerable part of that time handled the large busi- 
ness of the New Orleans branch of the United States Bank, which was just then 
going out of business. It figured very conspicuously later on in the troubles inci- 
dent upon the capture of New Orleans by the Union forces in 1868. 

The Commercial Bank of New Orleans, like the New Orleans Gas Light and 
Banking Company, was an improvement bank, organized for the purpose of pro- 
viding New Orleans with water, and practically survives to-day in the New Orleans 
Water Works Company. It was incorporated April 1, 1833, with a capital of 
$3,000,000, and with five commissioners or directors, three of whom were to be ap- 
pointed by the Governor and two by the City of New Orleans. The bank was re- 
quired to furnish the city with free water for the extinguishment of fires, as well as 
for the public squares. On this score frequent complaints were made and the Legis- 
lature of Louisiana found it necessary in 1848 to pass a special act compelling the 
bank to carry out its obligations to the city in the matter of supplying it with such 
water as was needed. 

The Mechanics and Traders' Bank was incorporated April 1, 1833, with $2,000,- 
000 of capital. It had but one branch, at Opelousas, with a capital 
of $300,000. The State subscribed for $150,000 of the stock and the privilege of 
The other banks, it will be noticed, were organized mainly for the benefit of the 
planting interests of Louisiana, or for public improvements. The manufacturing 
and mechanical interests of New Orleans were but little thought of, and, indeed, 
viewed with more or less contempt. The Mechanics and Traders' Bank was found- 
ed largely for the purpose of developing these interests. The men who were mainly 
instrumental in organizing the bank were Jedediah Leeds, James McKenna, John 
Wilcox, Maurice Cannon, Nicholas Sinnott, James B. Hullen, Jesse Cowand, John 
D. Bair, Maunsel White, Evarste Blane, James Hopkins, John G. Greeves, George 
W. White, Maurice Pizetti, Claude Gurley and C. Corryjolles, Jr. The liquidation of 
the bank was authorized in 1850. 

The Citizens' Bank of Louisiana was chartered in April, 1833. It was the 
largest and most important bank yet provided for, and started out with the immense 
capital of $12,000,000, based upon a plan of loans or bonds to be issued by the bank. 
The amount to be subscribed for by the stockholders was $14,400,000 in 144,000 
shares of $100 each, to be guaranteed, secured and pledged by mortgages on real 
estate. Upon these subscriptions the l)ank was authorized to issue bonds, payable 



594 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

in 14, 23, 32, 41 and 50 years. The subscriptions were to be divided between New 
Orleans and the country districts as follows: New Orleans, $8,400,000, and the 
country $6,000,000. 

The bank was a "boomer"' from the start, and gave great impetus to the im- 
provement of plantations, the building of houses, etc. As one of the historians of the 
times writes : "Every owner and proprietor of a vacant lot, whether dry or under 
water, every proprietor of old and tenantless buildings imagined that tlie millen- 
nium was really approaching"' and hastened to subscribe to the "stock." The bank 
was authorized to advance money for the building of houses, prescribing of what 
material they were to be built, to take stock in the Lake Borgne Navigation and 
Canal Company, to build a railroad from the river to Gentility Eidge and to do a 
hundred other things — "enough to bankrupt the best bank in the world" — an able 
financier of the times remarked. 

The Citizens' Bank did not enjoy the same advantage as the L'nion Bank, 
wliich had the credit of the State behind it, whereas the Citizens' Bank had as its 
security only lands and property in Louisiana. When, therefore, its agents went 
to Europe to arrange for the negotiation of its banks, as had been so successfully 
done by the Union and other banks, they encountered several rebuffs, and were un- 
able to place the bonds. The State was several times appealed to and asked for its 
guarantee, but refused at first. In 1836, however, the Legislature assured the Citi- 
zens' Bank the assistance it asked for. It was just on the eve, however, of the great 
panic. The Citizens' Bank did only a few years' business, for it went into liquida- 
tion in 1843, to be reorganized afterward on a new basis. Under its charter it 
was authorized to establish seven branches in various parts of the State. 

The New Orleans Improvement and Banking Company was incorporated Feb- 
ruary 26, 1834, for the purpose of purchasing and selling real estate. The capital, 
originally $1,000,000, was increased to $2,000,000 in 1836. This Company built 
the first St. Louis Hotel, the finest hotel of its time ; but one of the conditions of its 
charter — there were remarkable addenda to charters then — required it to build three 
steamboats to run on the Red Eiver, Upper Coast and Lake Pontchartrain trades 
respectively. The Legislature selected the Directors of the company, who wore J. 
F. Canonge, Alonzo Murpliy, Felix de Armas, Henry F. Denis, F. Gardere, E. J. 
Forstall and Noel Barthelemy Le Breton. This company went under in the panic 
and was compelled to liquidate its affairs in 1846. 

The Atchafalaya Eailroad and Banking Company was incorporated March 10, 
1835, with a capital of $2,000,000, to build a railroad from Pointe Coupee, in the 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 595 

Mississippi River, to Opelousas. The company had its headquarters at B:iyou Sara, 
with branches at New Orleans and Monroe, the former with a capital of $500,000, 
and the latter with $400,000. 

The Exchange and Banking Company of New Orleans was incorporated April 
1, 1835, with a capital of $2,000,000, to build a hotel in the new or American sec- 
tion of the city. The hotel was to cost not less than $300,000, exclusive of the sites, 
under a penalty of a forfeiture of the Company's charter. 

The Merchants' Bank of New Orleans was incorporated February 25, 1836, 
with a capital of $1,000,000. 

The slightest consideration of the conditions prevailing in Louisiana at that 
time will show that the banking business had been overdone. This was due to the 
ease with which bonds could be floated, and the assistance the State of Louisiana 
gave the banks by lending them its credit and guaranteeing their bonds and interest 
thereon, apparently safeguarding itself by the securities furnished by the sub- 
scribers, who put their property — plantations, houses and slaves — into the new com- 
panies. It was pretty much the same condition of affairs that preceded the Argen- 
tina panic of a few years ago, which resulted in the suspension of the great English 
banking house of Baring Brothers. 

It would be a mistake, however, to imagine that Louisiana and New Orleans 
were alone in going beyond their credit, and in placing more securities on the mar- 
ket than they could handle. The same condition of affairs existed throughout the 
South and West, more particularly in the latter section. The ease with which bonds 
and securities of all kinds could be floated in Europe was a temptation. Every 
town and county issued bonds, and companies were organized for every conceivable 
improvement. The total amount of securities sold in Europe ran far up in the 
hundreds of millions and swallowed up all the available capital of that continent. 

New Orleans had been somewhat moderate at first, but from 1830 to 1837 it 
was attacked by the prevailing epidemic, and was turning out new banks by the 
dozen. In 1837 it boasted of no less than fifteen banks, capitalized at $02,000,000, 
enough to do more than five times the business the city then handled. 

The panic was threatening long before its danger was recognized in New Or- 
leans, or, indeed, anywhere else. The failure of the United States Bank to secure 
the renewal of its charter in 1833 was the first warning note. This stimulated the 
several States Legislatures to grant charters for State banks, which increased in 
number with marvelous rapidity, each of these banks being authorized to issue cur- 
rency, and the Legislature in many of the States having taken no sufficient steps 



596 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

to protect this currency, the coimtry was flooded with notes. There was more 
money than was needed, not only in New Orleans, but everywhere else, and there was 
naturally a great deal of speculation and a rise in values, particularly real estate. 
Towns were laid off and gigantic improvements planned. In fine, the United Status 
was enjoying one of the wildest booms which it ever knew, and as it had had very little 
experience in "booms" all this improvement and advance in price was greeted en- 
thusiastically as evidence of great prosperity. 

The imports were above the exports, and there was a steady balance of trade 
against the United States, which, however, was not felt at first because many of the 
States issued bonds, and these almost settled the balance against us. This method 
of business could not be carried on forever, and when, in 1837, conservative people, 
aroused at the overtrading and speculation that prevailed, demanded specie instead 
of bank notes, the crash came. Exchange on England ran up to 20 or 25 per cent, 
and the newer banks and companies began to go down before the storm. 

The panic was worse in the West and Southwest, where the greatest propor- 
tional amount of banking capital had been created. New Orleans, which was then 
the financial capital of the Southwest, was naturally one of the worst victims; and 
the situation in this city was aggravated by the fact that about the same time that 
this financial flurry came upon the country the region tributary to New Orleans 
suffered from other causes, changes in the tariff unfavorable to sugar and other crops 
grown there and injury from crevasse and overflow — 3840 was the worst flood year 
known up to that time. 

The panic struck New Orleans May 13, 1837, when there was a run on the banks 
of the city, and fourteen of them, all save the Merchants' Bank, suspended specie 
payment, thereby forfeiting their charters under the conditions contained therein, 
that any suspension of specie payments for more than ninety days should, pro facto, 
wind up their affairs. For the next eight years the Legislature worked on this prob- 
lem, finally succeeding in building up a new banking system and framing a banking 
law that was a model of its kind. 

How to do in the meanwhile, however, was a difficult problem. The city had 
been suffering from a plethora of currency ; it found itself, by the suspension of 
the banks, without enough to carry on its legitimate business. In this emergency, 
and in order to afford the community some relief, even if temporary,the three munic- 
ipalities which then constituted the city of New Orleans, issued bills from the 
value of one bit (12^ cents) to four dollars, which were put in circulation. Then 
followed an era of "Shinplasters," as they were called, a number of companies, and 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 597 

even private individuals, claiming the same privilege, so that the State was flooded 
with "rag money." 

The Legislature appointed a commission to examine into and report upon the 
condition of the suspended banks. In 1839, however, the banks had resumed specie 
payments, and the Legislature, recognizing that their suspension was not due to 
local causes or any mismanagement on the part of their officers and directors, but 
"the result of a general derangement of the monetary system of the country," re- 
instated them in their chartered rights and privileges. This resumption of specie 
payment, however, was only temporary. The banks were still badly involved. They 
had issued large quantities of notes and their securities were difficult to realize on, 
while in many cases the property upon which money had been loaned was only a 
fraction of the value given it, and often altogether unsalable. 

This financial crisis continued for practically eight years in New Orleans, from 
1837 to 1845. During that time legitimate commerce, the handling of the produce 
of the interior and its shipment to market, continued as large as ever, but under 
some inconveniences, in consequence of the disarrangement of financial matters. 
There were many failures and bankruptcies of 'firms and individuals, and a large 
proportion of business houses in the Southwest and West had to take advantage of 
the Federal bankruptcy law of 1842 to get on their feet again. 

The run on the banks and their suspension came, as already stated, in May, 
1837, but they resumed specie payments in 1839. The Associated Banks of New Or- 
leans then reached an agreement for a general interchange, by which the notes of all 
the banks obtained an equal currency in the market, all of them being bound to sus- 
tain this circulation. It was a union whereby the stronger banks sustained the 
weaker ones. This rule was not formally repealed until February, 1843. It was a 
temporary expedient which resulted in the end in loss to the public, for the notes 
of the weaker banks remained in circulation, while those of the stronger ones were 
being retired. 

At the beginning of December, 1841, the depreciation in bank paper was from 
three to four per cent, and by March 1, 1842, even the paper of the strongest and 
best ba'nks had gone down to seven or eight per cent. This was brought about 
largely by a law requiring the banks to resume specie payment on a fixed date. On 
March 2, 1842, notes of the Exchange Bank were at a discount of from 15 to 25 per 
cent, and those of the three other discredited banks at a discount of from 10 to 15 
per cent. 

To meet the condition of affairs prevailing, and to put an end to the financial 



598 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

embarrassment, the Legislature passed a law restoring the charters of the suspended 
banks, all of which had been annulled because of their failiire to pay in specie, in 
which it was provided that in the event they resumed specie payment before Novem- 
ber, 18-12, their charters would not be considered forfeited. As it was recognized that 
the capital of several of the banks had been made much greater than necessary, and 
as only a very small part of the capital in those concerns had been subscribed, there 
was a very considerable reduction made. The circulation of the Carrollton Exchange 
and Improvement Banks was reduced to $250,000 each, that of the Bank of Orleans 
and the Atchafalaya Bank to $150,000 each. The circulation of the other banks 
was fixed as follows : Union, $800,000 ; Citizens', $700,000 ; Louisiana, $700,000 ; 
Louisiana State, $500,000; Consolidated Planters' Association, $500,000; Canal, 
$500,000; Commercial, $500,000; City Bank, $500,000; Mechanics and Traders', 
$400,000. The banking laws prepared by a Board of Currency created by the Legis- 
lature were not well received with favor in New Orleans, where they were regarded 
as hostile to the banks ; and there was even a public meeting called to protest against 
them, as threatening the ruin of legitimate business. 

When the banks opened for business on February 21, the notes of four of 
them generally classed as weak — the Orleans, Exchange, Improvement and Atcha- 
falaya Banks — were refused by the others, either in payment or on deposit, which 
naturally sent these notes still further down, their holders being glad to dispose of 
them at 30 per cent discount. 

The provision of the Legislature extending the charters of the banks on the 
condition that they resume specie payment by November, 1842, was accepted by 
five — the Citizens', Improvement, Louisiana State, Consolidated Planters' and 
Carrollton Banks; but rejected by eleven — the Union, City, Commercial, Gas, Or- 
leans, Canal, Louisiana, Exchange, Atchafalaya, Merchants and Mechanics' and 
Traders' Banks. The Carrollton Bank accepted the condition for the avowed pur- 
pose of going into liquidation. The objection of the banks to the law was for the 
purpose of testing its constitutionality, and under their pressure the time allowed 
for the resumption of specie payments was extended to December 1, 1842. 

When it became known that the paying teller of the Atchafalaya Bank was a 
defaulter to the amount of $120,000, and that there were in addition overdrafts 
to the amount of $70,000, the notes of that institution depreciated 50 or 60 per cent. 
The Attorney General brouglit proceedings against the bank, as well as against the 
Orleans and Exchange Banks, whose doors were closed, their notes being quoted at 
from 50 to 55 per cent discount, and those of the Improvement Bank at from 30 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 599 

to 35 per cent discount. This action on the part of the State naturally created great 
confusion and had a most deleterious effect on business. 

After considerable finessing the banks finally accepted the act of the Legisla- 
ture and opened, with one exception, to renew specie payments on December 1. 
They anticipated that date, however, and began paying out specie in May. This 
action brought discredit on the notes issued by the several municipalities to the 
amount of $1,000,000, and which had been the chief currency of the city during 
the interim. These municipal notes depreciated in value, and as they were held 
mainly by the poorer classes they caused great popular excitement, resulting in a 
mob forming and several riotous acts being committed. The riotous spirit was finally 
quelled to a large extent by the issue of certificates by the municipalities, which were 
generally taken at a discount of 8 or 9 per cent. 

The banks resumed specie payments May 20. The Citizens' and Louisiana 
Banks again suspended May 29, after a rush on them ; the Commercial, Consolidated 
Planters' and Canal Banks on June 1 ; the City Bank on June 2 ; the Carrollton 
Bank on June 9, leaving only three continuing business — the Union, the Louisiana 
and the Mechanics and Traders'. 

The New Orleans banks imported specie and in December, 1842, it was possible 
to put into operation the law in regard to resumption. This was further facilitated 
by the action of the municipalities in settling and destroying a large quantity of 
their notes. 

On June 1, 1843, eight banks — the Louisiana, Canal, Carrollton, City, Com- 
mercial, Louisiana State, Mechanics and Traders' and Union — had resumed specie 
payments, with assets amounting to $6,975,314, while the Citizens' and Consoli- 
dated Association, with $359,006 of assets, had not yet resumed. This may be 
considered as the end of the panic, or at least of the suspension of the banks, for 
Governor Roman announced in his message to the Legislature (January 3, 1843,) 
that the banks were in good condition again, having not less than $4,565,925 of 
specie and an actual circulation of only $1,261,514. 

But, although the banks were on their feet again, it took fully three years 
to restore public confidence and to get rid of those institutions which had fallen 
by the wayside. The old banking system was at fault, and it was found necessary 
to construct a new one. Acts were passed to facilitate the liquidation of the in- 
solvent banks, especially the property banks, and to settle the involved relations 
between the State of Louisiana and such institutions as had received the assistance of 
its credit. Under the act, passed in 1845, for the adjustnjent and liquidation of the 



6oo STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

debts of the State, there was an adjustment of mutual obligations, a renunciation 
by the State of all interferences in bank management. By this arrangement the 
State was relieved of about $3,000,000 of indebtedness. The banks also extin- 
guished their bonded debts, and the city of New Orleans retired its depreciated 
promises to pay. Public credit was completely restored, a sound currency was 
established and the State Treasury was brought to a most prosperous condition. 

These eight years of suspension and financial demoralization, however dis- 
tressing during their continuance, had a most beneficial efEect. They taught New 
Orleans safe banking, and the result of this bitter experience was the adoption 
of a banking system that proved perfect and of a banking law which continued 
unchanged up to the time of the Civil War, and proved so satisfactory in every 
way that it was adopted by half a dozen States and even by the General Govern- 
ment in part. 

The banking history of the period 1845-1860 is free of incident. There 
were no failures or suspensions of any moment. When the Civil War came on 
there were no banks in the country in better condition or more solid than those 
of New Orleans, as the following table will show, giving their condition on Jan- 
uary 1, 1860: 

Circulation. Deposits. Specie. 

Citizens' Bank .$ 4,089,780 $ 4,262,705 $ 3,416,034 

Louisiana State 3,593,775 4,812,483 2,746,644 

Bank of Louisiana 736,629 3,640,544 1,588,342 

Canal 1,238,365 1,374,795 1,299,305 

New Orleans 630,975 1,006,225 629,641 

Union 558,200 1,225,865 601,213 

Mechanics and Traders' 412,505 920,661 420,632 

Merchants' 491,065 522,771 331,909 

Southern 305,575 434,819 242,369 

Crescent City 283,224 379,936 261,049 

Bank of America 240,240 1,188,002 518,387 



Total $11,579,313 $19,768,806 $12,055,435 

After fifteen years of peace, quiet and prosperity the banks of New Orleans 
entered, in 1861, upon more serious troubles than those they had undergone during 
the period 1837-45, when Louisiana seceded and the Civil War broke. out. Although 
the officers and directors of the banks sympathized with the Southern cause, they 
felt that their obligations to their stockholders required them to pursue a con- 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 60 1 

servative course. They stuck manfully to their charters, which required them to 
pay in specie; but on September 16 they yielded to the pressure of popular senti- 
ment, which required that they should accept Confederate notes as a proof of their 
loyalty to the Southern cause. Some of them suspended specie payment in conse- 
quence, and those who did not at first, deemed it advisable to do so soon after for 
their own protection. At that time their condition was still excellent, and they were 
doing a fair business, in spite of the commercial demoralization that existed. 
Their circulation was only $6,481,910, or a little over half what it had been a 
year before, because the banks had deemed it advisable to call in as many of 
their notes as possible; but on the other hand the specie held by them was $14,- 
173,258, or more than in 1860. The deposits had shrunk some five millions to 
$14,710,698, this representing the money withdrawn by timid persons, who feared 
what the war might bring forth. The Citizens' Bank was still the strongest, 
with $4,086,819 of specie, while the State and Louisiana banks had each close 
upon $3,000,000 of specie. 

It is doubtful if the bank officials wished to accept Confederate notes; but 
public opinion, which was very intense at the time, would not allow them to do 
otherwise. After the suspension of specie payment and the acceptance of Con- 
federate notes, nearly all the business of the city was done with the latter, and 
the bills of the banks were seldom seen. The banks threw their fortune, willingly 
or unwillingly, with the Southern cause. They contributed a large amount to the 
defense fund of New Orleans, and when the forts were passed by Farragut's fleet 
they sent some $4,000,000 in specie into the Confederacy to prevent its falling into 
the enemy's hands. 

When General Ben F. Butler took possession of New Orleans he became 
involved at once in an interminable squabble with the bank officials, who found 
him a very hard customer to deal with. He demanded of them an explanation 
of their conduct in sending out of the city their specie, which was intended, he 
claimed, as a protection for the depositors, and several of the presidents ad- 
mitted that it had been "unadvisedly carried away." An attempt made to secure the 
return of the specie proved a failure, as the Confederate authorities would not 
permit its return; but the banks were allowed to transact business upon the basis 
of this absent coin, "just as though it was in their own vaults." 

In regard to the Confederate bonds and notes which had almost completely 
ousted the bank bills from circulation, it was provided at first by an order issued 
May 1, 1862, that no Confederate bonds or obligations payable in Confederate 



6o2 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

notes should be accepted; but the notes themselves, as they constituted almost the 
only circulation of the city, were allowed to pass until the financial situation im- 
proved. On May 1(5 a second order was issued by General Butler, in which he pro- 
hibited the use of any Confederate notes after May 26. This was immediately 
followed by a notice from the banks, given through the newspapers, advising all 
persons who had deposits with them in Confederate notes to withdraw them before 
May 27, and stating that all balances not withdrawn by that date would be at the 
risk of the owners. 

This action of the banks General Butler refused to approve. He insisted that 
the banks had violated their charters in September, 1861, in suspending specie 
payments and introducing Confederate notes as currency, which, he declared in his 
peculiar manner, they had purchased at a discount with their own bills. These 
notes had obtained a wide circulation, and the action of the banks in accepting 
them over their counter, but refusing to receive them in deposit, would throw 
all the loss upon the public. Order No. 30, therefore, required that the banks in- 
corporated, private banks and savings banks, should pay out no more Confederate 
notes, but that all depositors should be paid in valid money, in bank bills, U. S. 
Treasury notes or gold or silver. Eelative to the "shin-plasters" or private currency, 
with which the city had been flooded, it was provided that all persons who had 
issued this "money" should redeem their notes at once under penalty of confiscation 
of their property and imprisonment at hard labor. 

By a subsequent order General Butler seized all the money in the New Or- 
leans banks to the credit of the Confederate government or any of its agents, and 
in August imposed on the banks as a penalty for "having aided the rebellion" (that 
is the Confederate cause), an assessment equal to their investment in the defense 
bonds of the city. This fine was collected in four installments of 25 per cent 
each, and the money was used in furnishing with rations the large number of negroes 
who had refugeed in New Orleans from the neighboring country, and who re- 
mained in the city during the continuance of the Civil War, the majority of them 
idle and indeed unwilling to work, believing that emancipation meant freedom 
from labor. 

During all of General Butler's administration of the affairs of New Orleans, 
as well as those of his successor. General Banks, the financial history of the city 
is filled with quarrels between the banks and the military authorities, and an im- 
mense number of claims resulted and much litigation growing out of them. Many 
of these suits are still on trial, and it would take pages to explain them. Even 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 603 

after the restoration of peace, and when the banks got to business again, these 
complications continued. The Legislature was appealed to frequently to amend 
their charters; and the history of the Citizens' Bank alone w-ould furnish a large 
and interesting book of the changes in the methods of banking in New Orleans. 

Under these circumstances it is impossible to give a general history of bank- 
ing in the city after the war; and this can be best done in detail. There was no 
general panic and smash up, as in 1837, nor was there any such complications 
as during the Civil War. The New Orleans banks suffered from the general finan- 
cial flurries which swept over the country in 1877 and 1893, and on such occasions 
were compelled to adopt the same precautions for their safety as the banks in 
other cities; but the crisis was never as general or as acute as it had been before. 
Banks went down, it is true, but they went down from their own inherent weakness 
or mismanagement, not as a part of a general crash. The bank history of the 
post-bellum period can best be considered under the several banks which grew up 
and prospered or failed. 

The First National Bank, the first to take advantage of the national banking 
laws, had a short and inglorious career. An investigation into its affairs was 
ordered in May, 1867. At that time it was discovered that the affairs of the bank 
"were tangled up with those of its president, Mr. Thomas May, who w^as U. S. 
Assistant Treasurer at the time, and in whose office a defalcation of $1,077,079 
was found by the special agents of the Treasury Department. The bank accord- 
ingly passed into the hands of a receiver at once, but its affairs were not fully set- 
tled until 1880. 

The Louisiana National Bank was chartered in 1865. 

The Germania National Bank was organized as the City Bank in 1865, but 
changed its nam^ to Germania in 1869. 

The New Orleans National Bank was organized in 1871. 

The Mutual National Bank was organized in 1871, but went down in 1898, 
in the bank flurry which carried dowTi three of the financial institutions of New 
Orleans. 

The American National Bank was organized in 1889, but failed at the same 
time as the Mutual. 

The State National Bank was organized in 1871. Originally the Louisiana 
State National Bank, it changed its name to State, dropping the Louisiana in 
order to avoid confusion with the Louisiana National. 

The Whitney National Bank was organized in November, 1883. 



6o4 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

The Hibernia National Bank was organized as a State bank in 1870, but 

became a national bank in 1873. It swallowed up the National Bank 

in 1896. 

The Metropolitan Bank is a State institution, doing both a commercial and 
savings business, and was organized in 1870. 

The People's Bank is a State institution, and was established in 1869. 

The Bank of Commerce was established as a State bank in 1887, but went dowa 
in 1898, in the same flurry that broke the Mutual and American National Banks. 

At the time of the Civil War New Orleans had two savings banks : 

The New Orleans Savings Institution, incorporated March 15, 1855. 

The Crescent City Savings Institution, incorporated March 13, 1857. 

The New Orleans Savings Institution did a splendid business immediately 
after the Civil War, but its very bad failure in 1876 had a demoralizing influence on 
the savings bank business for some years, and the city was altogether without these 
banks or with very weak ones until the Germania Savings Bank entered the field 
in 1879 and restored public confidence in savings banks, which had been very much 
tried by the failure of former institutions. 

Under the encouragement given by it and the very successful business it has 
enjoyed three new savings banks have sprung up in New Orleans, as follows : 

Teutonia Savings Bank, chartered in April, 1893. 

Bondent Savings and Safe Deposit Bank, chartered in 1893. 

United States Trust and Savings Bank, chartered in April, 1893. 

Of the other banks it is unnecessary to speak, as they are doing business under 
their old charters as State banks, such as the Canal and Citizens' Banks, or have 
taken out national bank charters like the Union. 

The New Orleans Clearing House Association was organized May 8, 1872, 
and the first exchanges were made on June 1 of that year. Originally composed 
of thirteen members, the Association subsequently included all the commercial 
banks of New Orleans. In the panic of 1893 and on other occasions of financial 
flurry, when the market was in a frightened condition, the Clearing House proved 
of great advantage, not only to the banks, but to the entire business community 
by providing for the issue of clearing-house certificates, which were accepted by 
all and tided over the strained financial conditions that prevailed. The trans- 
actions of the Clearing House for the first year it did business, September 1, 
1872, to August 31, 1873, was $501,716,239.06. It has varied but slightly from 
these figures since then, reaching its maximum in 1890-1, when the clearance ran 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 605 

up to *536, 038,535. 85, and its minimum in 1884-5, when they sank as low as 
$393,452,741.10. 

While the foreign insurance companies have always done a large business in 
New Orleans, the home companies have handled a great deal of insurance, not 
only for the city and the State of Louisiana, but for all the neighboring States, 
and even for some distant ones. The companies are : 

Sun Insurance Company, chartered in 1855 ; capital, $500,000. 

Germania Insurance Company, chartered in 1866, but reorganized in 18i)l; 
capital, $500,000. 

Crescent City Insurance Company, organized as the Crescent Mutual in 1849; 
capital, $240,000. It has liquidated its affairs. 

Merchants' Insurance Company, organized in 1835. From 1854 to 1893 it was 
the Merchants' Mutual ; capital, $300,000. 

Mechanics and Traders' Insurance Company; capital, $375,000. 

New Orleans Insurance Association, organized in 1869, reorganized in 1874, 
with a capital of $200,000. Its business has been taken by the Sun Insurance 
Company. 

Home Insurance Company, organized in 1878; capital, $400,000. 

Teutonia Insurance Company, organized in 1871, with a capital of $250,000. 

Lafayette Fire Insurance Company, organized in 1869, with a capital of 
$150,000. 

Hibernia Insurance Company. 

Southern Insurance Company, organized in 1883; capital, $300,000. 

The Louisiana Homestead League was organized in 1891, and includes the 
following Homestead companies: 

People's Homestead Association, organized in 1882. 

American Homestead Company, organized in 1883. 

Louisiana Homestead Association, organized in 1885. 

Firemen's Building Association, organized in 1886. 

Mutual Building and Homestead Association, organized in 1885. 

Third District Building Association, organized in 1887. 

Eureka Homestead Society, organized in 1887. 

German-American Homestead Association, organized in 1885. 

Suburban Building and Loan Association, organized in December, 1894. 

Security Building and Loan Association, organized in October, 1893. 

Si.xth District Building and Loan Association, organized in October, 1894. 

Union Homestead Association, organized in 1886. 



6o6 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

These associations have facilitated the purchase or building of homes by 
people of moderate means in New Orleans. They have encouraged a spirit of 
saving and economy and they have resulted in the construction of more than a 
thousand handsome and up-to-date residences in the city, and have enabled some 
two thousand families to own their homes who would have been unable to do so 
but for their assistance. 



CHAPTER XXIV. 



CLTJBS AND KINDRED ORGANIZATIONS. 
By Walter Parkek. 

FROM the very founding of New Orleans the people of the city have devoted 
as much if not more time to pursuits of pleasure than to the vocations of the 
work-a-day world, and in a community where the amassing of wealth has ever 
been a consideration secondary to the true art of extracting from life that which is 
best, and where tradition dominates innovation, it is but natural that good-fellow- 
ship should be a foremost characteristic. From time out of mind the social side 
of life in the great metropolis of the south has been of the highest order and the 
stranger within her gates has never failed to carry away the pleasantest memories of 
the hospitable and courteous men and women whose fame as host and hostess is 
known the world over. Here men do not derive that keen satisfaction from the 
accumulation of money that is felt in other sections of the country, for, in Now 
Orleans, which has well merited the name, "The Delightful City," the parvenu is 
yet unknown. Here method is the child of a kind hearted, indulgent people, and 
is not of the school of Twentieth-Century Americanism. Here the business man 
spends his afternoons and evenings at his favorite club, and, if one is versed in tlie 
ways of the city, one will never call at his office before 11 of the morning nor after 
3 of the afternoon. If one is a stranger he will marvel. No wonder then that New 
Orleans supports many handsome clubs, nor that the good fellows with which the 
city abounds, should in uncommon numbers organize for their mutual advantage. 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 607 

From the great aggregytion of a single club of GOO members, each one of whrnn 
has had to stand a severe test of qualification, down to the little ilinncr club of 
five, whose dinners, served under the long shadows of the old French market where 
the choicest of viands are to be had, is the great range, the two extremes between 
which there are hundreds of organizations of all classes and varieties. From the 
earliest daj-s in the history of the city similar conditions have existed. Lack of 
space precludes the possibility of a review of the organizations which flourished in 
years that are gone, or, in fact, even mention of all that are now in existence, 
hence this chapter will be confined to those of greatest prominence of the present 
day. 

BOSTON CLUB. 

The Boston Club was organized in 1841 by a small coterie of gentlemen for 
the purpose of playing "the game of Boston," and is the oldest social club in New 
Orleans. From the beginning of its existence it has been famous as a rendezvous 
for army and navy officers. Of its original members none survive, and of those 
who were members previous to the Civil War but few are still alive. The club was 
incorporated in 1843 for a period of twenty-five years, and its first rooms were 
on Royal street; but in a short time these rooms were exchanged for rooms on the 
south side of Canal street, next to Moreau's restaurant, at first only a part of the 
building being used, but later the entire building. About this time other games 
than Boston began to be played in the rooms. During the Civil War the rooms 
were closed by order of the Federal authorities, but on August 5, 1865, they were 
again opened, on Royal street. Later the club moved to Carondelet street, and 
finally to its present quarters, on Canal street, between Carondelet and Baronne 
streets. Many of the prominent business men are members of this club, and in 
past days many very prominent men were members, such as Judah P. Benjamin, 
A. C. Meyers, and John R. Grimes. 

Originally the number of members was limited to 150, and from the begin- 
ning the initiation fee has been $100, with annual dues of $100. When the club 
was reorganized after the Civil War the limit of membership was raised to 250. 
Among the presidents previous to the war was P. N. Wood, and since the war 
the following have been the presidents of the club: W. A. Avery, 1865; Judge 
Victor Burke, 1866-68; Gen. "Dick" Taylor, 1868-73; Dr. S. Choppin, 1873-80; 
A. P. Mason, 1880-83 ; Thomas J. Semmes, 1883-92 ; ex-Justice Charles E. Fenner, 
1892 to the present time. 

The present quarters of the club contain the following rooms: A parlor and 



6o8 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

a billiard and pool room on the ground floor, the parlor being 55 feet deep and of 
harmonious width. The cafe is also on the ground floor, built out from the billiard 
room, and is 20x50 feet in size. The card room occupies the entire front of the 
second story and is 30x55 feet in size, and the lunch room in the rear of tlie 
card room is 30x50 feet. On the third floor in front is another card room and to 
its rear are the store rooms, bath-rooms, servants' rooms, etc. All the apartments 
are handsomely furnished and the home is in all respects an ideal one for club 
purposes. 

PICKWICK CLUB. 

The Pickwick Club was organized in 1857 in the parlor over the famous 
ante-bellum Gem saloon, the Pickwick Club and the Mystick Krewe being for 
many years, so far as was visible to the public eye, one and the same thing. At 
length, however, it became impossible to conceal the fact that they were so closely 
related, and the duality was dissolved. Comus became an independent organization 
and the Pickwick Club so amended its charter as to render the club an absolutely 
close one. But still, even down to the present day, Comus is the favorite of the 
members of the club. In its palmiest days the home of the club was the fine 
building at the corner of Carondelet and Canal streets, a four-story brick-and- 
stone building of Queen Anne architecture, which, prior to its partial destruction by 
fire in 1894, was one of the most stately buildings ever erected in New Orleans. 
The ladies' cafe, which from 1884 to 1894 was one of the chief prides of the club, 
was primarily for the use of the ladies of the families of the members, but it 
was never a financial success, and when the present quarters of the club on Canal 
street, near Eampart, were erected, no provision was made for a dining-room 
for ladies. There is, however, a banquet hall, in which dinner parties are fre- 
quently given, and in this hall the captain and the other officers of the United 
States cruiser New Orleans were entertained when that vessel paid her visit to 
this city in the spring of 1899. 

The origin of this famous club is in a certain way attributable to Mobile, but 
to enter into the full particulars of this connection would require more space than 
can be spared in this work. Hence it is necessary only to state that seven gentle- 
men called a meeting for January 3, 1857, over the old Gem saloon. Thirteen 
responded other than the six of the seven that answered the call, and these nineteen 
members adopted the name of the Mystick Krewe of Comus. Within the next 
few weeks sixty-three additional members were added to the original number, 
and on February 24, 1857, Comus electrified New Orleans with the first illustrated 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 609 

procession : "The demon actors in Milton's Paradise Lost." Proceeding to the 
old Gaiety Theater, "the grotesque maskers made much fun and merriment and 
enjoyed quizzing their sweethearts and wives to their hearts' content without 
revealing their identities. At 12 o'clock precisely the captain's whistle sounded 
and the Krewe marched without lights to No. 57 St. Charles street. On the third 
floor of this store a bounteous banquet awaited them, the experiences of the night 
were told in wine and wit and much enjoyment until early morning ended the 
first festival of the Mystick Krewe of Comus." 

Later a social club was organized named the Pickwick Club. The two lower 
stories of the store at No. 57 St. Charles street, were rented and fitted up for 
club rooms. Colonel A. H. Gladden was president from 1858 until the breaking 
out of the war, and fell at Shiloh. The Pickwick gave its check for $1,000 toward 
the support of the families of those who had gone to the war, and was then virtually 
for a year or two disbanded; but it was in a measure kept alive by such men as 
Hon. John Q. A. Fellows, and was afterward fully resuscitated and reorganized 
oin the return of peace. The quarters of the club were at the corner of Canal 
street and Exchange alley up to 1881, when they were moved to the Mercer building, 
now the Boston Club, where they remained until 1884, when they were removed 
to the corner of Carondelet and Canal streets. In 1894 this building was burned, 
and the club removed to the other corner of the same two streets, later to the old 
No. 4 Carondelet street, and finally to its present magnificent quarters. When 
the club was on Canal and Exchange alley it entertained, one Christmas night. 
General W. S. Hancock, then in command of the military department here. This 
club has rendered efficient service on more than one occasion, having in 1874 
aided in the overthrow of negro domination, and in 1878 having don? much to 
relieve distress occasioned that year by the great epidemic of yellow fever. In 
1879 the clubmen organized themselves into what was known as "The Dietetic 
Association," and distributed beef tea and soup for the sick and delicacies for the 
convalescent from the door and windows of the club in Exchange alley 

The presidents of the club have been as follows: Charles H. Churchill, Gen- 
eral A. H. Gladden, Adam Giffen, Edward Barrett, W. H. Crafts, T. C. Herndon, 
E. B. Briggs, Octave Hopkins, James 6. Clark, Jules C. Denis, C. M. Soria, Paul 
Capdevielle, William Blake, Hon. E. B. Kruttschnitt, James G. Clark (second 
time), S. L. James, Frank B. Haynes and Eeuben C. Bush, present incumbent. 
The present quarters of the club are exceedingly handsome, no expense having 
been spared in fitting them up and furnishing them to suit the taste of the mem- 



6io STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

bers. In the rear of a white marble vestibule stands the familiar figure of Mr. 
Pickwick, and on the same floor are the club's office, the billiard room, the lounging 
room, and the bar. On the second floor are the main hall, the reading room and the 
card room, and on the third floor are the dining room and the private card rooms of 
the club. The entire building in its fittings and its furnishings is one of the finest 
in the South. 

CHESS, CHECKERS AXD WHIST QLVB. 

The Chess, Checkers and Whist Club is one of the 3'oungest, yet strongest, 
institutions of the city. The foundation of the club is ascribed to Charles A. 
Maurian, Charles F. Buck and James D. Seguiu, who, in 1880, founded a small 
club for the study and cultivation of the game of chess. Their first domicile 
was a single room in the building at No. 138 Gravier street. At the first meeting, 
held July 21, 1880, Mr. Maurian was elected president and Mr. Seguin secretary. 
The club records show the attendance at this meeting to have been twenty-seven, 
some of whom were represented by proxy. In the twenty years of its existence 
the membership has increased to 800, the present limitation. 

The early history of this club clearly demonstrates the invincible power of a 
movement based on sound principles and popular demand. It is essentially a young 
men's club, but its membership lists include a large number of older men — men 
who have become prominent in business life, in the practice of the law and in the 
various other professions. Nearly every chess-player of skill residing in the city 
is a member, and the games of whist, checkers, etc., are indulged in. But the 
club has other objects than the encouragement of scientific games and the occa- 
sional entertainment of its friends ; for, not infrequently, the informal discussions 
of the members turn on deep subjects and a wide range of topics of general interest 
and importance are taken up by men whose knowledge specially fits them for an 
intelligent expression of opinion. The chronicle of the club's rise from an humble 
origin to the powerful institution of to-day is interesting. Less than ten days 
after the first meeting a second was held, at which it was found the membership 
had about doubled. In October of the same year the membership had grown to 
110, and larger quarters being required the club moved to No. 168 Common street, 
and two months later to larger rooms next door. The membership had reached the 
number of 150 January Si, 1881, and, the belief then existing that the club had 
reached its climax, so far as membership was concerned, the initiation fee was placed 
at $3, and an entire floor at the corner of Common street and Varieties alley was 
leased for club rooms. 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 6ii 

Captain George H. Mackenzie, the renowned chess-player of St. Louis, visited 
New Orleans in the year 1881 and was the guest of the club from February 28 
to March 10. He gave several exhibitions, displaying wonderful perception and 
great facility for rapid combination. President Maurian and Mr. James Mc- 
Connell made even games on even terms with the visitor, but the others were easily 
defeated. The visit of Mr. Mackenzie was the beginning of the visits of a great 
number of distinguished chess-players who have come to this city since then. 
The list of great players who have been guests of the club includes such names as 
Zukertort, Lee, Steinitz, Pillsbury ^and others. The series of tournaments, which 
to-day are a leading feature of the club, was inaugurated during the first year of 
the club's existence. 

For two years the club enjoyed a substantial and healthy growth, and in 
1883 the present quarters at the corner of Canal and Baronne streets were secured. 
Fire destroyed the building in 1890 and nearly all of the club's records were lost. 
In place of the old building a modern club-house was constructed, and this is the 
domicile to-day. Paul Morphy, whose fame as a chess-player is second to none 
in the history of the game, was a constant attendant at the club until his death, 
and in memory of him there is a bust of fine workmanship in the club-rooms. 
One of the most highly prized possessions of the club is a unique set of chessmen 
of Swiss workmanship, presented by E. Block on February 21, 1881. Block was a 
contemporary of Morphy's in the early days of chess-playing in New Orleans. Mr. 
Maurian was succeeded as president by Charles F. Buck. The other presidents 
have been: Hon. Ben C. Elliott, Samuel Stafford, Thomas E. Roach, Hon. George 
H. Vennard and Charles J. Theard, who has been president since April, 1893. The 
popularity of the club is best attested by the list of applicants, which contains almost 
as many names as does the membership list. Applicants must wait for resignations 
before their applications are acted on. 

HARMONY CLUB. 

The Harmony Club was organized during the early seventies by a number of the 
more prominent young Hebrews of the city. Its objects were purely social, but 
the close relations of the early members with the members of the Deutsche Com- 
pany, an organization in a flourishing condition at that time, soon resulted in 
consolidation. Mr. Joseph Magner was the first president of the new organization, 
and with wise forethought, seeing that the Fourth District was destined to grow and 
improve rapidly, advocated building an up-town club-house, and succeeded in taking 



6i2 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

the club as far up as Delord street. Some time thereafter the younger members 
secured a removal to Canal street. Years after, under the presidency of Judge 
I. D. Moore, the club was again moved up town, and now has magnificent quarters 
in its own handsome building at the corner of St. Charles and Jackson avenues. 
It is one of the finest buildings in the city. The Harmony Club membership is 
open to Jew and Gentile and is one of the centers of culture among the Hebrews 
of the city. The clvib as it stands to-day is in a large measure the natural (nit- 
growtli of the trying times of the Civil War, for it was through consolidation 
with the Deutsche Company that it became possible to carry out the broad objects 
which have made it so successful. 

The Deutsche Company had its origin in a meeting of seven, all of whom were 
prominent in Jewish and German circles, in the latter part of 1862. This meeting 
was presided over by Mr. Sol Marks. The suggestion of the formation of a club 
was his and plans were put on foot with that idea in view. In April, 1863, a meet- 
ing was held with forty members present, and organization was effected. Mr. 
Marks was elected president and M. L. Navra, secretary. The stated object of the 
society was to cultivate sociability and to foster art and science. Soon after the 
new club was formed the two were brought together into one strong organization. 

The Harmony Club is noted for the magnificence of its entertainments. The 
interior decorations of the cIul)-house are superbly grand. The membership includes 
many prominent Gentiles, who stand high in their stations of life. 

LOUISIANA CLUB. 

Among the oldest social clubs in the city of New Orleans is the organization 
known as The Louisiana Club. The formation of this society was effected in 
1879 and it is a social club in every respect. The officers are Paul Gelpi, president, 
and W. A. Brand, secretary. The club now has on its rolls 153 members, with its 
rooms at No. 122 Carondelet. Regular meetings are held each month, but the quar- 
ters are always open to the members. 

NEW ORLEANS PRESS CLUB. 

Of all the clubs in New Orleans, the one finally launched with the greatest 
promise of potentialities for the good of the city was the New Orleans Press Club. 
Various attempts in previous years had been made to establish a press club, but they 
had all failed for one or another reason. 

The longest lived of any endeavor on the problem was the last; and it repre- 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 613 

sented possibly the best planned and best executed of the attempts. It found its 
original motive in the recognition, by some members of the newspaper fraternity, 
of how hopelessly separated the reportorial brethren on the different papers were. 

The first form of organization was a "call club." It had no domicile. It 
had no dues, no assessments, no cares, no obligations. It consisted in a dinner 
once or twice or thrice a month, at 2 or 3 o'clock a. m., when every one but the 
pressmen had left the newspaper shops. Henry Eightor was the first president of 
this body; Harry Hester, the first promoter of the plan. The first dinner took 
place at the Grunewald Hotel at 2 a. m. There were thirteen newspaper men 
present. Day was dawning when the club adjourned. It was a genuine success de- 
spite the unlucky number. The fun ranged from national subjects to Hester's 
famous discussion as to which side of a bluebird's eggs had the greatest number 
of spots — the north or the south side. 

The initial number of the dinners made the little club famous. At the ne.xt 
dinner, at Forrestier's, corner Decatur and Madison streets, there were twenty-six 
members of the newspaper fraternity present, and an international complication, 
between a representative of the German press and one of the French, arose. It 
tended to increase interest in the club, and from that time on the Press Club dinners 
grew in popularity. 

It existed as a call organization for about one year, when a meeting of all 
the members was held at the St. Charles Hotel, on the 17th of August, 1897. At this 
meeting, one of the most memorable in the early history of the club, in that the 
vast majority of the workers of the local press were present and enthusiastic, it was 
resolved to domicile the club. The following plan was adopted: There were to 
be two kinds of membership — active and associate. In the former, to keep the 
club always a real press club, was to be lodged the power of voting on everything 
except eligibility to membership, on which all members could vote. If a news- 
paper man went out of the business he ipso facto became, unless he were a charter 
member, an associate member. If an associate entered the business he became an 
active member. Dues and privileges were to be imiform. Active membership 
was unlimited by reason of the comparatively small number of newspaper men, but 
associate membership was limited to five hundred. 

Under this plan of operation the club's new domicile was opened at No. 320 
St. Charles street, a few months after its organization, under the new plan. It was 
conservatively estimated that 6,000 guests passed through its rooms, partook of its 
hospitality and heard some part of its programme. The opening programme, 
indeed, lasted for twenty-four consecutive hours, from 4 p. m. one afternoon to 



6i4 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

the same hour the next afternoon. It was opened by prayers and addresses by such 
conspicuous men as Dr. B. M. Palmer, I. L. Leucht, E. B. Kruttchsnitt, on behalf 
of the governor. Mayor Walter C. Flower, etc. Pages of the local press were 
devoted to the club's opening. It was one of the great events of the year in New 
Orleans. This was in the early part of 1898. 

Two causes led to the club's ultimate dowTifall — primarily, dissension among 
the newspaper men; a floating indebtedness too heavy for the plan and budget 
of the club. 

The first cause weakened its influence and checked its immense original mo- 
mentum. As a result, the club could never reach the high-water mark possibilities 
of its budget. It consequently went into liquidation in January of 1900. 

Its first president was Henry Eightor, who resigned and was succeeded by 
Mr. Armand Capdevielle, editor of the Xew Orleans Bee. Its next president was 
J. M. Levuque, at the time of the Times-Democrat. Norman Walker was the 
last president of the club, being elected August 17, 1899. 

Many famous men and women have been entertained, and have entertained, at 
the Press Club. Bryan, Ingersoll, great actors and actresses, musicians, singers, 
etc., etc. Its programmes have varied over a range extending from maccaroni 
dinners to evenings of original music. 

THE MILITARY CLUB. 

This organization was formed in 1895-6, as an offshoot of the Southern 
Athletic Club. Companies A and B of what is now known as the Fourth Battalion 
were members of the S. A. C, but decided to withdraw, and the result was the 
formation of a social and military club under the title of The Military Club. 
Quarters were established at Exchange alley and Canal street, and J. M. Baldwin 
was elected president. He was succeeded by J. M. Huger and after about two 
years of varied prosperity the organization disbanded. 

ERA CLUB. 

The Era Club, the membership of which is composed of leading women of New 
Orleans, was established in 189G as an offshoot of the Portia Club, which has since 
disbanded. It was founded by Mrs. Evelyn W. Ordway. one of the faculty of 
the Sophie Newcomb Female College, for tiie purpose of advancing woman's suf- 
frage, and since its organization has brought the question into some local promi- 
nence. It M-as through the efforts of the Eia Club that the Women's League for 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 615 

Sewerage and Drainage was formed, and the women taxpayers did much toward 
securing the improvements for the city. 

Mrs. Ordway is the president of the club. The first president elected after 
organization was Miss Bell Van Horn. 

LOUISIANA HISTORICAL SOCIETY. 

The Louisiana Historical Society, domiciled in New Orleans, has made many 
valuable compilations of historical data concerning the city of New Orleans and 
the State of Louisiana. The society was organized January 15, 1836, in Baton 
Eouge. At the meeting at which organization was effected. Judge Henry A Bullard 
was elected president, ana Mr. Harrison and Louis Janin, secretaries. The pros- 
perity of the new society was not of long duration and it was soon disbanded. 
However, several years later, several gentlemen who were members took an active 
interest in the work, reorganized the body and in 1846 elected the eminent jurist 
and historian, Francois Xavier Martin, president, with John Perkins, J. D. B. De- 
Bow, Edmund J. Forstall, Charales Gayarre, General Joseph Walker and Alfred 
Hennen, members. One year later the society was incorporated and Judge Bullard 
was re-elected president. Judge Martin having died in December after his election 
to the office. At this election John Perkins and J. D. B. DeBow were chosen 
secretaries. 

For the next half decade the society prospered and by an act of Legislature 
in January, 1860, it became a State institution, insomuch as it was decreed that 
"in the event of a dissolution of the Historical Society, all books, maps, records, 
manuscripts and collections shall revert to the State for the use of the State 
Library." 

At this time Charles Gayarre was elected president, but until 1877 there was 
little interest shown in the work and nothing of importance was done by the 
organization. In April of that year a new charter, was obtained from the Legis- 
lature and the domicile of the society was transferred from Baton Rouge to New 
Orleans. Then the work was revived. 

From the time of his election. President Gayarre held the office for 28 years, 
resigning in 1888. He was succeeded by Judge W. W. Howe, who served until 
February, 1894, when the present officers were elected. During this time interest 
in the work of the society was greatly revived and the members accomplished much 
good work in the way of collecting historical data. The membership increased and 
much outside interest was shown. 



6i6 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

The present officers of the Louisiana Historical Society are: Alcee Fortier, 
president; Gustave Devron, first vice-president; John E. Ficklen, second vice- 
president; J. W. Cruzat, treasurer; Grace King, secretary; and Charles G. Gill, as- 
sistant secretary. As there is no provision made by the State for the support of thu 
society, an annual sum of $3 has been decided iipon as dues, and these funds 
are used to preserve the historical collections of documents and relics of the early 
life and growth of the State. The society is in good financial condition and the 
work is being carried on with great enthusiasm. 

LA VAEIETE ASSOCIATION. 

La Variete Club, the real title of which is La Variete Association, is the 
owner of the Grand Opera House, and has its club rooms under the foyer and 
orchestra circle of that theater. The association was organized in the early part of 
1849, through the efforts of Thomas Placide, who proposed to a number of promi- 
nent men a plan for the erection of a new theater "for the purpose of producing 
burlesque, vaudeville and farce." Mr. Placide's idea was to form an association 
of thirty members in order to raise $15,000 for building purposes. This plan was 
carried out, but the stock was increased, forty-two subscribers having been secured. 
Mr. Placide agreed "to build a theater equal, if not superior, to any in this coun- 
try," and "to spare no exertion to produce the proposed entertainments with the 
best talent, costumes, scenery and appointments that could be procured." 

A stockholders' meeting was held May 29, 1849, and organization was effected 
with Peter Coner}-, Jr., president; C. W. Cammack, secretary, and iST. N. Wilkinson, 
treasurer. Mr. Placide was placed in charge under an agreement which provided 
that the stockholders should receive 8 per cent on their investment; the associa- 
tion was to receive half the profits at the end of the season; the members were to 
have two seats, with a retiring room for their exclusive use, and the theater should 
be known as Placide's Variete. The building was commenced in June, 1849, and 
the corner-stone was laid on the 9th of that month. The site was the corner of 
Gravier and the narrow passage-way in the rear of the Cotton Exchange, to which 
the name Varieties alley was given. 

The theater was opened December 7, 1849. The first season proved highly 
successful. The second season opened with J. H. Calder the lessee. The stock 
company then billed included among its members Fred N. Thayer, Ben DeBar and 
Mrs. Charlotte Howard. At that time French opera was being successfully pro- 
duced, as were also good plays at the old St. Charles theater. The Academy of 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 617 

Music had very little standing as a theater in those days. Fire destroyed the theater 
April 25, 1855, and when rebuilt was enlarged considerably. The name was changed 
to Crisp's Gaiety in 1856 and at the commencement of the Civil War the house 
was closed. It was reopened in 1863 and after one season Lawrence Barrett took 
charge. The house again burned December 1, 1870. 

The association then decided to rebuild on Canal street, and at a cost of $320,- 
000, erected the present structure, known as the Grand Opera House. The 
souvenirs kept in the club room are interesting, as, included among them, is probably 
one of the finest collections of photographs of theatrical celebrities in the country. 
An oil painting by Joseph Jefferson is also one of the treasures there displayed. 
The rules of the club provide that non-residents may be admitted to the privileges 
of the club rooms without membership privileges in the theater except when intro- 
duced to the stockholders' seats on extra stock shares. The stockholders are and 
have been leading men of New Orleans. 

I 

FRENCH OPEIiA CLCB. 

The French Opera Club is an organization of the stockholders of the French 
Opera, which was formed during the season of 1868-69. At the time of organiza- 
tion, Mr. Frellsen was elected president of the club and Louis Burthe, secretary. 
Since then there have been several gentlemen who have held the office of president, 
but Secretary Burthe has served in the capacity of his office since the day of his 
election. Judge G. H. Theard is now the president. The club has its rooms in the 
French Opera House, and during the performances the members are entitled to seats 
in the club box. The membership numbers about 120. 

lOUNG men's gymnastic CLUB. 

The Young Men's Gymnastic Club is the oldest organization of its kind in 
the South and to-day is one of the best equipped institutions in the country. The 
club was organized September 2, 1872, under the name of The Independent Gym- 
nastic Club, and had at the beginning a limited membership of 14, made up as 
follows : J. C. Aleix, A. Rehage, J. A. Rehage, C. G. Collins, F. J. Aleix, C. Wein- 
burger, J. Roca, F. Kunz, L. A. Nicaud, C. Burkhardt, J. Burkhardt, A. D. Hofeline, 
F. Claiborne and Wm. Frederichs. At the first meeting J. C. Aleix was elected presi- 
dent. Among the members who have since served in this capacity are Val. Merz, 
William Frederichs, James Flynn, Ed J. Guoringer, A. M. Delavallade, W. A. 
Briant, James J. McCann, George G. Bohne and James J. Woulfe. The name of 



6i8 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

the club was changed a short while after organization was effected and on Septem- 
ber 13, 1883, it was incorporated under its present title. In 1888 the organizatioa 
was reincorporated. 

From the beginning the object of the club has been to foster and promote work 
in the gymnasium. The quarters now occupied by the club are at No. 224 North 
Rampart street. The buildings and furnishings are in keeping with the prosperous 
condition of the institution. Besides the gymnastic department, which is the 
principal feature, there is every convenience of the modern social club — reading 
rooms, billiard and pool rooms, cafe and all accessories. In connection with the 
gymnasium is a salt-water bath, which is supplied from an artesian well sunk to a 
depth of 1,350 feet. The bath-rooms are equipped with every convenience and there 
is a large swimming pool, in which the water is kept at the proper temperature at 
all seasons. The club is incorporated as a stock company, and to become a mem- 
ber it is necessary to hold one share of stock. The present officers are : James J. 
Woulfe, President; Vic. LeBeau, Vice President; William H. Heyl, Secretary, and 
Hyp. Garrot, Treasurer. The affairs of the club are managed by a board of direc- 
tors, who have full control. 

SOUTHERN ATHLETIC CLUB. 

Almost since the day of its organization the Southern Athletic Club has 
been a leader among the organizations of its kind in the South and it has estab- 
lished records both on the field and in the arena which stand ahead of any similar 
club records south of Louisville. The S. A. C. was formed under the name of 
the Crescent City Athletic Association and incorporated June 19, 1888. The 
first President elected was S. P. Walmsley, with J. C. Campbell, Vice President; 
G. S. Smith, Treasurer; W. L. McGary, Financial Secretary; W. H. Churchill, 
Recording Secretary, and Joseph Sehlesinger, Corresponding Secretary. The 
founders and first members on the club rolls were : L. E. Bowman, 0. S. Smith, 
G. S. Smith, H. D. Higanbotham, P. S. Campbell, T. J. Kohl, Theo. Holland, 
C. Janin, W. H. Churchill, D. II. Hoffman, W. J. Henderson, John J. Thomas, 
C. B. Churchill, P. A. Cooney, P. J. Kennedy, B. Chew, L. T. Tarleton, M. S. 
Waterman, Maurice McGraw, J. B. Waterman, J. Sehlesinger, James C. Campbell, 
Abe Kottwitz and H. P. Smith. 

The formation of the club took place in what was then known as the "skating 
rink" on the corner of Prytania street and Washington avenue, but in December 
the building, which had been erected by the club across the street, was completed 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 619 

and taken possession of. It was at this time that the name of the organization 
was changed to the Southern Athletic Club. President Walmsley was elected to 
serve a second term in 1889, and was succeeded bj' W. S. Parkerson the next year. 

About this time the S. A. C. Battalion, which afterward became the Fourth 
Battalion, was formed. President Walmsley was elected Major of this branch 
of the organization. President Parkerson succeeded himself to the office at the 
next election, as did James C. Campbell, who was elected in 1892. During Presi- 
dent Parkerson's term of office, the club was reorganized into a stock company 
and about the same time the spring games, in which the S. A. C. has always dis- 
tinguished itself, were inaugurated. 

During the next two years^the club made many improvements and J. P. Bald- 
win and John Clegg served as presidents. In 1896 T. L. Bayne was elected and 
served two terms. In 1898 James C. Campbell was again elected, and 1899 John 
E. ConnifT, the present chief officer of the club, succeeded him. The other officers 
are: John F. Brent, Vice President; C. H. Charlton, Jr., Financial Secretary; 
Edward Eightor, Eecording Secretary; T. J. Council, Corresponding Secretary; 
Dr. J. Moore Soniat, Captain, and E. W. AUeyn, Lieutenant. These officers, to- 
gether with the following gentlemen, compose the Board of Directors: D. E. 
Buchannan, Chas. F. Stott, B. P. Sullivan, Geo. Fuchs, E. S. Lamphier, Pierre 
Crabites, H. C. McEnery and A. H. Dumas. 

The equipment of the S. A. C. quarters is second to none of its kind in the South, 
and the club is represented on every football, baseball or other sport field in which 
the other clubs of the Amateur Athletic Union appear, and has in nearly every 
meet retired as victors. 

AMERICAN ATHLETIC CLUB. 

The American Athletic Club, at one time the strongest organization of its 
kind in the South, was formed in the early spring of 1890 and flourished until 
1898, when it was disbanded. Among the organizers were: S. Odenheimer, E. 
H. Eosenfeldt, Charles F. Alba, Henry Zeller, J. U. Landry, Thos. L. Eoss and 
J. 0. Eeinecke. M. T. Elfert was the first president and served two terms. He 
was succeeded by Mr. S. Odenheimer, who served until the election of T. C. Loret, 
Sr. ; and it was during the latter's term of office that the organization disbanded. 
For several years after the club was organized it was in a very prosperous condi- 
tion and at one time had a membership of 1,300. Ground was purchased on the 
corner of Napoleon avenue and Constance street, and a club-house erected. The 



620 STAJSIDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

quarters were furnished completely for athletic and social purposes and were con- 
sidered equal to any in the South. During its life the American Athletic Club 
was a staunch member of the Southern Amateur Athletic Union. 

SOUTHERN YACHT CLUB. 

The Southern Yacht Club is the second oldest yachting organization of this 
country. It was formed by the members of what was known as the Stingaree 
Club, an exclusive social organization of New Orleans, in 1849. It was the custom 
of this club to take cruising trips along the southern coasts, and after one of these 
excursions along the coast of Mississippi it was decided to place the surplus money 
in the treasury in new boats, and the result was the organization of the Southern 
Yachting Club, July 21, 1849. The first commodore elected was Harry Rareshide. 
The annual yachting season opened in May, and until the Civil War great interest 
was taken in the events. During the war the club was practically disbanded, but 
afterward the sport was revived, and regattas have been held each season since. 
In 1878 the club-house on Lake Pontchartrain was erected and E. J. O'Brien, a 
wealthy cotton broker, was elected commodore of the club. He served until 1882, 
when Arthur Ambrose Maginnis succeeded him to the office. Mr. Maginnis served 
until 1884, when Commodore O'Brien was re-elected and held the office until the 
election of Commodore R. S. Day, who served from 1887 until 1891. During the 
next year the office was held by Commodore W. A. Gordon, and he was succeeded 
by Thomas Sully, who served as commodore until 1894. Commodore Lawrence 
O'Donnell was then elected and held the office until the spring of 1897, and Wal- 
ton Glenny was elected for the two succeeding terms. In 1899, the fiftieth anni- 
versary of the organization of the club. Commodore Albert Baldwin was elected. 
During this year it was decided to build a new club-house at West End, on Lake 
Pontchartrain, as a lasting memorial of the semi-centennial anniversary of the 
S. Y. C. The building is a model of modern club-house architecture, and was 
formally opened at the spring regatta in May, 1900. 

Among the prominent racing boats which have been associated with the 
Southern Yacht Club, have been Charles P. Richardson's 40-foot sloop "Nepenthe," 
which defeated the "Wasp" of the New York Yacht Club, in a 40-mile cruising race 
in New York harbor. Vice-Commodore Alex. Brewster's open 25-foot sloop 
"Mephisto" is another of the old boats which has established records. She has 
engaged in over thirty races and has each time been victorious. 

Of the new boats owned by members of the club, there are several very fine 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 621 

steam yachts. Among these are the "Semper Idem," owned by Commodore Bald- 
win and Ed. Schleider. She was designed and built here and her engines are of 
New Orleans manufacture. The "Semper Idem" is the largest boat of her kind 
ever built in the South. The steam yacht "Oneida," recently sold to the Mexican 
government, was formerly attached to the club's fleet. The sloop "Florence," now 
in commission in these waters, was designed by Commodore O'Donnell, after 
HereschofE's creation, the "Gloriana," but was afterwards remodeled with spoon 
bow and modern stern after the style of the cup-racer "Defender." 

There have been many interesting races given under the auspices of the S. 
Y. C. in past seasons. In 1888 the "Silence," afterward known as the "Brown," 
came from the New York waters to sail against the "Lady Emma," and was 
defeated by the latter. The race was a match for $3,500 a side. 

Commodore O'Brien's flag-ship, the "Zoe," was one of the best sloops of her 
day. She is a 25-foot boat with cabin and is still in commission, and has been 
every season for the past twenty-five years. 

The Southern Yacht Club rules are accepted as authority in all regattas in 
Eastern Gulf waters. The club has a membership of 500 and there are 75 boats 
of all descriptions in the fleet — steam yachts, motor launches and sailing boats. 

During the summer months regattas are in progress on the Southern circuit, 
under the auspices and rules of the S. Y. C. The clubs which take part are the 
Mandeville Club, Mandeville, La. ; the Pass Christian Club, of Pass Christian, Miss. ; 
the Biloxi Eegatta Association, Biloxi, Miss. ; the Pascagoula Yacht Club, of 
Scranton, Miss. ; the Bay-Waveland Yacht Club, of Bay St. Louis, Miss. ; and the 
Point Clear Yacht Club. 

SOUTHERN AMATEUR ROWING ASSOCIATION. 

Prior to 1893, the amateur rowing clubs of New Orleans and vicinity were 
banded together and known as the Pontchartrain Eowing Association, but in the 
spring of that year the association was disbanded. Two of the clubs which had 
been members of the association — the St. John Eowing Club and the Louisiana 
Boat Club — founded what is to-day known as The Southern Amateur Eowing 
Association, and all of the local clubs which were formerly members of the Pontchar- 
train Association have, at different times since, applied for membership and have 
been admitted into the new organization. The association now includes the St. 
John Eowing Club, the Louisiana Boat Club, the West End Eowing Club, the 
Tulane Eowing Club, and the Young Men's Gymnastic Eowing Club, all of New 
Orleans; and the Southern Eacing Club, of Pensacola, Florida. 



622 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

After the reorganization in 1893, the first officers elected were: Commodore, 
George Maspero, of the Louisiana Boat Club ; Vice Commodore, T. E. Richardson, 
of the St. John's Eowing Club; Secretary, A. C. Norcross, of the same club; and 
Treasurer, Jules M. Wogan, of the Louisiana Club. 

Afterwards Gus Eitzen, of the Pensacola Club, was elected Commodore; J. 
J. Woulfe, of the Y. M. G. C, First Vice Commodore; W. B. Vail, of the West 
End Eowing Club, Second Vice Commodore; 0. Lagman, of the Tulane Eowing 
Club, Treasurer ; and Ed Eodd, of the St. John's Club, Secretary. A constitution 
was drawn up and adopted and every season regattas are held under the auspices 
of the association. Since the reorganization of the amateur oarsmen in New 
Orleans, the races have been held on Lake Pontchartrain, with the exception of 
those of 1898, which were rowed at Pensacola, Fla. The races have attracted 
much attention and the prizes have been sufficient to cause sharp competition among 
the local oarsmen and some records have been established. 

The rules of the association governing the races are very explicit and are 
accepted by the oarsmen of this part of the country. It is a distinctly amateur 
association, an amateur oarsman being defined as follows, and no person who does 
not come under these requirements is allowed to compete in any of the events : 

"We define an amateur oarsman to be one who does not enter in an open 
competition; or for either a stake, admission money or entrance fee; or compete 
with or against a professional for any prize; who has never taught, pursued, or 
assisted in the pursuit of athletic exercise as a means of livelihood; whose mem- 
bership of any rowing or other athletic club was not brought about, or does not 
continue, because of any mutual agreement or understanding, expressed or implied, 
whereby his becoming or continuing a member of such club would be of any 
pecuniary benefit to him whatever, direct or indirect, and who has never been em- 
ployed in any occupation involving the use of oar or paddle ; and who shall other- 
wise conform to the rules and regulations of this association." 

LOUISIANA BOAT CLUB. 

The Louisiana Boat Club was organized August 39, 1879, and is one of the 
oldest corporations of its kind in the city. The first officers elected after organiza- 
tion were: E. B. Musgrove, President; J. H. Lafaye, Vice President; George Mas- 
pero, Secretary; J. A. Boze, Treasurer; E. J. Soniat, Captain; F. M. Boze, First 
Trustee; S. F. Lewis, Second Trustee; E. Coutourie, Third Trustee. The club 
had an active membership of 67 at this time, with two honorary members on the 
rolls. 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 623 

On May 11, 1883, the organization was incorporated under a charter for 
twenty-five years, and since that time has figured prominently in all the regattas 
of the Southern Amateur Rowing Association. In 1894, the season following the 
organization of the association of amateur oarsmen, the members of the Louisiana 
Boat Club won thirteen of the sixteen medals offered. At this regatta the cham- 
pion four were W. G. Ellis, George Maspero, C. M. Wogan and Alfred Archinard. 
James C. Harris, of this club, won the medals for both the junior and senior single 
sculls in the regatta of '95. 

The officers last elected were: J. A. Boze, President; H. J. Lafaye, Vice 
President; H. Tremoulet, Treasurer; M. C. Monroe, Secretary; H. B. Daborel, 
Captain; and Hugo Fernandez, Lieutenant. The club has grown in membership, 
and, while not the oldest, is one of the strongest amateur rowing clubs in the city. 

WEST END ROWING CLUB. 

The West End Rowing Club was formed after the old organization known 
as the Orleans Rowing Club had disbanded in 1880, and the membership at the 
start comprised many of those who had belonged to the old club. The new organiza- 
tion was incorporated May 9, 1890, and has among its members amateur oarsmen 
who are among the more prominent contestants at the annual regattas of the South- 
ern Amateur Rowing Association. This club won the pennants for 1896, '97 and '98. 
The officers are Thad. G. Stehle, President; Dan Edwards, Vice President; D. J. 
Manson, Treasurer; John Bigler, Jr., Financial Secretary; John C. Weber, Record- 
ing Secretary; and A. J. Hamilton, R. L. McCormack and Albert Ducombs, 
Trustees. 

YOUNG men's gymnastic CLUB's ROWING CLUB. 

This organization was known as the Crescent Rowing Club prior to the re- 
gatta of 1898, which was held at Pensacola, Fla. Several months before this 
event it was decided to organize a new club known as the Young Men's Gymnastic 
Club's Rowing Club, being a branch of the Y. M. G. C. of New Orleans. The 
club-house is on Bayou St. John, where many of the local rowing clubs have been 
formed. Members of this club have made good records at the annual meetings 
and won the pennant for 1899. The officers of the club, who were elected when it 
was organized and have served since, are : John B. Cefalu, President ; F. 0. 
Reinecke, Vice President; E. J. Reiss, Treasurer; Paul Landry, Financial Secre- 
tary ; Nat. Dreyfus, Recording Secretary ; John Wells, Captain ; and W. Demoruelle, 
Lieutenant. 



624' STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

WASHINGTON ARTILLERY. 

The Washington Artillery was organized in 1839, through the influence of 
General Persifer F. Smith, as a battalion under the command of C. F. Hoxey, 
with J. B. Walton as adjutant. February 22, 1840, it was reorganized as the right- 
flank company of the Washington regiment, Colonel Persifer F. Smith, this regi- 
ment being the only military organization in the American quarter of the city. In 
1844 J. B. Walton was Lieutenant Colonel of this reigment, and in 1846, when it 
entered the service of the United States, Lieutenant Colonel Walton was in com- 
mand of the regiment. After serving under General Taylor on the Kio Grande 
and returning to New Orleans, Colonel Walton was elected Captain of the artillery 
battalion, so remaining until 1861, at which time the command was increased to 
four companies or batteries, and moved immediately to the seat of war in Virginia. 
However, a reserve force of twenty men in charge of Lieutenant W. I. Hodgson, of 
the fourth company, was left at home to recruit a fifth company, which company 
was mustered into the service of the Confederate States, March 6, 1863, and on 
the 8th of the same month left for the seat of war. Having served through the 
war the organization returned to New Orleans, leaving 139 of its members on the 
various battle-fields, who had been killed or who had died in the service, and here 
it was practically disbanded. In 1875 it was reorganized, with Colonel Walton in 
command, he serving until 1877. The full list of the colonels in command of this 
military organization is as follows: J. B. Walton, May 26, 1861, to July 8, 1864 j 
B. F. Eshleman, July 8, 1864, to April 9, 1865; J. B. Walton, July 22, 1875, to May 
17, 1877; W. M. Owen, May 17, 1877, to February 22, 1880; and John B. Eich- 
ardson, from that date to the present time. 

The battalion has erected in Metairie cemetery a large and handsome tomb 
and monument, above which stands at ease a Confederate artilleryman in uniform, 
and upon the four sides of which is a roll of the dead of its members. The arsenal 
originally owned by the command, located on Girod street, was confiscated and sold 
during the war, and in 1880 Colonel Richardson purchased its present large and 
commodious three-story brick building on St. Charles street, between Girod and 
Julia streets, and extending through to Carondelet. The command has its own 
cannon, rifles, sabers, equipment, uniform and ammunition, and also a shooting 
range in the building. The walls of the building are ornamented with a fine 
painting by Julio, "The Last Meeting of Generals Lee and Jackson," at Chancel- 
lorsville, and a large number of other pictures and relics of the Civil War. 

The command was incorporated under the laws of the State March 15, 1878, 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 625 

and on Jime 26 following decided to enter the Louisiana State National Guard. 
The battalion is composed of some of the best known men of the city, is open- 
hearted and open-handed to all old soldiers of the Civil War, whether of the Con- 
federate or Federal side, and has extended courtesies to numerous military organ- 
izations from all parts of the United States. 

UNITED CONFEDERATE VETERANS' ASSOCIATION. 

The United Confederate Veterans' Association of Louisiana is composed of 
sixty camps, located in various sections of the State, five of the principal camps 
being in New Orleans. These five are the Benevolent Association of the Army of 
Northern Virginia, Camp No. 1; the Association of the Army of Tennessee, 
Camp No. 2 ; the Confederate States Cavalry Association, Camp No. 9 ; the Wash- 
ington Artillery Veterans' Association, Camp No. 15; and the Henry St. Paul 
Battalion, Camp No. 16. 

These camps were organized soon after the close of the war, as benevolent 
associations, for the purpose of caring for unfortunate comrades, who were sick, 
wounded or destitute and burdened with debt. Several of them have built tasteful 
tombs in the new Metairie cemetery for the interment of their deceased members, 
among which are the beautiful vault of the Army of Northern Virginia at the 
lower end of the cemetery, surmounted by a tall granite shaft, upon whose summit 
stands a statue of General Stonewall Jackson ; and an attractive tomb of the Army 
of Tennessee, located at the right side of the entrance to the cemetery, surmounted 
by a magnificent equestrian statue of General A. S. Johnston, and the tomb of 
the Washington artillery, which presents an imposing appearance in the center 
of the grounds. 

Through the instrumentality of these city camps a soldiers' home was estab- 
lished in the year 1882, and is located on the banks of the historic Bayou St. John, 
known as Camp Nicholls, in honor of the warrior statesman, governor, now supreme 
judge, Francis T. Nicholls. This home has been a grand boon to the crippled 
and otherwise unfortunate among the Confederate veterans, as it has comfortably 
housed and fed thousands since its establishment. Until 1899 it was managed 
by officers of the Army of Northern Virginia and the Army of Tennessee; but 
inasmuch as the State of Louisiana has regularly made appropriations to sustain 
the institution it is now managed conjointly by the officers of the camps of 
veterans in New Orleans and a number of appointees by the governor of the 
State. The building has a capacity for 150 inmates, and the board of directors,' 



626 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

in addition to improving the grounds, have built in one of the cemeteries a substan- 
tial stone tomb for the interment of tlie dead. On the 6th of April each year, when 
memorial exercises are held at the Confederate monument, the veterans' associa- 
tions form a line and visit each of the tombs named above, fire a military salute and 
listen to addresses appropriate to the occasion. 

The Ladies' Confederate Memorial Association, the oldest association of 
the kind in the South, was organized immediately after the war for the purpose of 
collecting the remains of the fallen heroes of the Southern cause and securing 
their interment in a spot over which now stands the first Confederate monument 
ever built, and known as the Confederate monument, in Metairie cemetery. It 
is of marble and supports a tall shaft upon the top of which stands a private soldier 
at parade rest. On four sides of its base are likenesses of four of the principal 
leaders of the Southern armies, viz. : General Eobert E. Lee, General Stonewall 
Jackson, General Albert Sidney Johnston and General Leonidas Polk. Mrs. Sarah 
Polk Blake, daiighter of General Polk, has for many years been the President of 
the association, Mrs. J. Y. Gilmore being the Recording Secretary arid Miss Daisy 
Hodgson the Corresponding Secretary. 

The Daughters of the Confederacy have within the last two years effected 
an organization in Louisiana with Mrs. J. Pinckney Smith, President of the 
Louisiana Division, U. D. C, and Miss Cora Richardson, Secretary. The New 
Orleans Chapter is presided over by Mrs. W. H. Hickson. 

The United Sons of Confederate Veterans have also effected an organization 
throughout the State, this taking place during the year 1899, with W. H. McClel- 
land commander of the Louisiana Division, the camp in New Orleans being 
named Beauregard. 

These several organizations co-operate with the Louisiana Division of the United 
Confederate Veterans, wliich division at its last convention, held at Baton Rouge, 
July 3 and 4, 1899, elected J. Y. Gilmore, Major-General, for the ensuing j'ear, and 
he appointed Colonel Lewis Guion Adjutant-General and chief of staff:. This 
division is in the department of the Army of the Tennessee, of which General 
Stephen D. Lee is the Commander, and is under General John B. Gordon as 
Grand Commander, who has been at the head of the organization since the forma- 
tion of the Confederate camps of the South into one grand association at a con- 
vention of such bodies of organized Confederate veterans, held at New Orleans in 
1889. Commanders of the Louisiana Division, beginning with 1892, of the United 
•Confederate Veterans have been as follows: W. J. Behan, 1892; John Glyn, Jr., 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 627 

1893; J. 0. Watts, 189-t; B. F. Eshleman, 1895; W. G. Vincent, 1896; John 
McGrath, 1897; C. H. Lombard, 1898; W. H. Timnard, 1899; and J. Y. Gilmore, 
1900. 

For more than twenty years, in the exercises of the Confederate Veterans, the 
organizations of Federal Veterans in New Orleans have participated, reciprocating a 
similar courtesy shown them on their Decoration day by the Confederate Veterans, 
thus doing on both sides what they can to assuage the once bitter feeling of the 
war. 

GRAND ARMY OF THE REPUBLIC. 

The Grand Army of the Eepublic was first organized in Louisiana in 1867, 
with H. C. Warmoth, department commander; but as little attention was given to' 
reports at that period the records furnish but meager information as to the number 
and strength of posts. Then, too, the unsettled condition of affairs in the State 
hastened a general breaking up of the organization. 

A reorganization of the Grand Army was effected in the State in 1873, Joseph 
A. Mower Post, No. 1, being chartered April 10, that year. As this was the only 
organized post in the State for a number of years it performed a good deal of 
work among the Federal soldiers who had settled in Louisiana and adjoining States, 
and the friendly association of its members with similar organizations among 
the Confederate soldiers aided largely in allaying the bitter feelings that had been 
engendered by the war. 

The first encampment of the Gulf was held in New Orleans, May 15, 1884, with 
William Eoy commander. By general orders dated June 13, 1884, the title was 
changed to the Department of Louisiana and Mississippi. Early in 1890 nine 
posts were chartered by Commander Gray, whose motives in thus suddenly 
bringing into existence these new posts, composed, as they were, largely of colored 
members, were seriously questioned, and in the department encampments of 1890 
and 1892 these newly created posts were allowed no representation. The case 
being brought on appeal before the national encampment, the principle was clearly 
enunciated, by two national encampments, that the colored ex-soldier was entitled 
to all the privileges and benefits enjoyed by the white ex-soldiers, in the Grand 
Army of the Eepublic. Orders having been issued by Commander-in-Chief Palmer 
for the recognition of these new posts by the department, a special department en- 
campment was convened in March, 1893, and the department organization was 
dissolved and the charter forwarded to national headquarters, while five of the eight 
white posts also surrendered their charters. Past Department Commander A, S. 



628 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

Badger was appointed commander, and the charter returned to him, with instruc- 
tions to reorganize the department. A temporary organization was effected and 
a department encampment held in August, 1892, at which encampment the depart- 
ment was again regular]}' organized with twelve posts and a full complement of 
officers. Charles W. Keeting was elected department commander at the annual 
encampment held in March, 1894, and has been annually re-elected to the same 
office ever since. The department now has forty-nine posts, with an aggregate 
of 1,000 members. 

Following are the names of the posts located in New Orleans: Joseph A. 
Mower Post, No. 1 ; Andre Cailloux Post, No. 9 ; C. J. Barnett, No. 10 ; U. S. Grant, 
•No. 11; John H. Crowder, No. 12; Oscar Orillion, No. 14; Ellsworth, No. 15; R. G. 
Shaw, No. 18; Farragut, No. 21, — the average membership being somewhat more 
than thirty. 

MISCELLANEOUS. 

L'Athenee Louisianais was incorporated January 12, 1876, at which time a 
constitution was adopted and officers elected. The founders of this society were: 
Dr. Labin Martin, General G. T. Beauregard, Dr. Armand Mercier, Dr. Just 
Tonatre, Dr. Alfred Mercier, Colonel Leon Queyrouze, Dr. Charles Turpin, James 
Auguste, Oliver Carriere, Paul Fourchy, Dr. Jean G. Hava and Judge Arthur Sau- 
cier. The objects of this society were to cultivate the study of the French language, 
to disseminate the results of literary research and to encourage local talent. The 
latter two objects were accomplished by the establishment and publication of a 
periodical called the Comptes Rendus de I'Athenee Louisianais. As the members 
of this society were and are men of education and ripe scholarship, they have, 
for the years during which the society has been in existence, prepared and published 
many papers on a great variety of subjects, valuable in a local and general way, 
but too numerous to present even a list of them in this work. 

L'Union Francaise, or the French Union, was organized in 1872, and incor- 
porated October 5, of that year. Its object was to aid such natives of Alsace and 
Lorraine as might desire to leave their native land rather than live under the 
German government, those two provinces having been taken from France by Ger- 
many after the war of 1870-71. However, it resulted that there were fewer of 
such people seeking Louisiana as a home than had been expected, and the Union 
turned its attention to the succoring of those needing aid because of the yellow 
fever epidemic of 1878, the society caring for 845 persons, of whom only 58 died, 
and spending in its benevolent work $16,807.65. 



CHAPTER XXV. 



THE CARNIVAL OF NEW ORLEANS. 
By Henry Rightor. 

THE Carnival of New Orleans is holiday in spirit and practical in fact; and 
right here is the charm and the strangeness of the thing. It is a heritage from 

the Latin Old World to its most faithful children of the New World. It can not 
be imitated nor reproduced elsewhere, nor can the blue skies which swing above 
the glare and brass of its masks and revels. The inspiration lies deep in the 
genius of the people. Life is held sweet in New Orleans. Money is for life, not life 
for money. The Carnival is not a commeicial expedient. If it were, it would not 
escape the fate that befalls whatever is insincere. It is the expression of a genuine 
emotion. It is the embodiment of care thrown to the winds. It is no more a 
hypocrisy than the glance of a maiden's brown eye or the blush which mantles 
her cheek. Yet it sets in motion powerful commercial activities. If it did harm it 
might not endure. It not only does no harm, but on the contrary is productive of 
much good; so it is supported heartily, not only by those who are impelled by 
the carnival spirit, but as well by those who, from motives of philanthropy or 
public spirit, perceive in its perpetuation a benefit to the city and its people. 

There is no measure of the advantages of the Carnival to be found in the im- 
mediate results to tavern-keepers, street cars and tradesmen. The effects are 
cumulative — establishment of new conditions, new wants created, opportunities dis- 
cerned, mistakes rectified. It is a crucible from which emanate strange crystals. 
That is a narrow view which insists upon putting the fiuger upon results. The 
Carnival to be good must be genuine, and lo be genuine it must be taken with 
the simple faith of those worthy roysterers who started it here in their joyous way 
this century ago. There are enemies of this Carnival; not those chill-hearted, 
shrivel-skins who frown it down as a device of the devil; not the clergy, nor any 
overt opposition. It is the innovators who are to be feared, they who do not under- 
stand the carnival spirit, and seek to have it new. This striving to have the people 
point and cheer will some time kill the Carnival. Once let it get into the hands 



630 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

of the Philistines and it is gone. It is a Latin institution. The genius of the Car- 
nival is a madcap whose face is smeared with the lees of wine. It is gay and 
mad and rollicking, and over it all broods the ghost of the grotesque. It wots 
nothing of the prim and formal. It is not beautiful. Its elements are contrast, not 
harmony. It is laughter and youth and forgetfulness and humanity. It is, in fine, 
the Carnival, and as such should escape the clumsy, dispiriting, despoiling, profaning 
hands of vandals and innovators. 

In its earlier days the New Orleans Carnival was formless and inchoate. 
It represented merely the hey-dey spirit of the time, a gorging for the fast. 
The streets were filled with a pleasing tumult and the imaginations of the people 
ran riot in the search for grotesque and unusual disguises. While there has never 
been in New Orleans entirely the license which characterized the primitive revelries 
of the Greeks and Eomans, nor even as great a degree of abandonment to pleasure 
as prevailed in the Italian Carnival before the Church laid its refining and com- 
promising finger upon the ceremonies, the people have ever, even to this day, thrown 
themselves into the pleasures and immunities of the time with an enthusiasm and 
genuineness, impossible to any save those of Latin blood. The evolution of the 
Carnival has been natural and normal. Its continuance has accentuated and re- 
fined the qualities of mind and temperament which gave it birth. The ardent and 
uncultivated imagination which, at the dawn of the century, manifested itself in 
the creation of a mere motley of color and diversity of form, has developed, by grad- 
ual stages, into an aestheticism which, consulting the lore of all the ages and 
exploring the treasures of every art, spreads before the wondering gaze of the 
multitude, a series of gorgeous and s}Tnmetrical spectacles, inspired by imagination, 
directed by art, and embodying within themselves fidelity to history, mythology 
and all the harmonies. Where before was the flash of color, the hoot, the shout 
and the cheer of the undiscerning rabble, to-day is found the well-considered pageant 
passing in orderly review before observant and informed cosmopolitan audiences, 
quick and critical as the auditors in a theatre. And all this peopling of the streets 
with good and evil genii, with tales of enchantment and figures stalking out of 
the silent and mysterious solitudes of the past, has exerted upon the already nimble 
and expansive imaginations of the peojile, an influence rendering them sprightly, 
charming and different from any other people of the continent, while at the 
same time preparing them for the production of works of art and literature which 
shall some day come to surprise the world with their fertility of fancy and si ngular 
originality. 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 631 

It is not to be understood tliat the old mad spirit of the Carnival has 
entirely passed away. It has been refined, etherealized and more or less system- 
atized as to the masses ; yet lurking in odd corners and among quaint peoples, the old 
Carnival is still to be found. And, oddly enough, it is the negroes who preserve in 
its truest essence the primitive spirit of the Carnival. In the vicinities of the St. 
Bernard and Treme markets, in Frenchman street and elsewhere in the densely 
]ioj)u]ated neighborhoods of the Old Quarteer, the Carnival runs as mad and rollick- 
ing in the season as it did when the old Orleans Theatre was the focus and 
culmination of its revelries a half century ago. The favorite disguise with the 
negroes is that of the Indian warrior, doubtless from the facility vnth which it 
lends itself to a complete transformation of the personality without the use of 
the encumbering and embarrassing mask ; and in war paint and feathers, bearing the 
tomahawk and bow, they may be seen oji Mardi Gras running along the streets in 
bands of from six to twenty and upwards, whooping, leaping, brandishing their 
weapons, and, anon, stopping in the middle of a street to go through the move- 
ments of a mimic war-dance, chanting the while in rhythmic cadence an outlandish 
jargon of no sensible import to any save themselves. With undiminished spirit 
and energy, and with the utmost good humor, these negro maskers continue their 
pranks and capers till night falls, when they repair to the hall they have selected 
for their ball, where they are joined by their women, and new accessions of 
maskers and dance away the hours till the Carnival spirit has died within them from 
sheer fatigue. 

At such a ball the hall is usually decorated with garlands and festoons of 
colored tissue paper, which contribute a very animated appearance to the scene. 
Near the entrance is to be found a kind of bar, at which are dispensed liquid 
refreshments of various kinds — lemonade, beer and more ardent liquors. At the 
rear or on the floor below is located a primitive kind of cafe communicating with a 
little kitchen, in which enormous cauldrons of gumbo are boiling, platters of which 
with a liberal allowance of boiled rice, are served to the bucks and their wenches for 
a small sum. 

On Mardi Gras night, fatigue, leagued with a proper regard for the Church's 
decree that Lent begins at midnight, usually brings these negro balls to a close 
in respect of the majority of the attendants, before the first hour of the morning 
of Ash Wednesday. But the negro mask balls usually begin at least a week before 
the day of Mardi Gras proper. The Saturday preceding Mardi Gras will find a 
dozen of them in progress at such halls as Hope Hall, on Treme and Dumaine, and 



632 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

Economy Hall, on Usurlines, near Vileere. At these pre-Mardi Gras balls, 
the dancers being subject only to the casual fatigues of the work-a-day world, 
it is not uncommon to find them breaking up well into the glare of day. 

There is another feature of the season, typical enough in its way, which may be 
considered representative of the more vicious tendencies of the Carnival. This 
consists in the balls given by the class corresponding to that of the gladiators and 
hetarae of antiquity. These balls, usually two in number, one given on the Sat- 
urday night preceding Mardi Gras, the other on the night of Mardi Gras proper, 
have been celebrated for many years at the Odd Fellows' Hall, in Camp street. Here 
resort the courtesans of the town, as well as those whom opportunities for diversion 
and excitement attract to the city from distant places during this period of lavish 
expenditure and abandonment to pleasure. The women who attend these balls are 
most commonly masked, though some of the more brazen, garbed in silks and jewels 
which might well put to blush the handsomest toilettes seen at the balls of virtue 
and fashion, make the occasion one for the exhibition and advertisement of their 
charms. The balls are essentially democratic in respect of the personalities of those 
who attend, the test being only Caucasion blood and a reasonable degree of decorum ; 
and, being under the eye of the police, they are characterized by far less ribaldry 
than is commonly supposed. It is a common thing for the jeunesse doree, who have 
spent the earlier hours of the night, in conformity with the proprieties, at some of 
the exclusive balls of the patrician class, to wind up the night at these easier affairs 
of the demi monde. It is considered a license of the period for bachelors to attend 
these balls and strangers of the sterner sex who do not at best get a glimpse of 
the floor consider that they have missed one of the sights of the Carnival. 
The men do not, as a rule, mask, although there are many exceptions who prowl 
round the room mysteriously garbed in black from head to heels, like hangmen. 
There were several striking figures upon the floor at one of these balls given 
during the Carnival of 1900. One of the most conspicuous was a very tall and 
shapely woman whose identity baffled all surmises. She represented Mephistopheles, 
and was garbed in flame-colored fleshings with a hideous mask and horns. Two little 
women, disguised as clowns, advertised a brand of champagne, and cut ridiculous 
capers. Another woman represented a toreador, while a tall man strutted round in 
the costume of a matador. There were also a Marguerite and a Faust, both women, 
an empress, a dozen flower girls, a Red Eiding Hood, a Dolly Varden, a Pocahontas 
and innumerable princesses. The price of admission to these balls is usually sev- 
eral dollars, and wine, as well as other refreshments, are sold at extravagant 
figures. The balls usually endure until dawn. 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 633 

To the great mass of the people, tlie Carnival means the street pageantries, and 
chiefly those of Eexand his satellites. All the other events of the Carnival are more or 
less class affairs, but these street processions are the common property of the well-to-do 
and the proletariat, and all the year round the children and working folk look for- 
ward to them as beautiful dreams that come once a year. 

The evolution of the New Orleans Carnival has not yet reached a stage where 
definite limitations to the season have been fixed. Under one construction it is 
possible to assume the Carnival season beginning as early as the night of January 
the 6th, when the ball of the Twelfth Night Revelers is celebrated. This is upwards 
of a month earlier than Mardi Gras ever occurs, yet it is a carnival ball in this, that 
it is a masked ball, with all the customs prevailing which characterize the balls 
of the acknowledged Carnival season. On the other hand, the Carnival is a matter 
concerning the people in the widest and most democratic sense, and the ball of the 
Twelfth Night Revelers is essentially a class and patrician affair. It would therefore 
seem a distortion of the true meaning of the word, to have it that the Carnival 
begins at Twelfth Night, or that it begins, indeed, at any time anterior to the cele- 
bration of the first street parade. And as these street parades are not constant in 
their appearances year by year, with th3 exception of Rex, Comus and Proteus, 
no prescribed beginning of the Carnival has yet been fixed, nor is susceptible of 
being fixed, until a definite date, so many days before Mardi Gras, be set for the first 
pageant. In the year 1900 the Carnival season began with the electric street 
pageant of Nereus, which took place on the night of Wednesday, February 21st, six 
days before Mardi Gras. The balls of the Twelfth Night Revelers, Atlanteans, Cen- 
sus and the Elves of Oberon had already been given, during the course of the pre- 
vious fortnight, but these were exclusive affairs not open to strangers and the 
general public, excepting upon the warranty of personal cards of invitation, and were, 
therefore, not essential factors in the great popular celebration. 

We are told that the Carnival in Louisiana harks back to a psriod as remote 
as Bienville's ascent of the Mississippi, and are given a picturesquely circumstantial 
account of those hardy discoverers mooring their boats to the reedy banks of the river 
and celebrating the Carnival with great spirit and abandon upon the virgin soil. 
But I take it that this is at best apocryphal and intended to accentuate the roman- 
ticism of our history and cast a certain glamour over the genesis of the Carnival. 
Records of the origin of the Carnival in New Orleans are meager, but the com- 
munity having been from its inception Latin and Catholic, it is highly probable that 
desultory masking on feast days was not unusual so early as the time of the 
first influx of colonists or refugees from the Spanish possessions. 



634 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

In the time of Louis Philippe, all Paris went mad with the Carnival. Il 
was the height of the city's gayety and splendor. Louisiana at that time was pros- 
perous and the sons of wealthy planters and merchants were sent to 'Paris to 
complete the educations begun in the parochial schools at home. In Paris these 
young men imbibed the spirit of the Carnival. The tang of the mad time was sweet 
to their Latin blood, and they brought the custom home. jVVe have accurate 
information that in 1827 a number of these young Creole gentlemen, fresh from 
their Parisian experiences, effected something like an organization of the wandering 
and nondescript maskers who peopled the balconies and sidewalks, and paraded — - 
in vei'y bad order and with worse discipline — the principal streets of the city. There 
appears to have been no further organization of maskers until 1837, when there 
were even more maskers in line than before. , 

The Bee of Mardi Gras, 1839 (Feb. 13), published a call requesting all those 
who were to take part in the masquerade, to assemble at the Theatre d'Orleans (on 
Orleans street, between Royal and Bourbon) not later than half past three o'clock 
of the afternoon. The order of march of this parade was as follows : From the 
Theatre d'Orleans, Royal street, St. Charles, Julia, Camp, Chartres, Conde, Espla- 
nade, Royal. The parade was of the most indiscriminate and democratic nature, 
wagons crowded with merry negroes following in the wake of coaches and fiacres 
in which sat slim, silk-garbed patricians, while hundreds of maskers, in the most 
diverse and grotesque make-ups, ran along on foot, shouting, cheering, imitating 
animals and throwing kisses and confetti at the sidewalks and galleries, or perhaps 
belaboring some unlucky onlooker who had pressed too near the ranks, with the re- 
sounding, but harmless, inflated goat-bladder. Having marched its appointed route, 
the parade broke up towards nightfall, and later such of the maskers as had 
subscribed to the affair, repaired to the fancy dress and masquerade ball given at the 
old Orleans Theatre. Another ball of the same character was given on the same 
night in the ballroom of the old St. Louis Hotel (now the Hotel Royal) . 

From 1840 to 1845 a number of parades similar to that described above were 
given year by year ; then a period of comparative inactivity in respect of the celebra- 
tion of the Carnival in the form of parades appears to have intervened and continued 
until 1852, when, as Norman Walker tells us, "A number of New Orleans' first young 
men determined to get up a procession that would equal in numbers, in order, variety, 
elegance and piquancy of costumes, any that the chronicles of Mardi Gras in this 
country could record. The announcement of this intention, through the press, 
excited universal curiosity, and when the memorable day came New Orleans boasted 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 635 

of an accession to her population, in the sl.ape of visitors from the Xorth, West and 
South, that has not been surpassed since. The procession traversed the leading 
streets of the city, which were positively jammed with admiring throngs, and at 
night the old Orleans Theatre was the center of attraction for all that the Crescent 
City held of beauty and fashion. The maskers of the day there received their 
friends ; and that bewildering ball was long remembered as the gem of many such 
jewels clustering in the diadem of the Queen of the South." 

A custom which prevailed in the earlier days of the Carnival, but whicli 
police discretion has since seen fit to abolish, was that of the masker carrying, 
swung to his side, a bag of flour, handfuls of which it was considered right and 
entertaining to throw in the faces of luckless pedestrians whom the maskers might 
encounter as they went sweeping up the street. The abolition of this prank of flour- 
throwing was hastened by the fact that, whether through malignity or inability to 
get flour, some of the maskers were prompted to fill their bags with quick-lime, 
which naturally produced most disastrous results when thrown into the faces of 
citizens. By starts and spurts the Italian habit of throwing about the streets bits 
of paper or plaster, simulating sweetmeats {confetti) has prevailed in New Orleans, 
but the maskers have, as a rule, been more genuine in their favors, and whenever 
they saw fit to throw anything into the crowds, have used real candies. In the year 
1900 a Westerner imported from Italy a number of barrels of confetti in the 
shape of little disks of various colored paper the diameter of a lead pencil. These 
were distributed among peddlers, who hawked them about the streets with such 
good eiTect that presently the air was all red and blue with the fluttering bits. The 
police at first put a stop to the sale and throwing of these confetti, but after an 
indignant article from the Times-Democrat newspaper, the Mayor removed the 
restriction. 

The earliest formal Carnival organization of any consequence in the South 
belongs not to New Orleans, but to the neighboring city of Mobile. This was th-; 
Cowbellions, which originated the idea of presenting tableaux on vehicles moving 
through the streets. The Cowbellions gave its first parade in Mobile, New Year's 
Eve of the year 1831. The originator of Carnival pageantries in New Orleans was 
the Mistick Krewe of Comus, which first appeared upon the streets at 9 o'clock 
of the night of February 24, 1857. The subject of representation was Milton's 
Paradise Lost, and a newspaper of the day described the procession and ensuing ball 
in the following words : 

"This Krewe, concerning whose identity and purposes there had been such 



636 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

tortures of curiosity and speculation, made their debut before the public in a very 
unique and attractive manner. They went through the streets at 9 o'clock, with torch- 
lights, in a guise as much resembling a deputation from the lower regions as thij 
mind could possibly conceive. The masks displayed every fantastic idea of the fear- 
ful and horrible, their effect being, however, softened down by the richness and 
beauty of the costumes, and the evident decorum of the devils inside. After going 
through the principal streets, and calling upon Mayor Waterman, for the purpose, 
we suppose, of obtaining a license to 'raise the supernatural' in the Gaiety Theatre, 
they proceeded to that elegant establishment in order to entertain the hosts of 
guests they had summoned. 

"The interior of the theatre was decorated with a profusion of hanging wreatln 
and festoons of flowers. In a short time after the doors were thrown open, all the 
space inside, apart from the floor and stage, was jammed with an audience composed 
of the elite of Louisiana and the adjacent States — none being in mask but the 
Krewe. In due time the IMistick Krewe appeared on the stage in the full glare 
of the lights. If we may so speak, they were beautiful in their ugliness — charming in 
their repulsiveness. There were upwards of a hundred of them, and no two alike, 
whilst all were grotesque to the last degree. They represented the difl'erent characters 
with which religion, mythology and poesy have peopled the Infernal Eegions, and 
which Jlilton has aggregated in his "Paradise Lost." Four tableaux were given. 
The first represented Tartarus, the second the Expulsion, the third the Conference 
of Satan and Beelzebub, and the fourth and last the Pandemonium. At the con- 
clusion of the tableaux the barriers were removed and the brilliant audience 
crowded upon the dancing floor. The Mistick Krewe having disbanded, dispersed 
among the crowd and joined in the dance in a manner which showed them to be 
very gentlemanly and agreeable devils." 

On February 1, 1873, under Colonel Walter Merriam and Edward C. Han- 
cock, arrangements were made for the reign of Eex, our gracious, benignant king, 
who favors us yearly with his jovial presence, to the delight of pleasure-lovers and 
particularly of children. 

Kex, according to a quaint "Handbook of the Carnival," published in 1874, i.- 
the offspring of Old King Cole and the goddess Terpsichore, whom the former 
wooed in the shape of an Irish bull. The king was born some time in the eighth 
century on the shores of the Mediterranean. He ruled at one time over the whole of 
Southern Europe, which he had conquered, but gradually losing his power, became 
disgusted and adopted the Land of Freedom as his home. He now lives 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 637 

in seclusion among our swamps and appears once a year to his loyal subjects. He 
has never married, being too young and gay to settle down, but is still sowing his 
wild oats, and chooses every year one of the fairest girls of the Crescent City to 
reign as queen with him. 

Following is the "first autograph letter" of Eex (1872) : 

"His Royalovitch Highness of the King of the Carnival, Officia llywels, 
comest one worle aush isroy alcons with e mosts wiss ant Duke, Alexis Alexandro- 
viteh, Eomanoff, audri eth a Idaspe cuala uehe wsef orh Isrece ption atsue use ton 
Mardi Gras. Rex." 

Among the guests at his first grand banquet were General H. S. McComb, Gen- 
eral Beauregard, Colonel Sam Boyd, Norbert Trepagnier, P. 0. Hebert, Samuel 
Smith, J. W. Burbridge, I. N. Marks, C. A. Whitness, C. H. Slocomb. About forty 
young men composed the association which was to achieve such grand results. 

Rex published eight edicts, one of which forbade the punishment of children 
during his reign. All quarrels and disagreements were likewise to be suspended. 
Mardi Gras is a legal holiday in New Orleans. 

The first "turn out"' of Rex consisted of the "Boeuf Gras," a beautiful white 
bull, representing the "meat" to which the city was saying farewell, and an immense 
crowd of maskers. Three silver keys (of the city) were turned over to Hex 
by the Mayor, and for a day pleasure reigned supreme. The Carnival was this year 
witnessed by the Grand Duke Alexis of Russia. Until 1877, however, no formal 
parade of floats was given. 

The society of New Orleans is, in a sense, built around the Carnival balls. 
They are the events of the year and are awaited as eagerly by the debutantes lapped 
in luxury as are the parades by the little street Arabs. The season is opened, as a 
rule, by the Twelfth Night Revellers' ball. Very handsome invitations are issued 
by all the Carnival organizations. In Leap Year the ball of Les Mysterieuses, an 
organization composed of ladies exclusively, follows the Twelfth Night Revellers, 
and then in succession Mithras, Consus, Elves of Oberon, Atlanteans, Nereus, mark 
the flying weeks till the great events that crowd about Mardi Gras. The Momus 
ball is usually given the Thursday before Mardi Gras. Friday the Carnival German 
is danced. Monday afternoon the king comes in — Rex arrives — and parades with the 
city militia. It is a gay day on the river, and all the boats join in welcoming to tha 
city, the King of Joy. Monday night the Proteus parade and ball take place; 
Tuesday about noon the Rex procession, and Tuesday night the Comus parade, 
and the Rex and Comus balls. The king and his court always attend, later at night, 
the ball of Comus. Wednesday morning finds an exhausted city. 



6i8 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

Improvised seats are put up everywhere for reviewing the Carnival. Rex's 
colors (green, yellow and purple) are seen everywhere. At night the illuminations 
are magnificent, particularly at the various clubs, where large receptions are held. 
The air teems with light and color and resounds with the king's own anthem, "If 
Ever I Cease to Love." Immense crowds throng Canal street and St. Charles aveni'ij 
up to Louisiana avenue, to which point the parades of latter years proceed. But fe^r 
accidents occur, good nature prevails and the immense concourse of people is 
admirably managed by the authorities. The electric cars also play their ])art with- 
out a mistake, usually. 

The processions are always headed by a title car and a chariot containing 
the special monarch of the occasion. The Rex parade is always headed by the Boevf 
Gras, or fatted ox. Mules and negroes form a necessary part of the procession, and 
at night picturesque flambeaux are carried. Most of the work connected with the 
Carnival is now done in the city, and labor and materials do not have to be 
imported. 

Nothing disagreeable occurs during the Carnival time. Maskers often tosi 
presents of candy to friends whom they perceive in the crowd. In the year 19'00 
pretty spirals of colored papers were thrown in profusion. 

To be queen at one of the balls is the greatest honor that can befall a Xeu- 
Orleans girl. But there are four or five maids of honor to each queen, so by 
the time the Carnival is over almost every popular debutante has had a Carnival 
honor. The queens and maids of various Carnivals are conspicuous for grace 
and beauty, and good'taste in dress. Notes are sent by the maskers every year, "call- 
ing out" ladies for the maskers' dances. — the first five or six or seven on the 
programme. Ladies "called out" are given particular seats and enjoy the ball 
to the utmost. Handsome pins and souvenirs are given by the maskers to their 
partners in the dances, and besides many little trinkets that form part of t\v; 
Carnival costumes. 

In 1857 Comus presented "Paradise Lost," as has already been described. 

In 1858 Comus' subject of illustration was "Mythology." 

March 8th, 1859, witnessed a particularly magnificent pageant of Comus, 
representing "Twelfth Night, or Lord of Misrule." It was followed, as in the pre- 
ceding year, by four tableaux, and a ball at the Varieties Theatre At twelve o'clock 
the maskers disappeared. 

February 21st, 1860, fifteen cars, presenting American history from Columbu- 
to Webster, formed the Comus pageant. The cars represented blocks of granite. 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 639 

upon which groups of white statuary rested. The horses, also, were draped in white. 
The procession, as usual, stopped en route to pay its respects to the mayor of the 
city. At the ball that night ten tableaux were given. 

"Scenes from Life"' was presented by Comus February 13th, 1861. Infancy, 
with its cradle, boyhood with tops and kites, youth, manhood and old age with at- 
tendant vices, virtues and follies were followed by a car representing Death, and 
containing a skeleton. 

For the next few years the Civil War was raging and all Mardi Gras festivities 
were suspended. But on the 13th of February, 1866, four cars passed through the 
streets representing "The Past," "The Present," "The Future," and "The Court 
of Comus." This was Comus' meager first parade after the war. The ball invitations 
represented those sad intervening years of trouble, 1863, '63, '64, '65. 

March 5th, 1867, "Triumphs of Epicurus"' was given by Comus. 

February 25th, 1868, "The Senses"— ''Smell, Touch, Taste," etc. 

February 9th, 1869, "Lalla Rookh." 

March 1st, 1870, Comus gave "History of Louisiana" (statuary). In this year 
the New Orleans Carnival was pronounced by a Boston Journal to be "worth crossing 
a continent to see." In this year (1870), also, the second in age of the Carnival 
organizations, "The Twelfth Night Revellers," gave a procession in which Europe, 
Asia, Africa and America were represented. A ball ensued at the French Opera 
House. This, of course, was given January 6th, the night the Three Wise Men came to 
Bethlehem. 

In 1871, Comus represented Spenser's "Faerie Queen" and the Revellers repre- 
sented "Mother Goose." 

The year 1872 formed a momentous epoch in Carnival historx, for it was in 
this year that Rex first came upon the streets. In this year Comus gave "Dreams 
of Homer," and the Twelfth Night Revellers represented "Humor, Its Gods and 
Its Fathers." In this year Momus first came into being and presented "The Talis- 
man," with a fine tableau and a crowd of maskers. 

In 1873, in which year the city illuminations were very fine, Comus gave the 
"Darwinian Theory"" ; the Revellers, "Audubon and His Birds" ; Momus, "Coming 
Races." The Darwinian theory was much discussed at this time. (The Momus 
parades from 1872 to 1876 were given on the 31st of December. In 1876 the time was 
changed to the Thursday preceding Mardi Gras. In 1873, Rex paraded with a 
number of maskers, and several new organizations helped to swell his numbers, — 
the "King's Own," "Oxonians," the "Pack" and "Lights of St. George." The pro- 



640 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

cessions stopped at various places on its way, where toasts were drunk and speeches 
made. 

In 1874 the Eevellers presented "Dolliana," the parade being headed by an im- 
mense cake, borne in state. The Rex procession (February 17th) illustrated "The 
Glories of Persia"; Comus received "The Nations of the Earth," and led them 
through his favorite city. 

There was no street carnival in 1875, but several balls took place (Febru- 
ary 29th). 

In 1876 Comus gave "Four Thoiisand Years of Sacred History." Momus gave 
"Louisiana and Her Products." 

On February 13th, 1877, Eex gave, "War in Every Age," in his first series 
of mounted tableaux. Comus illustrated "Aryan Race," and Momus a "Dream of 
Hades." 

In 1878 (March 5th) Rex gave a caricature of mythical personages; Comus, 
"Metamorphosis of Ovid" ; Momus, "Scenes From the Realm of Fancy." 

On February 25th, 1879, Rex as "Richard Coeur de Lion," presided over various 
scenes from the world's history. 

In 1880 (February 10th), Rex illustrated the "Elements," and the "Phunny 
Phorty Phellows," an organization famous for mirth and burlesque, turned out for 
the third time with its body of merry maskers. Comus in this year gave the 
"Conquest of Mexico," and Momus "Dream of Fair Women." 

In 1881 (March 1st), Eex presented "Arabian Nights," and a new organization, 
"The Independent Order of the Moon," followed with "Pictures from the Town." 
The Phunny Phorty Phellows gave the "Boss' Dream About Women"; Comus, 
"North-land Myths" ; Momus, "Scenes from Popular Story Books." 

The year 1883 (February 21st) saw in Rex's procession the pageant of "The 
King of Pleasure"; Independent Order of the Moon, "Mirth, Melody and Moon- 
light" — scenes from popular songs; Phunny Phorty Phellows, "Comical Illustra- 
tions of Days We Celebrate"; Comus, "World Worship." In this year first appeared 
(1882) "Proteus," an organization which now takes rank with Momus and Comus. 
The initial pageant of this order presented "Egyptian Myths." Momus in 1882 
gave "Ramayana," the epic poem of the Hebrews. 

In 1883 (February 6th), Rex gave "Atlantis," the Phunny Phorties a burlesque 
of the stage — comedy, tragedy, opera ; the Independent Order of the Moon, "Familiar 
Rhymes," literally interpreted; Proteus, "History of France," and Momus, "Moors 
in Spain." Comus did not appear that year. 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 641 

In 1844 (February 26th), Rex illustrated "Semitic Races"'; the Mystic Merry 
Bellions, an organization of the same kind as Independent Order of the Moon, 
"Vanity Fair" ; the Phunny Phorty Phellows, "Medley" ; Momus, "The Passions" ; 
Proteus, "The Aeneid"; and Comus "Ancient Ireland." 

In 1885 (February 17), the Rex parade represented "Ivanhoe"; Momus, "Le- 
gendary Lore" ; Proteus, "Chinese Myths" ; there were this year only three parade* 
in all. 

In 1886 (March 9th), Rex gave ".\urelian's Triumph" and other historic 
scenes; Proteus, "Visions of Other Worlds," and the Independent Order of the 
Moon, "Twelve Months' Rations," each month in turn, with its holidays and 
peculiarities, being burlesqued. 

In 1887 (February 22nd), Rex presented "Music and Popular Airs"; the In- 
dependent Order of the Moon, "The Yankee Nation"; and Proteus, "Anderson's 
Fairy Tales." 

In 1888 (February 14th), Rex gave "The Realm of Flowers"; the Independent 
Order of the Moon, "Flights of Fancy"; Proteus, "Legends of the Middle Ages." 

In 1889 (March 5th), Rex presented "Treasures of Earth." While Proteus, 
Momus and other mystic rulers of Carnival times conceal their identity, that 3f 
Rex is now publicly announced. The mimic kingship is an honor awarded some 
citizen for popularity and always reflects credit on the man chosen. In the year 1880 
the name of the King appears to have been given out for the first time. In 188;) 
Rex was Mr. John 6. Schriever, and he chose as queen. Miss Cora Richardson. 
Proteus gave, in 1889, "Hindoo Heavens," and at his ball chose Miss Edith Jen- 
nings for queen. Momus, in a series of beautiful tableaux at the Opera House, pre- 
sented the "Culprit Fay." 

On the 18th of February, 1890, Rex, in the person of Sylvester P. Walmsley, 
headed a number of handsome floats presenting "Rulers of Ancient Times."' His 
queen was Miss Anita Shakespeare. This year saw a great revival in Carnival spirit. 
Proteus gave "Elfland," his queen being Miss Emma Joubert. Comus displayed 
the "Palingenesis of Comus," his queen being Miss Katie Buckner. Momus gave a 
large ball, of which Miss Nora Glenny was queen, and his tableaux had for subject 
"Paradise and the Peri." Mention might here be made of the Carnival German, 
a very exclusive society affair, given usuaMy the Friday before Mardi Gras, as was 
the case in the year just referred to. The dancers do not mask at this ball. 

In 1891, the Atlanteans first appeared. Their ball was given February 3d, thus 
opening the Mardi Gras season. Their tableaux represented the "Temple of 



642 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

Poseidon and Coleito" and "Destruction of Atlantis." The ball was said to be mag- 
nificent, and its queen was Miss Adele Blanc. 

On the 10th of February, 1891, Rex (Mr. James P. Richardson) gave "Visions 
of Rex." His queen was Miss Bessie Behan. The Momus ball was presided over 
by Palmer Cox's "Brownies." The queen was Miss Amelie Aldige. The Proteus 
parade represented "Tales of the Genii,"' and the queen was Miss Susan Miles. 
Comus gave "Demonology," and chose as his queen Miss Cora Jennings. 

In 1893 the tableaux of the Atlanteans represented "The Tempest," and the 
queen of the ball was Miss Lucia Miltenberger. Rex (March 1st), in a beautiful 
pageant, gave "The Colors." Mr. Robert S. Day was king of the Carnival, and Mi.s- 
Carrie Spellmaa queen. The Comus parade chose for its subject "Nippon, the 
Land of Flowers," and the Comus queen was Miss Winnie Davis, "Daughter of 
the Confederacy." Proteus gave "The Vegetable Kingdom," and for queen chose 
Miss Valentine Cassard. 

In 1893, the Atlanteans in their tableaux gave "Northern Allegories"; thei:- 
queen was Miss Annie Payne. Mr. John Poitevant, as Rex, on the 14th of February, 
chose Miss Ella Sinnot for his queen. The subject of the Rex parade was "Fan- 
tasies." Comus gave "Salaminbo," Flaubert's novel, in a series of handsome floats. 
His queen was tlie beautiful Miss Josephine Maginnis. Proteus" subject, in 1893, was 
"Kalevala, Myths of Finland,"" and his queen was Miss Virginia Xicholls. Momus in 
his tableaux prettily illustrated the "Four-Leaf Clover," and his queen was Miss 
Ella Barkley. 

In 1894, the Twelfth Night Revellers gave a beautiful ball, of which Miss 
Fannie Eshelman was queen. According to old customs, a cake is cut at each Twelftli 
Night ball. Its slices are distributed to the debutantes present, and the piece con- 
taining a golden bean singles out as queen its fortunate possessor. In like manner, 
silver beans mark the maids of honor. The Atlanteans (1894) chose for the sub- 
ject of their tableaux "Ballet of the Seasons at Fontainebleau," and as queen. Miss 
Evelyn Gasquet. Rex (B. A. Oxnard) presented "Illustrations from Literature."' 
His queen was Miss Minnie Stewart. Mardi Gras this year fell on the fifth of 
February. The subject of Momus in his ball was "The Fairies and the Fiddler"" ; 
his queen, Miss Louise Dunbar. Proteus on this occasion presented "Persian 
Myths." His queen was Miss Alice Denis. Comus gave "Once L'pon a Time," his 
queen being Miss Mathilde Levert. 

In 1895 the Twelfth Night Revellers, with Miss Nora (ilenny as queen, gave 
a tableaux representing old time merry-makers around a chateau. The Elves of 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 643 

Oberon made their first appearance this year (1895) in a handsome ball, of which 
Miss Josie Craig was queen ; the tableaux represented "A Midsummer Night's 
Dream." The Atlanteans presented "The Bride of the Ice King." Their queeii 
was Miss Nellie Dwyer. Eex (February 27th) was impersonated by Mr. Frank 
T. Howard, whose queen was Miss Lydia Fairchild. The subject of his parade wa^i 
"Fairyland Chronicles." Momus, in his annual ball, presented "The Wooing and 
Wedding of Nala and Darmayante." His queen was Miss Charlee Elliott. The 
Proteus parade gave "Norse Myths," and Miss Louise Wiltz was queen. Comus' 
subject was "Songs of Long Ago" ; his queen, Miss Emily Poitevant. 

The year 1896 saw the Carnival growing and prospering. The Twelfth Night 
Revellers, at their ball, gave an exquisite tableau of "Cloudland," and the golden 
bean fell to Miss Bertie Hayward, who reigned over the festivities. This year being 
leap year, a number of leading society women planned and gave a very handsome 
ball, of which Mrs. A. A. Brittin was president. They called themselves "Les 
Mysterieuses." Mr. Willie Stauffer was made king. In all re.=pects the usual 
positions of men and women were reversed, the former being "called out" by the 
latter. On February 3rd (1896), a new organization made a very successful ap- 
pearance. This was the Krewe of Nereiis. His first ball presented in tableaux "Sea 
Views," and his queen was Miss May Van Benthuysen. The Atlanteans, at their 
ball, presented "Loves of the Angels,'' Moore's poem, and their queen was Miss 
Penelope Chaflfe. The Elves of Oberon gave "Visions in ilarble,'' and their queen 
was Miss Virginia Logan. On the ISth of February (1896), Eex illustrated "Plan- 
ets." Mr. Charles Janvier was king of the Carnival, Miss Arthemise Baldwin, 
queen. Momus, in his ball this year (1896), burlesqued the Carnival, a miniature 
parade being given on the stage, and his queen was Miss Alice Buckner. Proteus 
chose for the subject of his parade the "Animal Kingdom," and for queen. Miss Vir,i 
Boarman. Comus this year presented on his floats "The Seasons," and his queen 
was Miss Alma Kruttschnitt. The Phunny Phorties this year gave a ball, with a 
medley of grotesque and mirth-provoking maskers, and Miss Myrtle Gehl for queen. 
This organization, in 1878, gave "The Fire Department" ; in 1879, "The Militia" ; in 
1880, "Brother Jonathan," and kindred societies, in 1881, "Woman's Rights." 

In 1897, Miss Lydia Winship was queen of the Twelfth Night ball. . The 
Mithras ball gave a handsome series of tableaux. The queen was Miss Louise 
Joubert. The Elves of Oberon, with Jliss Edith Buckner as queen, presented 
"Rhineland Pictures." Nereus gave views of the sea-deeps, and his queen was 
Miss Alys Laroussini. The Atlanteans presented "The Elements." Miss Stella De- 



644 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

moruelle was queen. This year a new organization, Consus, made its appearance, 
and in a very handsome ball depicted "Eobin Hood, and His Merry Men." The 
queen was Miss Stella Demoruelle. The subject of the Rex parade was "Marine 
Pictures." Mr. A. B. Wheeler was king, and Miss Ethelyn Lallande queen. The sub- 
ject of Comus was the "Odyssey" ; his queen. Miss May Schmidt. Momus gave no 
tableaux. The queen of this ball was Miss Lydia Finlay. Proteus chose for his 
queen Miss Juanita Lallande, and for the subject of his parade, "Orlande Furioso." 

In 1898, the Twelfth Night Eevellers gave "Minstrels of Olden Times," Miss 
Julia Palfrey being queen. The Atlanteans illustrated in their tableaux, "Garden of 
Irem." Their queen was Miss Erskine Kock. Mithras presented the "Sun God." 
His queen was Miss May Wiltz. The Elves of Oberon depicted beautifully "The 
Eainbow." Miss Louise Denis was queen of the ball. Xereus gave "Pluto's 
Eealm." His queen was Miss Annie Soria. Consus had a beautiful ball and 
tableaux. Rex (February 22nd) was Mr. Charles A. Farwell. His queen was Miss 
Noel Forsythe, and the subject of his parade, "Harvest Queens." Comus gave 
illustrations from Shakespeare, and his queen was Miss Isabelle Hardie. The 
Phunny Phortie Phellows, in 1898 (February 18th), gave their first night proces- 
sion. This represented "Slang Phrases," and the queen of their ball was Miss 
Henrietta Kahn. Momus this year gave a ball, of which Miss Kittie Eustis was 
queen. Burlesque presentations were the subjects of the tableaux. Proteus gave 
"A Trip to Wonderland," and his queen was Miss Laure Lanaux. 

In 1899 occurred the famous snow and sleet storm, of which some mention 
should be made, as the Carnival organizations deserve great credit for braving 
the weather and making a successful Mardi Gras despite all their disadvantages. 
Shrove Tuesday came in the very worst part of the miserable weather. This is the 
only really "bad" Mardi Gras on record. 

In 1899, the Twelfth Night Eevellers, with Miss Belinda Miles for queen, 
gave a representation of "Butterflies." The Atlanteans gave "Destruction of At- 
lantis." Miss Mary Matthews was queen. Consus represented the "Court of Louis 
XVI." His queen was Miss Adele Brittin. Mithras' subject was the Persian "Sun 
God," and his queen. Miss Corinne Braughn. Nereus represented the "North Pole," 
and his queen was Miss Ethel Miller. The Elves of Oberon gave pictures of the 
seventeenth century. Their queen was Miss Corinne Braughn. Eex (Walter 
Denegre) gave, February 14th, a handsome parade representing "Reveries of Rex." 
The queen was Miss Perrine Kilpatrick. Comus had as subject "Jewish History" ; 
as queen. Miss Robbie Giffen. Proteus, who postponed his parade to the following 
Friday, gave "States of the Union." His queen was Miss Pauline Menge. 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 645 

In 1900 the Twelfth Night Eevellers presented "The Four Seasons." Mi-is 
Evelyn Penn was queen. Mithras gave "The House Boat on the Styx." The queen 
was Miss Sophia Eogers. The Elves of Oberon had as subject "Chance"; for 
queen, Miss Haydee Druillet. Consus, by some strange mischance, had the same 
subject as had Mithras — "The House Boat on the Styx." The queen was Miss 
Nannie Grant. The Atlanteans gave "Fall of the Incas." Their queen was Miss 
Nora Glenny. A new organization, "The Falstaffians," gave their initial ball — a 
beautiful affair, representing "Fallstaff's Dream in Windsor Forest." Miss Virginia 
Zell was queen. Nereus this year gave his first parade, which was on trolley 
cars instead of the old floats, and represented "The March of Civilization." The 
float representing "Electricity" was particularly fine. The queen of Nereus was 
Miss Maud Wilmot. Momus gave a very fine parade, illustrating the "Arthurian 
Legends," and his queen was Miss May Waters. The subject of Proteus was 
"Tales of Childhood." The queen was Miss Louise Ferrier. On Saturday befors 
Mardi Gras a "Merchants" parade was held, chiefly for advertising purposes. Cap- 
tain Thomas J. Woodward was Eex (February 2~th), whose parade represented 
"Terpsichorean Revels." His queen was Miss Eosa Febiger. Consus gave "Stories 
of the Golden Age." His queen was Miss Marietta Laroussini. Les Mysterieuses 
gave another charming ball in 1900 (January 3rd), at which "Fair Women of 
Four Realms" were represented, and four kings chosen: John Tobin, Hunt Hen- 
derson, Felix Puig and Wm. F. Maginnis. The Happy Forty Friends First Carnival 
Association of Algiers gave a parade of nine floats on the evening of February 3~th, 
1900. 



CHAPTER XXVI. 



OEIGIN AND EVOLUTION OF THE SUGAR INDUSTRY OF LOUISIANA. 

By Dr. W. C. Stubbs. 

NO HISTORY of New Orleans would be complete without a chapter upon Louis- 
iana's chief industry, an industry which has contributed so largely to the upbuild- 
ing of this great city. Startingwith De Bore's first commercial crop in 1795, grown 
upon the grounds of the present Audubon Park, now well within the city limits, the 
sugar industry of Louisiana has expanded, despite the many serious obstacles it 
iias encountered, until to-day it occupies nearly the entire area between Lake 
Ponchartrain on the east, Vermillion River on the west, Alexandria on the north, 
and the Gulf of Mexico on the south. 

From De Bore's first crop of $13,000, the annual output has grown in value well 
up into the millions. If the present prospects for the crop of 1900 be realized, and the 
present prices for sugar be maintained, thirty-five millions of dollars will probably 
be required this year to market the output of our sugar houses. De Bore's small 
sugar house, with its horse mill and iron kettles, has been supplanted by the modern 
central factory, with its ponderous mills or diffusion batteries, with improved clari- 
fiers and vacuum effects, with immense vacuum pans and capacious centrifugals. 

Once the horses and oxen propelling the mills were supported by the tops of 
the cane ; to-day the great boilers which furnish the steam to turn the mighty rolls, 
and to evaporate the tons of water from the extracted juice, are fed mainly with 
the refuse of the cane (bagasse), which their own force has created. So great has 
been the change from the original sugar house, to one of our modern central 
factories, that De Bore himself, could he again revisit his much-loved State, would 
not recogrnize in the latter the least resemblance to the former. Even an ante-bellum 
planter would be strangely out of place in a modern, up-to-date sugar house. The 
agriculture of sugar cane has kept an even pace with its manufacture. The wooden 
mould board plow, and home-made harrow, have been succeeded long since by the 
improved turn plow and revolving harrow, and these in turn supplanted by the disc 
plow and harrow. Improved labor-saving cultivators have largely displaced ex- 





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STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. '647 

pensive hoe gangs, and the cane harvester, now being evolved from the brain 
of genius, is everywhere awaited as the last contribution of the nineteenth century 
to the great sugar-cane industry of the world. Drainage is justly esteemed as the pre- 
requisite of large production, and irrigation is discussed by all and practiced by 
a few as an essential aid to uniformly good crops. 

The alluvial lands of tlie Mississippi River and its outlying bayous were 
once regarded as possessing inexhaustible fertility, and any effort to increase 
artificially the supply of fertilizing ingredients therein, would have been looked 
upon as the act of the madman or the dream of a visionary; yet the closing years 
of the nineteenth century find nearly every planter buying enormous quantities of 
tankage, cotton-seed meal, acid phosphate, etc., for application to these very soils, 
and to aid in the growth and development of larger crops of cane. Science has 
shown that properly selected fertilizers judiciously applied will enhance the acre 
yields even on our richest soils. 

This wonderful development has been evolved from numerous and serious difficul- 
ties which have attended this industry from the beginning. Floods have repeatedly 
inundated whole sections and destroyed thousands of acres of cane. Pestilence, 
"that walketh in darkness," has several times smitten the sugar districts. The Civil 
War completely prostrated the industry, leaving so little vitality that fully fifteen 
years were required for partial recuperation. Low prices and unreliable labor have 
sometimes shorn the industry of all its profits. Unfriendly legislation has fre- 
quently brought the coolie-raised or bounty-fed sugars of other countries into direct 
competition with that grown in Louisiana. And lastly, perhaps the most potent 
obstacle of all, is the want of permanency in our national legislation, a defect 
inherent in our form of government, which gives the people the opportunity of 
overturning "the powers that be" every four years. 

All of these have militated against the progress of our sugar industry, and vet 
it has been developed to such a degree of excellence that Louisiana is to-day justly 
esteemed as the leader of the sugar cane world, and is sending words of intelligence 
and experience to every tropical sugar country. 

This progress, wonderful as it has been in the aggregate, has been achieved 
through much suffering, large expenditures of money and unceasing activity; at 
times moving with almost imperceptible gradations, at others with leaps and bounds. 
It may be truly said, that nearly every dollar made by the sugar planters of this 
State since the war has been expended in the improvement of their estates and 
the enlargement of their sugar houses, until to-day they, together, reprcFcnt an in- 
vestment exceeding 100,000,000 of dollars. 



648 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

EFFECT ON THE CITY. 

While the development of this great industry was going on in the country, 
New Orleans, the emporium of trade in the Mississippi Valley, was receiving and 
distributing its products, erecting immense sheds and warehouses, furnishing 
factors and brokers, returning supplies and moneys. It became, and continues, the 
headquarters of the sugar planter, where every want of field and factory could be 
supplied, and where the products of his toil could be exchanged for every luxury 
or necessity. Foundries and machine shops, capable of turning out the largest 
and best equipments of a complete sugar house, have found permanent locations 
in New Orleans and give employment to thousands of skilled mechanics. Cooper 
shops, of enormous capacity, for the manufacture of hogsheads, and sugar and 
molasses barrels, are found in almost every ward of the city. Enormous sugar 
refineries, located within the heart of the city, hard by the sugar sheds, stand 
ready to buy the raw sugars and transform them quickly into snowy crystals. 

The Sugar Exchange furnishes a market place for all sugars and molasses, 
and by its rules so regulates trade as to insure honest weights, prompt payment 
and quick sales. 

The implement men, the mule dealers, the coal sellers, the fertilizer agents, 
"et id omne genus," have all concentrated in New Orleans, and from their offices 
either by personal interviews or correspondence, effect sales with the planters. 

Hence, New Orleans, the pride and boast of every sugar planter, is inseparably 
connected with Louisiana's greatest industry. 

HISTORY OF THE SUG.IR INDUSTRY. 

It is said that Iberville, "coming to the deserted village of the Quinipissas, 
made a plantation of sugar cane there from seed he had brought from St. Domingo, 
but the seed, being already yellow and sour, came to naught." 

Whether the above statement be true or not, does not affect the well-established 
fact that the Jesuits brought into the colony in 1751 sugar cane and planted it on 
the plantation of the reverend fathers, which was immediately above Canal street. 
It is recorded that two French ships, conveying troops to Louisiana, stopped for a 
short while at Port au Prince, St. Domingo. While there, the Jesuits of that island 
obtained permission to put on board some sugar cane and a few negroes who were 
acquainted with the cultivation of this plant. Both sugar canes and negroes 
reached Louisiana in safety, and in accordance with instructions the latter planted 
the former in the gardens of the above mentioned plantation The Jesuits' Church, 
on Baronne street, marks the location of this plantation. 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 649 

The cane introduced was the Jlalabar or Bengal variety, subsequently known 
all over the world as Creole cane. 

This experiment gave no immediate results, but it served to introduce sugar 
cane into the colony which has been grown ever since, albeit the manufacture of 
sugar thereJ^gm was delayed for nearly fifty years thereafter. It was grown for 
"chewing" purposes, and found a ready sale in the markets of the town. 

Gayarre says: "The colonists, however, were striving to increase their re- 
sources and to ameliorate their condition by engaging with more perseverance, 
zeal and skill in agricultural pursuits. Dubreuil, one of the richest men of the 
colony, whose means enabled him to make experiments and who owned that 
tract of land where now is Esplanade street, seeing that canes introduced by the 
Jesuits in 1751 had grown to maturity and had ever since been cultivated with 
success, as an article of luxury which was retailed in the New Orleans market, 
built (1759) a sugar mill and attempted to make sugar. But the attempt proved to 
be a complete failure." The Chevalier de Mazan, who lived on the right bank of the 
river near the city, also undertook to manufacture sugar in 1764, but failed. Again, 
in 1765, several planters, among them Destrehan, then treasurer of the King of 
France in the colony, put tip works similar to those of Dubreuil, below the city 
on the left bank of the river. The small quantity of bad sugar made by them and 
consumed in the country "looked like marmalade or guava jelly." In the same 
year a vessel which sailed to France took out a number of barrels of the article 
to complete her cargo, but it was so inferior that it aU leaked out before rep-^*" 
ing port. 

Up to this time neither the judicious use of lime, nor the proper point of co* 
centration for striking, were known — two essential factors for successful sugf- 
manufacture. 

These failures, the cession of Louisiana by France to Spain, and doubtless 
other causes, seemed to have checked further efforts at making sugar, but many 
farmers continued to grow the canes to supply the markets of the city and to manu- 
facture "tafia." 

It is certainly true that considerable quantities of cane were, prior to this 
time (1764), used for the manufacture of a rum called tafia, since on the 7th 
of June, 1764, D'Abbadie, in his official report to his government, mentions the 
immoralities of his people and says, "The immoderate use of tafia has stupefied the 
whole population." Gayarre says : "The manufacture of sugar has been abandoned 
since 1766 as being unsuited to the climate, and only a few individuals continued 



6so STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

to plant canes in the neighborhood of Kew Orleans to be sold in the market of 
that town. It is true that two Spaniards, Mendez and Solis, had lately given more 
extension to the planting of that reed, but they had never succeeded in manu- 
facturing sugar. One of them boiled its juice into syrup and the other distilled it 
into a spirituous liquor of a very indifferent quality, called tafia," 

But the descendants of Mendez in this city indignantly deny that Mendez 
failed to manufacture sugar, and offer in evidence the following from their family 
records: "Don Antonio Mendez (b. 1750, d. 1829), Procureur du Roi of Spanish 
government in Louisiana, married Donna Feliciana Ducros, and lived in St. Bernard 
Parish. In 1791 he bought out Solis, a refugee from St. Domingo, who had striven 
in vain to make sugar from sugar cane, and then having secured the services 
of a sugar maker from Cuba, by name of Morin, made sugar for the first time in 
Louisiana in 1791, and continued to make it afterwards." In an old copy of 
Louisiana Sentinelle de Thibodeaux, a correspondent signing himself J. B. A. (J. 
B. Avequin, of whom we will have more to say later), says: "In 1790, a Spaniard 
named Solis, in Terre aux Boeufs, nine or ten miles below New Orleans, was per- 
haps the only one who cultivated cane, but with the purpose of converting the juice 
into tafia or rum. The numerous experiments in sugar manufacture which had 
been made in this section had been imsuecessful. The lands owned by Solis are 
now a part of the Olivier plantation. 

"In 1791, Antonio Mendez, of New Orleans, bought from Solis his distilling 
mitfit, the land and the canes, with the firm resolution of dovoting himself to sugar 
manufacture and to conquer all difficulties. For this purpose Mendez employed 
Morin, who has passed many years in St. Domingo, for the purpose of studying 
cane culture and sugar manufacture. But whether it was that Mendez did not 
have the means of installing a sugar factory like those of St. Domingo, or whether 
he still doubted of complete success, he made but a few small barrels of sugar, 
and it is certain that he experimented also in refining them, for in 1792 Mendez 
presented to Don Eendon, who was then Intendant of Louisiana for Spain, some 
small loaves of sugar refined by him. It required one of these little loaves to 
sweeten two cups of coffee. In a grand dinner he gave that year to the authorities 
of the city of New Orleans, Intendant Eendon called the attention of his guests to 
this sugar during the dessert, presenting it to them as a Louisiana product made by 
Antonio Mendez. Up to this time, it is thus seen, Mendez and Morin had manufac- 
tured but a very small quantity of sugar, since it was still presented as an object 
of curiosity." 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 651 

The above, as well as other authorities which space prevents us from quoting, 
substantiate the claim that Mendez made the first sugar in Louisiana, and was 
also the first to refine it, but evidence is wanting that he ever made it in large and 
paying quantities. 

The first crop of sugar large enough to influence the future of Louisiana and 
profitable enough to justify others to embark in the enterprise, was made by Etienne 
De Bore in 1794-95-96, near the present site of the Sugar Experiment Station on 
Audubon Park. 

Mr. Gayarre, the historian, the grandson of De Bore, gives a graphic descrip- 
tion of the situation at that time in Louisiana, and the circumstances which drove 
Mr. De Bore to his bold adventure. He purchased a "quantity of canes from Men- 
dez and Solis, and began to plant them in 1794 and make all other preparations for 
manufacture, and in 1795 he made a crop of sugar which sold for twelve thousand 
dollars — a good price at that time." 

Mr. Gayarre describes the excitement prevailing in the community and the 
intense interest manifested by the planters, during the preparation and trial of 
this bold adventure. An immense crowd waited with eager impatience the concen- 
tration of the juice to the granulating point, and stood with breathless silence to 
catch the first announcement, "It granulates." When announced, "the wonderful 
tidings flowed from mouth to mouth and went dying in the distance as if a hundred 
glad echoes were telling it to one another." 

De Bore was "overwhelmed with congratulations," and was called the "Saviour 
of Louisiana." The sugar maker who watched the cooking of the juice up to the 
moment of granulation was Mr. Antoine Morin, according to the evidence of Mr. 
Charles Le Breton (a descendant of Bore's, who has recently died in New Orleans), 
the same one associated with Mendez in his trials. 

It may be mentioned here, that Mr. De Bore from this time on redoubled his 
energy and greatly increased his wealth, which at his death exceeded $300,000, all 
made in sugar. 

It may not be out of place here to state that Etienne De Bore was born in 1740, 
in Kaskaskia, the Illinois district of Louisiana, and married the daughter of Des- 
trehan, the ex-treasurer of Louisiana, and settled on his wife's plantation, then 
six miles above New Orleans (now Audubon Park). Many of his descendants 
still live in and around New Orleans, prominent among them being Judge Emile 
Eost, the distinguished president of the Sugar Planters' Association, and the 
owner and manager of his ancestral plantation known still as "Destrehan." Other 
descendants have already been mentioned. 



6S2 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

It may also be apropos here to mention the fitting centennial celebration 
of the above event a few years since by the Audubon Sugar School, with the 
graduation of its first class. Hon. John Dymond, a leader among the sugar plan- 
ters, presided, and Hon. Theodore S. Wilkinson, a distinguished scion of famous 
ancestry, himself a large and successful planter, delivered the centennial address. 
The meeting was largely attended, and fully described at the time by the New Or- 
leans dailies and sugar journals. 

The successful results of De Bore's adventures stimulated scores of planters 
to follow his example. Among the first were the Piseros, the Caverets, the Eiggios and 
the MacCarthys (names no longer on our roll of sugar planters). Each succeeding 
year added new names to the list of sugar planters and all of them rapidly accumu- 
lated wealth. 

VARIETIES OF CANE IN LOUISIANA. 

The Malabar, Bengal or Creole variety has already been mentioned. It was 
from this variety that De Bore made his first crop of sugar. It was this variety, 
now deemed unworthy of cultivation, that gave origin to that mighty industry which 
has occupied the lower valley of the Mississippi, "planted the highest civilization in 
Louisiana and laid broad the foundations of a commonwealth, at once the most 
picturesque and most steadfast in its elements, to be found in America." 

The Tahiti variety was introduced about 1797, but by whom has not been 
recorded in any history available to the writer. With the Creole, it furnished the 
cane for the planters up to the introduction of the striped and purple varieties by 
Mr. John J. Coiron, in 1817 and 1825. The introduction of these varieties gave 
an additional impulse to the sugar industry of Louisiana. They soon supplanted 
everywhere in field culture the Creole and Tahiti canes, and are to-day the chief 
varieties found throughout the sugar belt. They are natives of Java and are known 
there as the Batavian Striped and Black Java. They were first introduced about 
the middle of the last century into the Island of St. Eustatius by the Dutch. In 
1814, a vessel brought some packages of these canes from St. Eustatius to Savann.ah, 
Georgia, and they were planted by Mr. King on the Island of St. Simon. They 
grew well, and Mr. King manufactured sugar from them. 

Mr. Coiron, who had formerly resided in Savannah, but now a planter of 
Louisiana, secured some of these canes and planted them in his garden, in 1817, 
at St. Sophie plantation. Pleased with their growth, he later, in 1835, brought a 
schooner load of them and planted them on his plantation. From this plantation 
they have scattered over the entire State and gave a new ardor to sugar culture. 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 653 

Its ability to withstand greater cold enabled planters to open new plantations 
further north, and thus greatlj' enlarge the area of cane growing in Louisiana. 

Mr. Coiron died ignorant of the immense benefit he had conferred upon the 
State of his adoption, and the planters owe to his memory the erection of some 
statue or monument to commemorate their grateful appreciation of his invaluable 
services. Miss Emile Coiron, a daughter of Louisiana's benefactor, is still living in 
New Orleans, and Mr. Charles Janvier, president of Sun Insurance Company, is 
his grandson. 

Georgia was thus an early contributor to Louisiana's prosperity. She was 
then a rival in the sugar industry, with Savannah as its center. Eecently Louisiana 
has reciprocated by the cordial reception and generous courtesies extended to the 
delegation of Georgians, headed by that large-hearted, public-spirited citizen of 
Savannah, Captain D. G. Purse, which was seeking information by which the large 
syrup industry of that State might be more profitably converted into sugar. It is 
hoped that Louisiana may be able to confer on Georgia a benefaction equal to that 
received years ago. 

SUGAR CANE EXPEDITIONS. 

In 1856, Congress appropriated $10,000 for the purpose of obtaining cuttings of 
sugar cane of such varieties best suited to the climate of the Southern States. On 
account of the partial failure for several years of the Louisiana crop of cane, it 
was currently believed that the varieties cultivated in Louisiana had "run out," 
and should be renewed. It was in response to this general belief that this appro- 
priation was made. The Commissioner of Patents was authorized to superintend 
the expeditions which were to procure the seed cane, and the Secretary of the 
Navy was directed to furnish the ships. One expedition went to the Straits Settle- 
ments and brought back the Salangore variety, which was so badly rotted on 
arrival that no results were obtained. A rather full account is given of the other 
expedition, which also was without known results. The United States brig "Ee- 
lease," under the command of Captain Simms, was detailed for the expedition. 
Mr. Townsend Glover, the entomologist, was detailed to accompany the expedi- 
tion and make the proper selection of the canes. The following instructions were 
given Mr. Glover by Mr. Brown : "As arrangements have been made by the Com- 
missioner of Patents for you to go to South America in the United States brig 
'Release,' now waiting for sailing orders at the Brooklyn Navy Yard, for the 
purpose of obtaining a supply of cuttings of sugar cane, I am directed to confer 
with you as to the best means of procuring said cuttings, the varieties suited to the 



654 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

climate of our Southern States, and as to the best modes of packing them in order 
to insure their successful growth after they arrive. 

"The points determined upon for obtaining said cuttings are near the river 
Demerara, in British Guiana, and on the high lands near Caracas, in Venezuela. 
At the former place there are no less than eighteen varieties of the sugar cane; 
but I would particularly call your attention to the kind known under the name 
of Labba. The reddish, purplish and violet colored sorts would probably suit 
our climate best. Therefore it would be advisable to confine your selections prin- 
cipally to them. There are at least three varieties near Caracas. Those of Japanese 
origin, with deep purple joints, are the kinds you should procure. The cuttings 
should be taken from the middle portions of the cane towards their top, cut about 
three feet in length, including a portion of the leaves. The plants from which they 
are taken should be healthy, vigorous and not over-ripe, and free from injury from 
borers, other insects or "the blast." They may be packed in boxes in alternate 
layers, with cane leaves and common, finely-sifted earth taken from the fields in 
which they grow, or the cane plants may be pulled up by the roots, their tops doubled 
down or pinched off, and done up in bundles containing twelve or thirteen stalks in 
each, enveloping them entirely with small ropes, made by twisting together the 
leaves of cane. If the roots of these bundles could in any way be surrounded with 
moist earth taken from the fields, the vitality of the plants would be longer main- 
tained." 

With these specific instructions, Mr. Glover, having placed aboard "one thou- 
sand and eight boxes," each about three feet in length, in which to put the canes, 
and other necessary material for the voyage, the brig Eelease sailed from the 
Brooklyn Navy Yard early in September, 1856. The expedition returned to New 
Orleans in the early part of 1857. Mr. J. Holt, Commissioner of Patents, in his 
annual report for 1857, says: "The cuttings of the sugar cane imported from 
Demerara by the government for the planters of the South, promise to attain a 
large size, and should they prove siifficiently hardy to withstand the climate of the 
regions where they are intended to grow, it is believed that they will amply com- 
pensate in the end for the trouble of introducing them." 

In De Bore's Review, May, 1857, we find a severe arraignment of the parties 
engaged in the introduction of these canes. The following is quoted from the New 
Orleans Delta : 

"The boxes were filled with miserable, trashy stuff, completely spoiled. 
The heat in the hold of the vessel, it is said, was by the thermometer 120 deg. 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 655 

F., or upwards. ... If this was the case why make the planters pay freight, 
when prices are so high, too, for a handful of West India pebbles ? 

"A plain, unpretending overseer from this State would have saved the govern- 
ment much expense and have done something more, probably, for the planters 
than help to extract the few dimes from their pockets (in the shape of freights on 
trash), which they saved from the wreck of the last crop, to say nothing of the 
preceding ones." In another place in the same issue of the Eeview, is a letter from 
one of the largest planters, which handles the "oflficials" "without gloves." He says : 
"There never was such a failure. What a misfortune that Uncle Sam did not send 
a practical planter. . . . Not a sound bud, from the stalks either in the hold 
or on deck." 

The evidence here seems contradictory, but if any canes were grown from 
this importation it is not generally known to the sugar planters of this State. 

A word here in explanation of this appropriation. In 1853-5-i, prices of sugar 
fell in New Orleans, under the enormous home supply (449,384 hogsheads), added 
to the large crop of Cuba, to two, and three and a half cents per pound, and for the 
next few years the crop of Louisiana but little more than paid the expenses of 
the different plantations." This created dissatisfaction at home and a loud cry 
against the sugar industry of Louisiana in Congress. It was thought by some 
that the seed cane of Louisiana had "run out" and should be renewed, and hence an 
effort on the part of Congress to import fresh seed cane. But the year the cane 
was introduced Louisiana had another large and profitable crop, from 'Louisiana 
cane. Hence the absurd notion that the previous failures were due to degeneracy 
of the seed, was no longer tenable either at home or in Congress. The Hon. Miles 
Taylor, of Louisiana, in a speech before Congress in defense of the' local sugar in- 
dustry, in 1857, declared that "the crop of this year would be the largest ever 
made in the State. . . . This declaration will excite surprise in the minds 
of those who infer from the appropriation made last year for the procuring of 
sugar cane for renewing the seed in Louisiana, that the plant had deteriorated then. 
The cane has not deteriorated. The cane crop for the present year is 
planted with Louisiana cane, and the crop exceeds any ever before planted there. 
This appropriation, in consequence of which some of the declared enemies of the 
sugar culture have taken advantage to decry that culture as a forced one and 
altogether precarious in its results, was, I will not say a Buncombe affair, but it 
was one which was occasioned by newspaper representation coming from the inex- 
perienced, grew out of a desire to concentrate public sentiment and was, in my 



656 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

view,of doubtful expediency, and was more than doubtful in principle. I say it was of 
doubtful expediency because the cane which has been cultivated for many years 
in Louisiana, in my opinion, is better fitted for the production of certain and large 
crops of sugar than any which will be likely to be introduced." This last opinion 
expressed by the speaker has been fully sustained by subsequent experiments. In 
spite of an introduction and thorough trial of over one hundred foreign varieties, 
the purple and striped varieties are still occupying nearly all of our cane fields, and 
will doubtless remain unless superseded by some of the seedlings (mentioned 
below) now so full of promise. 

Mr. P. M. La Pice, on his return from Java in 1872, brought back with him 
the white cane known by his name, and called in Java "Light Java" or Canne Pana- 
chee. This cane is extensively cultivated and yields well both in quantity and quality 
of sugar and molasses. 

Mr. Du Champ imported the Purple Elephant cane in 1875, and Mr. Palfrey, 
of St. Mary Parish, introduced about the same time the Bourbon variety, which 
has locally been styled the "Palfrey." 

During Mr. Le Due's incumbency of the Commissioner of Agriculture at 
Washington (1877), he had imported a peculiar variety of cane from Japan, called 
"Zwinga," or Japanese cane. It was a very hardy variety, but of no value to the 
planters of Louisiana. 

In 1886, the Sugar Experiment Station, through the kind offices of Com- 
missioner Coleman, began the importation of foreign canes and now has growing 
on its grounds over seventy-five varieties. 

But the efforts to increase our sugar yields by the selection and acclimation 
of foreign varieties has been entirely superseded by the discovery of the ability of 
the cane seed (heretofore thought to be infertile) to germinate and produce 
"seedlings." 

Accordingly, every sugar country is now at work producing "seedlings" and 
selecting therefrom those promising the largest tonnage with the highest sugar con- 
tent. 

The Sugar Experiment Station, of Audubon Park, has been experimenting 
with seedlings, and has already distributed large quantities of two of the most prom- 
ising varieties, Nos. 74 and 95, to the planters of the State. It is expected that these 
seedlings will greatly increase the output of our sugar houses when universally cul- 
tivated. 

SUGAR OUTPUT OF LOUISIANA. 

The success of Etienne De Bore's trials gave a powerful stimulus to the sugar 
industry of Louisiana. Slaves were imported in great numbers, plantations were 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 657 

rapidly seeded in cane and sugar houses were erected. So great was the increase that 
New Orleans in 1802 received over 200,000 gallons of rum, 250,000 gallons of mo- 
lasses and 5,000,000 pounds of sugar. In 1818 the yield of sugar had grown to 25,- 
000 hogsheads. 

In 1822 another impetus was given the industry by the introduction of steam 
power for the crushing of canes. Thenceforward the industry grew gradually until 
1844, when the crop was doubled. It is true that various causes, local and national, 
influenced a great fluctuation in yields during this time. Freezes, overflows and 
variations in the price of cotton and sugar, were some of the local disturbances ; while 
national legislation then, as now, had a profound effect upon the industry. 

In 1828 there were 308 estates, with an invested capital of $34,000,000. Of 
these estates 82 used steam power, and the rest horse. These estates were cultivated 
by 21,000 slaves. Mention has been made of the occasional interference of the cot- 
ton crop with the sugar industry. Growing side by side with sugar in the upper 
sugar parishes, it has invaded or retreated from the sugar area, just as the prices 
of the two fluctuated. If cotton was high and sugar low, cotton was cultivated, and 
if the reverse sugar was grown. In 1835 sugar fell to six cents per pound, a price 
then regarded as too low for the profitable cultivation of this crop, and many sugar 
planters turned their attention to cotton,asRisting in increasing this crop in Louisiana 
for 1836 to 225,000 bales. This condition of affairs prevailed until the price of 
sugar, stimulated by the tariff of 1842, had again risen, and cotton, from overpro- 
duction, had declined. Thereupon numerous planters again deserted cotton and 
resumed the cultivation of cane. We therefore find in 1843 and 1844, 762 sugar es- 
tates (of which 408 were using steam power) with a capital of $60,000,000, and cul- 
tivated by 51,000 slaves. The following table, taken from the Patent Office report 
of 1844, will show the parishes, w-ith yields in that year: 

Hogsheads. Hogsheads. 

St. Mary 15,311 Jefferson 5,453 

Ascension 10,633 West Baton Rouge 3,087 

Iberville 9,644 St. Martin 2,621 

St. James 9,350 East Baton Rouge 2,334 

La Fourche 6,732 St. Bernard 2,026 

Plaquemines 6,641 Lafayette 908 

Terrebonne 6,366 Orleans 778 

Assumption 6,256 St. Landry 395 

St. Charles 5,822 Pointe Coupee 246 

St. John the Baptist 5,743 

Total 100,346 



658 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

The industry had then covered very nearly the same territory now occupied 
by it. 

The industry made rapid strides in the early forties, both local and national, 
conditions being propitious for large crops with remunerative prices. In 1845 there 
were 737 old sugar houses and 367 new ones, or a total of 1,104. Most of the new 
houses were erected on former cotton plantations, and it is recorded that many small 
cotton planters became cane growers, and not having the means to erect sugar houses 
on their own places had the cane ground at the mills of their neighbors. During this 
year (1845) seventy-two engines were added to the sugar houses of the State. 

During these years many of the former cotton plantations of East and West 
Feliciana, Pointe Coupee, Avoyelles and Eapides, were converted into sugar estates, 
and it was found that the abandoned cotton lands of the Felicianas, which had been 
in cultivation for thirty years, and were too badly worn to be further profitable in 
cotton culture, would grow luxuriant crops of cane. The Daily Delta records the 
cane as the equal to any found in the rich alluvium of the Mississippi, "a fact which 
comes as near raising the dead as anything we have ever witnessed." The first suc- 
cessful experiment of converting a cotton plantation into a sugar estate was made 
by the Messrs. Perkins, and was soon followed by scores of the leading planters of 
East and West Feliciana parishes. This successful extension of the sugar industry 
into the cotton fields alarmed the planters of the coast, who positively asserted that 
in the near future their most formidable competitor in the production of sugar would 
be found in the entire cotton region of the State, and would cause a radical change 
of views of the planters as to the necessity of a tariff on sugar. Some even asserted 
that the tariff of 1842 would impel the whole cotton region of Louisiana into the 
cultivation of cane. In 1849, in spite of crevasses on the Mississippi and its out- 
lying bayous, and the destructive overflow of the Red Eiver, there were made 269,- 
769 hogsheads in 1,455 sugar houses; 113 new plantations were brought under cane 
for the first time, "62 of which will make sugar in 1850 and 19 in 1851." This esti- 
mate did not include sis new cane plantations in the parish of Concordia, Louisiana, 
and the county of Wilkinson, Mississippi. Texas, too, was increasing her areas in 
cane, and this j-ear had 35 estates yielding 10,000 hogsheads of sugar. There were 
355 new sugar mills and engines introduced in Louisiana between 1846 and 1849. 

In 1850 crevasses in Pointe Coupee and West Baton Kouge parishes and the 
Bonnet Carre of St. John, did great damage to the sugar crop. These, with early 
fall freezes, including the "severest remembered" on 7th December "destroying all 
standing and greatly injuring the windrowed canes" materially shortened the crop 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 659 

of this year, Botwithstanding the increased culture on old plantations and the open- 
ing of many new ones, 1,490 sugar houses making only 211,201 hogsheads. 

At the end of this year the improvement in the price of cotton deterred many 
from entering into the sugar industry and caused some planters on the "border" to 
return to cotton. Very few new engines and mills were bought. 

In 1851 only 1,474 sugar houses were in operation and the output was 235,547 
hogsheads. The cane was very green, 70 gallons of molasses being obtained to every 
1,000 pounds of sugar. There were crevasses on the Mississippi and one each on 
Bayous Plaquemine and La Fourche. In 1852 the crop was fair and sugar content 
large, the juice everywhere weighing 9 deg., to 10^ deg. Baume, 1,481 sugar houses 
yielding 321,934 hogsheads. Only two small crevasses reported. 

In 1853 prices of sugar were very low, wood and coal very high, former $5.50 
per cord, and the latter $2.00 per barrel. Much sickness among the negroes. The 
crop was, nevertheless, very large, 1,437 sugar houses turning out 449,322 hogs- 
heads. 

The low price of sugar drove planters back to cotton, so that in 1854 there were 
only 1,324 sugar houses, with an output of 346,635 hogsheads. In 1855 a frost on 
October 23d was very destructive and reduced the sugar yield in 1,299 houses to 
231,427 hogsheads. But the climax of low yields was reached in 1856. The freeze 
of the previous October had destroyed stubbles and injured seed cane, and the 
severe storm of August which inundated "Last Island" with destruction of many 
lives, aided by the cane-borer which had been introduced into Louisiana only a few 
years before, all combined to reduce the crop of sugar to 73,296 hogsheads made in 
931 houses, "over 400 houses doing nothing." This was a year of disaster and gloom 
to the sugar planters of Louisiana. It occasioned the National appropriation for 
the renewal of seed cane described elsewhere. 

Hon. Judge P. A. Eost, father of our present president of the Sugar Planters' 
Association, in a letter to the Louisiana State Agricultural Society, in January, 
1857, strives to picture better prospects for the future, and recites the destruction of 
the cane-borer by the severe cold of 1855, the excellent quality and unusual quantity 
of seed cane for 1857, the liberal aid afforded by general government in procuring 
new varieties from abroad, and closes by asserting that the cane crop was as certain 
as any other that could be grown and would continue to increase in the future as in 
the past. 

His prophecy was fully verified, for in 1857, despite a frost on April 2nd, 
"which cut the young canes to the ground" and the severe frost of 19th and 20th 
of November, 1,294 sugar houses turned out 279,697 hogsheads. 



66o STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

In 1858 the Bell and LaBranehe crevasses, with frost in the upper parishes 
early in November, reduced acreage and yield, yet 1,298 sugar-houses yielded 362,- 
296 hogsheads. 

The crops of 1859-60 were again small, but the crop of 1861, made after the out- 
break of the war, was unprecedented in Louisiana's history, 459,410 hogsheads. 

With the war came destruction, complete and effective. The slaves were freed, 
sugar houses destroyed, many of the owners killed, or died during the war. Land 
values were greatly reduced, labor disorganized and credit absolutely destroyed. 
The industry was thrown back where it was in 1795 directly after De Bore's success, 
with this difference, then (1795) labor was organized and abundant, lands plentiful 
and planters ready and eager, and financially able, to embark in the sugar industry. 

In 1865-66 the lands, and the willingness of the planters to re-establish the 
sugar industry, were the only potent factors. Labor and capital were wanting, and 
both had greatly to be coaxed ere a beginning could be made. But ''Tiuman fortitude 
is equal to human calamity," and many a brave heart and strong arm undertook to 
recuperate his lost fortune and restore the sugar industry of Louisiana. But the 
changed relations of proprietor and laborer, of the merchant and planter, caused 
many a failure and hence a rapid transfer of estates from old to new owners. No- 
where in the South was there presented a sadder spectacle than that enacted in 
Louisiana soon after the close of the war, by the forced abandonment of so many 
ancestral homes by Creoles of the highest type of gentility and blood. During and 
after the war up to 1870, the sugar industry was very precarious, at no time did the 
yield reach 100,000 hogsheads. In 1870, notwithstanding late planting, and frosts 
in November, 1,105 sugar houses yielded 144,881 hogsheads. Fifty-two of these 
sugar houses had vacuum pans or other improved methods of evaporating. 
Throughout the seventies, the sugar crop fluctuated between 89,498 hogsheads in 
1873, and 213,221 hogsheads in 1878. In 1873 there were large crevasses, and in 
1874 there were destroyed 25,000 acres of cane by overflows. In 1875 many planters 
went into rice culture. There were 91,761 acres of cane ground in the mills this 
year, which were increased over twenty per cent in 1876. 

The year 1877 was marked by a storm in September and a freeze in November. 
The Sugar Planters' Association was organized on 27th of November of this year, 
with Hon. Duncan F. Kenner as president. The year 1878 was notable for its large 
cane crop and for the extensive epidemic of yellow fever throughout the South. In 
1879 twenty-two new vacuum pans were erected. In 1880 syrups were sent in con- 
siderable quantities for the first time to the refineries to be worked into grained 
sugar. 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 66 1 

The crop of 1881 was small and gathered from a decreased acreage, but the year 
is memorable in the history of the sugar industry by the creation by national legis- 
lation of the Mississippi River Commission, with an appropriation of $5,000,000 
with which to improve the navigation of the Mississippi and works connected there- 
with. This action promised great assistance (which has been fully realized) in the 
construction and maintenance of our levees, and sent thrills of joy to every planter's 
heart, that had so often suffered from the disastrous floods. 

In 1882, notwithstanding the "great" overflow which destroyed about 47,000 
acres of cane, there was harvested the largest sugar crop then made since the war; 
1883 followed with nearly as large a crop. The crevasses and floods reduced the 
crop of 1884 very materially. In 1885 a fair average crop was made. This year 
is memorable for the International Exposition held in New Orleans, and for the 
establishment by the planters of the State of "The Sugar Experiment Station," now 
domiciled at Audubon Park, New Orleans. 

The crop of 1886 was materially injured by the very severe freeze of January, 
the thermometer falling as low as 15 deg. F. at New Orleans. Since that year the 
sugar industry has gradually grown in acreage planted, in improvements in fertiliz- 
ing and cultivating the cane, and in the efficiency and capacity of the sugar houses. 

The drouth of 1889 greatly reduced the crop and caused much discussion as to 
the efficacy of irrigation, which has since been permanently adopted on several plan- 
tations. 

The heavy and continuous rains of the fall and early winter in 1898 gave a 
very "green" crop, which was harvested at great expense. 

The unprecedented freeze of February, 1899, the thermometer going down to 
6 deg. F., at New Orleans, destroyed the stubble and injured the seed cane, cutting 
the crop short fully two-thirds. The number of sugar houses in this State are gradu- 
ally diminishing, but the aggregate capacity is steadily increasing In October, 
1891, under the operations of the bounty, there were about 700 sugar houses in this 
State, now (1900) there are not more than 350 in actual operation. The prospects 
for the present crop (1900) are very flattering, and with favorable seasons the 
largest crop in our history may be expected. 



662 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 



The following table from Bouchereau shows the quantity of sugar raised in 
Louisiana for the years 1823 to 1899, inclusive of both years, in tons of 2,240 
pounds each: 



Years. Tons. 

]823 15,401 

1824 11,807 

1825 15,401 

1826 23,101 

1827 36,450 

1828 45,178 

1829 24,642 

1830 

1831 

1832 35,931 

1833 37,482 

1834 51,339 

1835 15,401 

1836 35.937 

1837 28,925 

1838 35,927 

1839 59,049 

1840 44,065 

1841 46,257 

1842 71,878 



Years. Tons. 

1843 51,347 

1844 102,678 

1845 142,723 

1846 70,995 

1847 123,214 

1848 112,964 

1849 120,465 

1850 103,111 

1851 115,197 

1852 164,312 

1853 224,188 

1854 177,349 

1855 113,664 

1856 36,813 

1857 137,542 

1858 185,206 

1859 113,410 

1860 117,431 

1861 235,856 

1862 



Years. Tons. 

1863 39.690 

1864 5,331 

1865 9,289 

1866 21,074 

1867 19,289 

1868 42,617 

1869 44,382 

1870 75,369 

1871 65,635 

1872 55,891 

1S73 46,078 

1S74 60,100 

1875 72,958 

1876 85,102 

1877 65,835 

1878 106,909 

1&V9 88,836 

1880 121,886 

1881 71,304 

1882 136,167 



Y^ears. Tons. 

1883 128,318 

1884 94,372 

1885 127,958 

1886 80,858 

1887 157,970 

1888 144,878 

1889 128,343 

1890 215,843 

1891 160,937 

1892 201,816 

1893 265,836 

1894 317,306 

1895 237,720 

1896 282,009 

1897 310,447 

1898 245,511 

1899. Not known. 



■ ' OBSTACLES TO SUGAR CULTURE. 

are many and varied, and a recital of the trials endured and successes fully 
mastered by the sugar planters from the day of De Bore to the present time would 
fill more space than allotted us. Many of these obstacles are such as are encountered 
in the cultivation of any one crop. Drouths and excessive rainfalls are injurious 
to crops everywhere, while severe cold frequently destroys the wheat crop of the 
Xorth. From a climatic standpoint, therefore, the culture of sugar cane presents 
no more obstacles than accompanies the cultivation of other crops. Year in and 
year out it is about as certain as our cotton or wheat crops, and no one has ever yet 
assigned a failure in either of these crops to their being exotic and unadaptable to 
our climate. 

LEVEES. 

The most serious obstacle our planters have encountered in the past has been 
the occasional crevasses and overflows, destroying the growing crop of cane. A 
plantation cannot be renewed in cane as quickly as with cotton. Frequently our 
cotton planter follows the receding flood waters, sowing cotton seed, and sometimes 
our largest and best cotton crops are made from sowings thiis made, following an 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 663 

overflow. But not so with sugar cane, where the stalks are planted. It requires 
from two to six tons of canes to plant an acre, and when an entire plantation of grow- 
ing cane is destroyed, several years will be required to grow seed enough to replant 
it and re-establish the prevailing rotation. Hence crevasses and overflows, serious 
even to cotton growers, are almost fatal to sugar planters. In the past our levees 
have been temporary, and broke in almost every high water. The great floods of 
1874, 1882 and 1884 remain as horrid nightmares in the memories of our planters. 
Fortunately, the national government, after years of neglect and indifference, 
recognized its obligation to the riparian dwellers of the Mississippi in the creation of 
the Mississippi Eiver Commission in 1881, whose duty it is to improve the naviga- 
tion of the river and works connected therewith. It therefore includes the construc- 
tion and maintenance of the levees. This action on the part of the national govern- 
ment was promptly seconded and supplemented in Louisiana by the creation of 
Levee Districts in various portions of the State, each to be governed by a Levee 
Board, with power to issue bonds, collect specific taxes and erect and maintain 
efficient levees. From the issue of bonds and the proceeds of levee taxes, supple- 
mented with appropriations from the Mississippi Eiver Commission, the levees of the 
State have been rebuilt, strengthened and raised three feet above the highest waters 
known. It has been clearly shown that dirt properly placed, and an abundance of 
money, can keep the Mississippi from our lands even in the highest floods. It is 
believed that the day of overflows is gone. It is true that caving banks, crayfish 
holes, etc., may even now occasionally produce a crevasse and temporarily overflow 
a restricted area of land, yet a general overflow, caused by extreme high water, is 
now believed to be impossible. There are several Levee Districts in the State. On the 
right bank of the Mississippi, running close to its mouth, is the "Buras." Above 
this, and extending up to the intersection of the La Fourehe with the Mississippi 
Eiver, is the La Fourehe. Beyond the La Fourehe and running up to the Atehafa- 
laya Eiver, is the "Atchafalaya." Beyond the Eed Eiver and extending up to the 
Arkansas Line, is the "Fifth Levee District." In the interior of North Louisiana, 
extending from the Bayou Macon on the East, to the Ouachita on the West, is a sec- 
tion of country which is flooded whenever the levees on the Mississippi in lower 
Arkansas are broken. This section is incorporated into the "Tensas Levee District," 
and uses its funds to protect the levees in Arkansas. Eeturning to the left bank of 
the Mississippi, the "Ponchartrain" District begins at Baton Eouge and extends 
to the upper limits of the city of New Orleans. The city of New Orleans is a separ- 
ate Levee District. From the lower limits of the city southward to the gulf, is the 
"Lake Borgne" District. 



664 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

In the neighborhood of Alexandria, is the "Red River, Bayou Boeuf and Atcha- 
falaya" District, while around Shreveport, on the upper Red River, are the "Caddo" 
and the "Bossier" Levee Districts. These Levee Districts are controlled, each by a 
separate "Board," the members of which are appointed by the Governor of the State. 
With the assistance of the State Engineers, they build and maintain the levees of the 
State, utilizing the funds derived from taxes, self-imposed by the dwellers in each 
District, upon their own lands and products. They have succeeded, with the help 
of the national government, in erecting powerful levees everywhere, at a cost high up 
in the millions, and maintain them during flood periods. Such confidence is now re- 
posed in Levees, that the dwellers on the Mississippi River in flood seasons feel 
almost as safe as those who occupy the bluff and hill lands of the State. 

This great obstacle, if not the greatest, to the sugar industry of this State is 
now happily reduced to a minimum, if not entirely removed. 

TARIFF ON SUGAR. 

The first duty imposed on sugar by the national government was in 1789, of one 
cent per pound on brown and three cents upon loaf sugars. These duties were aug- 
mented in 1790, 1797 and 1800. In the last year the duty on brown sugar was raised 
to two and one-half cents, and that of loaf sugar to five cents per pound. During 
the war of 1818, the duty was raised to five cents, but was lowered to three cents in 
1816. These duties were imposed at a time when there was not only no sugar made 
in the United States, but when there were no lands within its limits suitable for 
cane culture. They were levied for "revenue only," and continued up to 1832, when 
the "compromise act" was adopted. This act gave a gradually reducing tariff each 
year. Under its operation prices of sugar fluctuated greatly, more in consonance 
with demand and supply, than in response to the tariff ; for it must be remembered 
that the world's demand for sugar at that time was exceedingly limited. A series of 
large crops both in Cuba and Louisiana, prior to 1843, had caused a serious depres- 
sion in the prices of sugar. At the same time the compromise act had reached its 
height and afforded but little or no protection. Accordingly an universal demand 
arose for higher protection, which resulted in the tariff of 1842, giving two and one- 
half cents per pound on brown sugar. In this connection, it may be of interest to 
many readers to insert a "call" to attend a meeting of the sugar planters at Donald- 
Bonville, La., on May 16th, 1842. The call states: "It is confidently hoped that all 
those who are of the opinion that nothing short of effective Federal Legislation can 
save the sugar planters from the absolute ruin brought upon them by the struggle 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 665 

of the last seven or eight years between them and foreign labor, will not fail to at- 
tend." This call was dated April 28th, 1842, and was signed by E. D. Shepperd, 
Louis Labranche, Etienne Lauve, A. B. Roman, S. M. Roman, J. T. Roman, Y. 
Aime, Charles A. Jacobs, P. Landreaux, Andry & Boudousquie, A. Hoa, G. L. Fus- 
ilier, Charles Grevemberg, G. Derbigny, E. Roman, L. Millaudon, J. B. Oliver, 
Duncan F. Kenner, W. B. Kenner, W. W. Montgomery, P. A. Rost, P. M. Lapice, 
H. Lavergne, C. Adams, Jr., Gabriel Villere, Calliste Villere, Jules Villere, Felix 
Villere, Andole Villere, Widow A. Fusilier, Samuel Fagot, C. Zeringue, Silvestre 
Roman, J. Toutant, and S. R. Proctor. 

Many a reader will recall perhaps an ancestor or a relative in the above list of 
planters. 

The tariff of 1842 was supplanted by another in 1846, which continued in oper- 
ation up to 1857. This tariff established a tax of 30 per cent ad valorem. This 
diminished tariff did not affect prices very materially for several years after its 
adoption, on account of the small crops in Cuba. However, when the crops of both 
Cuba and Louisiana increased yearly, culminating in Louisiana in 1853, in the un- 
precedented yield of 450,000 hogsheads, then prices fell to two and three and a half 
cents, and crops barely paid the expenses of making them. In 1855-56 short crops 
in both Cuba and Louisiana forced the prices up, which reached a maximum in 1856. 
In 1857 the tariff was lowered to 24 per cent, ad valorem, and so remained until the 
war. During the war it fluctuated from three-quarter cents to three cents per 
pound. 

After the war, up to 1869, the rate of duty collected on brown sugar was three 
cents per pound. In the winter of that year a new schedule was adopted that re- 
duced the average collected to about two cents per pound. This reduction was quite 
severe upon Louisiana, and the years immediately following its adoption witnessed 
the failures of many merchants and planters. 

In 1873 the financial needs of the government led to the addition of 25 per cent 
to the above average, and made the amount collected about 2i cents per pound. This 
protection gave a healthy advance to the sugar industry which has continued almost 
without interruption ever since. In 1890 all tariff on unrefined sugar was removed 
and a bounty of IJ and 2 cents per pound was paid to every producer of domestic 
sugar. This lasted through the administration of President Benj. Harrison. Soon 
after the inauguration of Mr. Cleveland, the laws were changed, the bounties abol- 
ished and an ad valorem of 40 per cent, with differentials of one-eighth and one- 
tenth of a cent per pound, was levied upon sugars. This change of laws, just at a 



666 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

time when the world's markets were overstocked with sugar, and when a financial 
panic prevailed everywhere, bore very heavily upon our planters, many of whom had 
large contracts for improved machinery, and sent a few into involuntary bankruptcy. 
However, the industry was too firmly established to be destroyed, and the planters 
had too much money invested in improved sugar factories to discontinue the cultiva- 
tion of cane. While a few planters made money under the Wilson tariff, the majority 
simply held their own. 

Soon after the inauguration of President McKinley, the Dingley Bill was en- 
acted, giving to sugar the following protection, viz : 

SCHEDULE E. 

Sugar, Molasses, and Manufacturers of : 

209. Sugars not above number sixteen Dutch standard in color, tank bot- 
toms, syrups of cane juice, melada, concentrated melada, concrete and concentrated 
molasses testing by the polariscope not above seventy-five deg., ninety-five one- 
hundredths of one cent per pound, and for every additional degree shown by the 
polariscopic test, thirty-five one-thousandths of one cent per pound additional, and 
fractions of a degree in proportion; and on sugar above number sixteen Dutch 
standard in color, and on all sugar which has gone through a process of refining, 
one cent and ninety-five one-hundredths of one cent per pound; molasses testing 
forty deg., and not above fifty-six deg., three cents per gallon; testing fifty-six deg., 
and above, six cents per gallon; sugar drainings and sugar sweepings shall be sub- 
ject to duty as molasses or sugar, as the case may be according to polariscopic tests, 
provided that nothing herein contained shall be so construed as to abrogate or in 
any manner impair or affect the provisions of the treaty of commercial reciprocity 
concluded between the United States and the King of the Hawaiian Islands on the 
30th day of January, ISTS, or the provisions of any act of Congress heretofore passed 
for the execution of the same. 

210. Maple sugar and Maple syrup, four cents per pound; glucose or grape 
sugar, one and one-half cents per pound ; sugar cane in its natural state or unmanu- 
factured, twenty per centum ad valorem. 

211. Saccharine, one dollar and fifty cents per pound and ten per centum ad 
valorem. 

212. Sugar candy and all confectionery not specially provided for in this act, 
valued at fifteen cents per pound or less, and on sugars after being refined, when 
tinctured, colored or in any way adulterated, four cents per pound and fifteen per 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 667 

ecntinn ad valorem; valued at more than fifteen cent-; per pound, fifty per centum 
ad valorem. The weight and the value of the immediate coverings, other than the 
outer packing case or other covering, shall be included in the dutiable weight and 
the value of the merchandise. 

This bill is now in operation, and but for local conditions, which produced an 
unusually "green" crop in 1898 and a very small crop in 1899 (described elsewhere) 
would have been of valuable assistance to our planters in their earnest efforts to en- 
large and improve their factories and to extend the area in cane. The crop of the 
present year will doubtless be a very large one, and if good prices of sugar prevail 
it will afford the means of accomplishing further improvements all along the lines 
ef our sugar industry. 

The following condensed table will show rates of duty on brown sugar since the 
establishment of the United States : 

Act of Cents per pound, 

July 4, 1789 Ic. 

Aug. 10, 1790 l^c. 

Mch. 3, 1797 2c. 

May 13, 1800 24c. 

July 1, 1812 5c. 

Apl. 27, 1816 3c. 

July 14, 1832 2|c. 

Aug. 30, 1842 2ic. 

July 30, 1846 30 per e. 

Mch. 3, 18.57 24 per c. 

Mch. 2, 1861 5c. 

Aug. 5, 1861 2c. 

Dec. 24, 1861 24c. 

June 30, 1864 3c. 

Dee. 22, 1870 IJc. to 25c. 

Mch. 3, 1883 IJc. to 2^0. 

Mch. 3, 1890 Free ; bounty given of 

Ifc. and 2 cents. 

Mch. 3, 1894 40 per cent and ^ 

and 1-lOth. 

Mch. 3, 1898 l|c. to 1.95c. 



From 1890 to 1893 is the only period in the history of the United States thai 
brown sugar was admitted free. All other times it has had a duty averaging about 
two cents per pound. The tax on sugar was sometimes low, but this important 



668 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

source of revenue was never entirely discarded save during the existence of the 
bount}'. The highest rate ever imposed was five cents temporarily during the war 
of 1812. The Act of March, 1861, imposed the very low rate of f cent per pound 
following the ad valorem of 24 per cent which had been in force for four years. War 
exigencies speedily brought about an increase, which in 1864 was placed at three 
cents. 

PROGRESS OF THE SUGAR INDUSTRY. 

The fir.st impulse to impro\ements in the sugar house was given by the intro- 
duction of the steam engine as a propelling power of the sugar mill, by Mr. John J. 
Coiron, in 1822. The first engines and mills were extravagant in price, costing $12,- 
000 and were imported, chiefly by Gordon and Forstall. This large cost deterred 
many planters from using them. Soon, however, foundries in this country began 
their manufacture and reduced the price to $5,000 — $6,000 placing them within the 
reach of the less wealthy planters. The planters began to purchase freolv and by 
1828 there were 82 estates using steam power. The number gradually increased 
until to-day steam power is virtually used all over the State; only four horse 
mills are reported as making sugar, in Bouchereau's Sugar Eeport for 1898-09. 

In 1845 there were 72 engines and mills introduced into Louisiana, coming 
from Pittsburg, Cincinnati, Louisville, New York, Philadelphia and Eichmond. 
Mr. T. A. Morgan, of Orange Grove Plantation, of the lower coast, had the honor 
of first introducing the vacuum pan in 1830. Almost simultaneously Mr. A'alcour 
Aime and Messrs. Gordon & Forstall followed Mr. Morgan's example. The results 
of the vacuum pan were watched with an interest scarcely less than that exhibited 
in De Bore's first attempt at sugar making. It was a success from the start. Mr. 
Valcour Aime, of St. James, and Messrs. Gordon & Forstall, along with the pan, 
imported other improved machinery and the best chemicals for refining purposes. 
Their experiments were wonderfully successful, producing a very high grade of 
refined sugar. ^Ir. Y. Aime continued his refinery up to his retirement from active 
life in 1854, when he turned it over to his son-in-law, Mr. Fortier. His first men- 
tion of refining sugar was in Xovember, 1834. 

It is recorded that a shipment of refined sugar by Gordon & Forstall to New 
York at this time, attracted much attention, secured a gold medal for its ex- 
cellence and changed the trend of opinion on the tariff in Congress. Messrs. 
Livingston & Johnson had recentlj', on the floor of the Senate, in response to in- 
terrogatories of Eastern men who were clamorous for the removal of tariff on 
refined sugar, confessed the inability of Louisiana producers to make refined sugar. 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 669 

The arrival of this sugar on the market of New York controverted the above state- 
ment and induced Congress to continue the tariff with the hope and expectation 
that Louisiana would soon furnish all the sugar required by the United States. 

Mr. Yalcour Aime, in a review of McCulloh's Report in De Bore's Review, 
says : "I attempted without success some expensive experiments for making white 
sugar in 1830. I tried, in connection with a common set of kettles, in 1832, the 
bascule pan, and in 1833 the serpentine test, and ascertained that with good canes 
no definite advantage can be derived from either. In 1834 I bought moulds, pro- 
cured the bag filters of Taylor, to filter my cane juice when boiled in the common 
kettles to 30 degrees Baume, ordered from London one of Howard's vacuum 
pans, and began to refine." In 1840 his sugar maker "was sent to Europe for the 
filter Peyron," but "he returned with another on Dumont's plan." "In 1845 I 
procured Derosne's apparatus." "In 1846 Mr. Lapiee put up one of Derosne's 
apparatus, made at 'Novelty Works, New York,' with tigers when I kept to my 
moulds." 

It may here be remarked that Mr. V. Aime records his first use of coal as a fuel 
in 1840, and his first centrifugal in 1858, and his first bagasse furnace in 1853. 

He records the blossoming of sugar cane in 1803 and 1843 on his own 
plantation. 

Mr. P. M. La Pice reports in 1846 that he had "a double pressure mill which 
extracts nearly all the juice from the cane and fits the bagasse in the best possible 
manner for manure, which is fit for immediate use." 

In 1844 Mr. Norbert RiellieuXj a native of Louisiana, but educated in France, 
invented what was known as the Riellieux apparatus, and now familiar to us under 
the "double," "triple" and "multiple" effects, and installed one on the Packwood 
plantation, now Myrtle Grove, below the city. In a letter to the Commissioner of 
Patents at Washington, Mr. Riellieux claims that this apparatus would make 12,000 
to 18,000 pounds of sugar, with only 14 gallons of molasses to every 1,000 pounds 
of sugar; that with the bagasse from cane, only one cord of wood was necessary 
to make 1,000 pounds of sugar. 

In 1846, a committee of the Agricultural and Mechanical Association of 
Louisiana, upon sugar, gave the prizes for best sugar as follows : First, to Pack- 
wood; second, to Packwood & Benjamin; third, to Verloin Degruys; first and 
second made by Riellieux's patent sugar boiling apparatus, and third by N. Riel- 
lieux's vacuum pan. The committee says that next year the following estates will 
use Riellieux's apparatus: Armant, of St. James; A. Lesseps, of Plaquemine; 
A^erloin Degruy, of Jefferson, and Chauvin & Levois, of St. Charles." 



670 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

* In 1847 a Eiellieux apparatus of the largest size was erected in connection 
with a refinery on the plantation of Mr. J. B. Armant, of St. James Parish, and 
Mr. P. M. Lapice, of the same parish, has erected a magnificent sugar house and 
refinery on the largest scale, with the apparatus of Derosne & Call in its most im- 
proved form, and these experiences will decide the question of superiority iu point 
of efficacy between the two systems. (J. P. Benjamin in De Bore's Eeview.) 

Avequin first explained the action of lime as a defecating agent and discovered 
the presence of "cerosin" on the stalks of cane. 

In 1849, Mons. Melsens, Professor State Veterinary and Agricultural College, 
Belgium, took oiit patents for the use of bisulphite of lime in clarifying cauo 
juice. Soon after, the Melsens process was tried by many planters in Louisiana. 

In 1854 Thompson's Bagasse Burner was introduced on Gossett & John- 
son's plantation, at 19-Mile Point, on the right bank of the Mississippi Eiver. 
It was claimed for this burner that the green bagasse from the mill, without the aid 
of wood or blowers, would furnish ample steam for running engine and other 
purposes. 

In 1855, Mr. F. D. Richardson, of St. Mary Parish, patented a process fur 
drawing the masse cuite from the kettles by means of a pipe rivetted to the bottom 
and penetrating the wall, enclosed by a stop valve, which is raised when the kettle 
is to be emptied. 

The first steamboat that ever floated on the Mississippi entered the port of 
New Orleans in January, 1812, being the steamer New Orleans from Pittsburg. 
The growing sugar industry soon availed itself of this method of transportation 
and up to a few years since, steamers transported nearly all of the sugar and 
molasses of this State to market. Now the railroads transport by far the greater 
part. 

Since the war, so many new inventions and devices have been tried that it 
would require more space than can be spared in this article to enumerate them. 

Mr. John Dymond, of Belair, was the first planter to adopt the scales for 
weighing his cane. The Cora Plantation had erected the first nine-roller mill. 
Five or six rollers had been common before the erection of this mill. Crushers 
and shredders are now extensively used for preparing the canes for the mill. 
Various devices have been patented for transferring cane from carts to cars and 
from cars to the carrier. Filter-presses, both mud and juice, are now universally 
used. Crystallization in movement is practiced upon several plantations. Vari- 
ously constructed sulphur machines are to be found. Superheaters are used iu 
many sugar houses. 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 671 

Diffusion was first introduced in 1873, but was not successful; was again 
experiijiented witli by the government in 1886, and since that time eleven batteries 
in Louisiana and Texas have been erected and are now in successful operation. 

THE PROGKESS IX AGRICL'LTURE 

has been very marked in recent years. The first record of tlie use of guano 
as a fertilizer was in 1853. To-day thousands of tons of commercial fertilizers 
are used annually. The large turn and disc plows invert the soil with its cover 
of cow peas. Improved disc and other cultivators are used by nearly all of 
the planters. Stubble .shavers and diggers supplant hoe labor in the stubble 
crops of cane. Fertilizer distributors deposit the fertilizers upon both sides 
of the row at once. Improved lister or double mould-board plows aid in reduc- 
ing the cost of bedding land. Heavy double rollers compress the dirt on planted 
canes. Harrows of every kind are available in our markets. 

The cane cutter or harvester has not yet materialized, although a standing 
prize of $3,500, by the Sugar Planters' Association, awaits the successful inventor. 

THE GROWING OF SUGAR CANE AND ITS MANUFACTURE INTO SYRUP, SUGAR AND 
MOLASSES, AS AT PRESENT PRACTICED IN LOUISIANA. 

Sugar cane is a gigantic grass of the genus "Saccharum." All cultivated 
varieties are classified under one species, "Saccharum officinarium." Cane goes to 
seed in tropical countries, but the seed are small and often infertile, with much 
adhering pappus and are very difficult to germinate. They are never used for 
planting the crop, but are germinated in experimental work for originating new 
varieties (seedlings). The cane crop of the world is propagated by planting the 
stalks, as in Louisiana, or the tops of the stalks, as is practiced in many tropical 
countries. 

The stalks are made of Joints and at each joint is a bud or eye, which de- 
velops by planting into a stalk. Each stalk soon tillers until a bunch of stalks is 
produced. 

PREPARATION AND CULTIVATION. 

The ground is thoroughly broken with disc or mould board plows, drawn 
by four to eight mules; rows five to seven feet wide are thrown up with two- 
horse plows. An open furrow is made in the center of the row with a double 
mould board plow. Into this open furrow are deposited two to four continuous 
lines of canes. These are covered by a plow or cultivator, followed by hoes, and 



672 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

the ijrocess of planting is completed. Two to six tons of cane are iised to plant 
an acre. As soon as the cane begins to sprout, the rows are oS-barred on each 
side with a two-horse plow and the dirt covering the cane partially removed in 
order to hasten the process of germination. When a good stand of cane has been 
secured the dirt is returned, the middles of the rows are opened and the process 
of cultivation begins. This is accomplished with plows, cultivators and hoes, and 
continued until the cane is large enough to shade its rows and prevent the growth 
of weeds and grass when it is laid by. The ditches are then well opened and the 
quarter-drains cleaned. This is the final act in cultivation. Cultivation is best 
accomplished by the use of cultivators, the disc to straddle the row of cane, and the 
"diamond toothed" to split out the middles. 

Cane is planted at any time between September and April, that the conveniences 
of the planter and the weather and condition of the soil will permit. It is usually 
laid by in June or early in July. After "lay by" the cane grows rapidly, particu- 
larly if frequent showers at short intervals conspire with warm weather. 

In Louisiana the general harvest begins in October, and lasts till January. 
On account of the severity of our winters, cane must be harvested in the fall and 
early winter, or be killed by the frost. It is therefore only about eight or nine 
months old when worked in the sugar house. 

There are two processes of extracting the juice from the cane, by pressure and 
by diffusion. 

PRESSURE. 

The juice from the sugar cane is usually extracted by passing the canes 
through heavy iron rollers driven by powerful engines. A combination of from 
three to nine rollers constitutes a sugar mill. The more numerous the rollers, 
other conditions being the same, the greater the quantity of juice extracted. Many 
sugar houses have in front of their mills, crushers or shredders, which prepare 
the canes for the mill. Frequently after the canes have passed through the first 
set of rollers (usually three) they are saturated with water or steam and then 
passed through another set of rollers. By this process, known as "maceration," a 
larger extraction of juice is obtained, and it is universally practiced in large mill 
houses, giving extractions of 75 to 84 per cent of juice on the weight of the cane. 

The second process is by 

DIFFHSION. 

Beets have always been treated by the diffusion process to extract the juice. 
Recently the same process has been used with sugar cane. The process, briefly 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 673 

told, is as follows : The canes or beets are cut up into small pieces by specially 
designed knives and carried into large cast-iron cells, known as diffusors. There 
they are treated with hot water under pressure. Ten to sixteen cells constitute 
a battery. The juice is driven out by force from cell to cell over fresh chips, until 
it contains nearly as much sugar as the natural juice in the plant, when it is 
drawn off and sent to the juice tanks to await the treatment described further on. 
When water has passed over the chips a sufficient number of times to remove 
nearly all the sugar (a fact determined by chemical analysis), the cell is opened 
from its lower end and its contents dropped on a carrier, which conveys them away. 
When the cell is again closed below it is at once refilled with fresh chips from the 
top. In the continuous march of diffusion work, one cell is being emptied and one 
being filled all the time, the rest being filled with chips and closed, through which a 
constant flow of juice is circulating. To each cell is attached a heater or "calorisa- 
tor," and through this the juice is made to flow in its passage from cell to cell, 
and while passing is heated by the steam circulating in the inner pipes. 

CLARIFICATION. 

The juice obtained by mills or diffusion is subjected to the following treat- 
ment : If white or yellow sugar be desired the juice is treated with the gas obtained 
by burning sulphur. This bleaches it. It is then drawn into large copper vessels, 
holding from 400 to 1,500 gallons, with steam coils at the bottom, called "clarifiers." 
Here it is treated with milk of lime until the acidity of the juice is neutralized 
and then heated to near the boiling point of water. This treatment brings to the 
surface a heavy blanket of impurities, which is brushed off into another receptacle 
and finally sent into a filter press, where the juice is expressed and the solid im- 
purities remain imprisoned between the plates of the press. When the filter press 
is full of this solid substance, it is emptied and made ready for fresh work. Super- 
heated-clarifiers are used also in many factories. 

After cleaning the juice it is evaporated quickly to a syrup containing about 
40 per cent of sugar. This evaporation is performed in open pans, or in closed 
vessels, in each of which a partial vacuum is maintained. Direct steam is used in 
the former, while exhaust steam from the engines, pumps, etc., serves the latter. 
These closed vessels are called "effects," single, double, triple or quadruple, accord- 
ing to the number used. The principle is this: Exhaust steam is made to boil the 
juice in the first vessel where 10 to 15 degrees of vacuum (20 to 15 degrees of pres- 
sure) are maintained; the vapors from the first vessel are made to heat the juice 



674 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

in the second vessel where a vacuum of 25 to 28 degrees is held, etc. The vacuum 
in each vessel can be regulated at the pleasure of the operator, according to the 
number of vessels used. By this process the evaporation is performed at a minimum 
expense and at a temperature considerably below the boiling point of water, and 
thus escaping the danger of caramelizing sugar, which is frequently done in open 
vessels at high temperature. 

By either of these processes a syrup is obtained, which is sent to the vacuum 
strike pan, where it is granulated. This pan consists of a closed vessel with 
three or more interior coils, situated one above the other, through which the 
steam may circulate. To this pan is attached a vacuum pump, which removes 
the air and vapor (as fast as formed) from the pan. The vapor is then con- 
densed by a constant stream of water flowing through the pump. When the 
proper vacuum is obtained, usually 26 to 28 degrees, the syrup maker takes his 
first charge of syrup, turns heat into his lowest coil, and begins again the process 
of evaporation. By gradual charges enough syrup is concentrated to begin the 
formation of the grain. As the pan is filled, the different coils are opened and 
additional steam turned on. After concentrating the syrup to a sufficient density 
small grains begin to appear. These are examined at short intervals by removing a 
small quantity on a proof-stick, and when sufficiently numerous the process of 
building the grain begins. This is done by carefully feeding them with fresh 
syrup taken in, in small quantities, at short intervals. Finally the grain has 
grown to the proper size, the pan is full, and a strike must be made. Before the 
latter is performed full heat is turned in on all the coils, the grains are hardened 
and the entire mass cooked to the proper density. Then the bottom of the pan 
is opened and the stiff semi-fluid mixture of sugar and molasses, called "masse 
cuite," is emptied into a large mixer, where revolving paddles keep it from solidify- 
ing. From this mixer it is drawn into centrifugals which, revolving at the rate 
of 1,200 to 1,500 times per minute, throw out through the fine sieves the fluid 
molasses and retain the sugar. 

The molasses is caught in the lower basket and directed to a large receiving 
tank. After the molasses has been removed the sugar is washed with more or less 
water, or pure sugar syrup, according to the quality of sugar desired. In this 
way brown, yellow clarified or white sugar may be obtained, at the option of the 
operator, and are called first sugars. Frequently, when yellow clarified sugar is 
desired, the wash water contains a small quantity of some salt of tin to give the 
sugar a desirable yellow tint. 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 675 

The yellow clarified and white sugars thus made go at once into commerce. 
Sometimes the latter is granulated before offering it on the market. The instru- 
ment used is called a granulator and consists of a large, hollow revolving cylinder, 
so arranged that the sugar conveyed into it at one end is carried slowly through 
it, and during its passage is heated to expel the last trace of moisture. It emerges 
as granulated sugar and has the advantage of not caking, even in the dampest 
climate. The brown sugar made as above, formerly went into consumption as 
such, but now goes almost entirely to the refinery. 

The molasses thrown off by the centrifugals, in the above operation, is drawn 
up again into the vacuum pan and cooked either to grain with fresh syrup and cen- 
trifugalled or to such a density that when a small portion of it is drawn between 
the thumb and finger it will string out into a fine thread before breaking. When 
this density is obtained the mass is emptied either into crystallizers with motion 
made from paddles, where it grains quickly, or into iron wagons and rolled into 
a hot room, where a constant temperature of 110 to 115 degrees F., aids the 
granulation of the contained sugar. This process is called cooking to "string" 
and its sugars "string sugars," in contradistinction to "grain" and "grained 
sugars." In a few days, the mass either in the crystallizers or in hot room, be- 
comes charged with crystals and the latter are separated as before by centrifugals. 
It is almost impossible to obtain other than brown sugars by this process, and of 
course they go to the refineries. They are known as "second sugars," or seconds. 
The molasses from the second sugars is again subjected to the same treatment, 
and the sugars therefrom are called third sugars, or thirds. Sometimes fourths are 
made. The final molasses finds its way to the markets under the name of cen- 
trifugal molasses, either in barrels or in tank cars. It is black, thick and unin- 
viting, containing but little sugar, and it has very little value. 

"opek-kettle" factories. 

Unfortunately not all of our factories are so advanced. The open-kettle 
sugar houses still exist, although their number is gradually diminishing. The 
methods of extraction of juice by mills is similar to that described above. It is 
evaporated differently. Four large iron kettles arranged in a line, encased in 
brick, with a continuous furnace under them, constitute the outfit. These kettles, 
descending in regular order in size, are known as the "Grande," the "Flambeau," 
the "Sirop," and the "Batterie." The juice, after being sulphured, is drawn into the 
"Grande," where it is limed, heated and the scums removed. It is then dipped into 



6/6 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

the Flambeau, where it is brushed and cleaned, then passed to the Sirop, where 
it is further brushed, and finally into the Batterie, where it is concentrated to 
the granulating point — a density of about 45 degrees Baume, and with a tem- 
perature of about 240 degrees Fahrenheit. At this point it is dipped out and run 
into long troughs, called coolers, placed in the purgery. In a few days this "masse 
cuite" becomes solid, and preparations are then made for "potting." This process 
is as follows: In every open-kettle sugar house is a room called the "purgery." 
The floor of this room is cemented and inclines from every direction toward a large 
cemented cavity known as the molasses cistern. In this room the potting is done. 
Empty hogsheads are brought in and three one-inch sugar holes are bored into each 
bottom. Into each hole is inserted a large stalk of cane with the end cut in the 
shape of a triangular prism and its sides beveled. After placing the hogsheads 
in position they are filled with the "masse cuite" from the coolers. By the aid 
of spades and shovels the "masse cuite" is dug up, lumps pulverized and trans- 
ferred to the hogsheads. The molasses following the beveled edges of the canes 
percolates downward, and emerging through the auger holes in the bottom, flows 
over the cemented floor into the molasses cistern. In a few weeks the sugar is 
drained of its molasses. The hogshead of sugar is headed up and shipped ofE to 
market. Little or none of this sugar now reaches the consumer. It is sold to the 
refineries. 

It is not so with the molasses. If the operations have been carefully per- 
formed the molasses is excellent and commands fairly remunerative prices. It is 
called "open-kettle molasses," and is held in high esteem. Sometimes a small well 
is dug into the solid mass of the cooler. Into this well percolates the molasses 
which is dipped out as fast as it accumulates. This molasses is called "bleedings," 
and is in large request at high prices. But little, however, is made. 

Another product of the open-kettle sugar house is syrup or "sirop de batterie." 
This is the well clarified juice concentrated to a syrup in the batterie or last kettle, 
in which ordinarily the strike sugar is made. It is highly esteemed and early in 
the season fetches extravagant prices. 

Popular error exists as to the terms molasses and syrup. The former refers 
always to the drainings from the sugar, while the latter is the concentrated juice 
of the cane with all the sugar in it. The former will not easily ferment nor crys- 
tallize, and therefore can be kept for a long time. The latter, if too concentrated, 
will granulate, and if too thin will ferment. It therefore cannot be kept a very 
long time. 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 677 

STEAM TRAINS. 

Instead of evaporating the juice in kettles heated from underneath by an 
open fire, a series of pans are arranged, each with steam coils in the bottom. The 
juice is clarified and brushed in the first and concentrated in the remainder, the 
last one of which, the "strike pan," where a thermometer or hydrometer gives indi- 
cation of the proper concentration of the juice to either syrup or masse cuite, as 
desired. The concentration is performed by steam drawn directly from the 
boiler. The masse cuite is sent to the purgery, where it granulates in coolers. 
After granulation it is either potted, as just described under the Open-Kettle Fac- 
tory, or placed in the mixer, from which it is centrifugalled, as described under 
Vacuum Pan Factories. The latter is now practiced by several houses in this State. 

The above constitute the usual products manufactured by the sugar houses 
directly from the raw material. These products are shipped to market and sold 
either for consumption or for refining. Nearly all of the open-kettle and the 
seconds and thirds centrifugal sugars go to the refiners, little or none going directly 
into the trade. On the other hand, nearly all of the "firsts" centrifugal sugars go 
directly into commerce, provided they have been properly washed, and are sold 
for consumption to our groceries. On the Sugar Exchange in New Orleans the 
following classifications have been adopted for plantation products: For centrif- 
ugal sugar, "plantation granulated," "ofE granulated," "choice white," "gray 
white," "fancy yellow," "choice yellows," "prime yellows," "off yellows," "seconds ;" 
for open-kettle sugars, "choice," "strictly prime," "prime," "fully fair," "good fair," 
"fair," "good common," "common inferior;" for both open-kettle and centrifugal 
molasses, "fancy choice," "strict prime," "good prime," "prime," "good fair," "fair," 
"good common," "common," "inferior." 

Color alone determined the above classification, and until recent years was 
the only factor which gave value to sugars, syrup or molasses. Now everything 
destined for the refineries is subjected to polariscopic tests and the percentage of 
sugar therein is the ruling factor. Open-kettle sugar rarely surpasses 90 degrees 
polariscopic tests and seldom falls below 80 degrees, while "firsts" centrifugal sugars 
rarely fall below 90 degrees and sometimes go over 99 degrees. Chemically pure 
sugar gives 100 degrees. Syrup, when bought by the refinery, and molasses when 
bought by the distillery, are both subjected to chemical analyses, which determine 
their values. 

HOW PACKED. 

All centrifugal sugars of every grade are packed in barrels holding about 350 
pounds, while open-kettle potted sugars are shipped in hogsheads, holding from 



678 STANDAED HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

1,000 to 1,500 pounds. Molasses and sj'rups are sent to the consumers in barrels 
holding about 50 gallons each. To dealers, molasses is often shipped in tanks 
located on a flat car. It is pumped into the tanks from the sugar houses, and 
pumped from the tanks into large cisterns when received at destination. 

MIXING AND BLEACHING MOLASSES. 

A large trade is carried on in mixing glucose syrup, made from corn, with 
Louisiana molasses. This mixture is sometimes branded "Louisiana Syrup" or 
"molasses." So great has become this industry that it is difficult to buy a brand of 
pure Louisiana molasses, except from first hands on the 'levees." 

Brightening dark molasses has also become quite a business in some quarters, 
and specially prepared chemicals are sold for this purpose. Much of the black 
centrifugal molasses is thus bleached and sent into the market at higher prices. 
This will continue despite laws against it, just so long as the trade buys its goods 
on color. 

Thanks to the prevailing low prices, little or no adulteration can now be found 
in the sugars of commerce. 

PERSONNEL OF THE SUGAR INDUSTRY. 

It is almost impossible to do justice to such a subject. A study of the sugar 
industry of this State brings in review such an army of active, intelligent and 
progressive leaders that a ponderous quarto would be needed to recite their achieve- 
ments and record their trials. 

Only a brief mention of the most prominent actors in the sugar drama can 
here be made. De Breuil, Mendez, Solis, De Bore and Coiron have already been 
noticed. Their names are indelibly stamped upon the pages of Louisiana's history. 

Valcour Aime has left us a valuable diary of his trials and successes, besides 
various other contributions to the literature of sugar of his day. He was the 
pioneer of every progressive enterprise looking to the development of the great 
industry to which he dedicated his life. "Earely do we find a planter ready to go 
into such expensive trials for the welfare of the community." "A planter known 
to the entire State for his practical knowledge and who may be ranlced amongst 
the most talented men of our community," are the words of eulogy pronounced 
upon Valcour Aime by Judge P. A. Eost (himself an able and zealous devotee at 
the shrine of this industry), in 1846. "Primus inter pares" was that staunch old 
Eoman, friend and neighbor of Valcour Aime, who having spent his life in the prose- 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 679 

cution of every means to develop the industry, is found as an octogenarian in 1881, 
sending a communication to the Sugar Planters' Association as to the great value 
of cane bagasse as a fuel, food for stock, and as paper stock, claiming an invention 
for its preparation for market. Besides equipping one of the finest refineries in the 
State, he peregrinated the world in search of a better variety of cane for Louisiana, 
and returned from Java with that excellent variety now bearing his name, and 
described elsewhere. Of course I refer to Mr. P. M. La Pice, of St. James. 

Not far from these lived J. B. Armant, pronounced by Commissioner Miller,, 
of the Agricultural and Mechanical Association of Louisiana, in 1846, "one of the- 
oldest and most respectable planters of the State." 

With such a trio, no wonder that "St. James Parish" at that day took a front 
rank in the sugar industry. 

At that time Plaquemine Parish was noted, as it is now, for its progressive- 
planters. T. W. Packard on Myrtle Grove, Thomas A. Morgan on Orange Grove^ 
and Judah P. Benjamin on Bellechasse (as thorough in his studies of sugar as in 
the science of law and government), all resided in this parish, and were leaders; 
and pioneers in the sugar industry. 

The Fortiers, the de Labarres, the Mayronnes, the McCutchons, the La 
Branches, the Eomans, the Minors, the Kenners, the Fusiliers, the McCalls, the 
Soniats, the Landrys, the Burgeres, the Welhams, the Godberrys, the Le Bourgeois, 
the Zeringues, the Waggamans, Millaudon, Sauve, the Villeres, the Wilkinsons, 
the McCollams, the Lesseps, the Pughs, and the Polks (including Bishop and Gen- 
eral Leonidas Polk), Garcia, and a whole host of others too numerous to mention, 
were leaders in the sugar industry in other days and were men who would adorn 
any profession in any country. 

In looking over the catalogue of sugar planters, in the forties and fifties, 
and comparing it with the roll of to-day, one is struck with the absence of so many 
names once famous in Louisiana. The war, with its disastrous results, thv. 
changed conditions attending sugar planting after the war, the financial panics, 
the overflows and freezes, have, all together, driven many a planter out of the busi- 
ness and introduced new actors upon the sugar stage. A few of the former names 
survive, the McCalls, the Soniats, the Kocks, Judge Emil Post, the Garrs, Mr. Lapice, 
the Flowers, the Ventresses, the Polks, the Morgans, the Le Verts, the Le Febres, 
the Minors, the Jacobs, the Wilkinsons, and some few others are still prominent 
members of the sugar fraternity. 

In passing over the notables of the sugar industry, a goodly space should be 



680 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

given to J. B. Avequin, a learned druggist and chemist of New Orleans, "who has 
been worth more than his weight in gold, a dozen times over, to the planting 
interests, by the light which he lias made science throw upon the culture of cane 
and the manufacture of its juices into sugar." He explained the use of lime as a 
defecating agent. He discovered "Cerosin;" analyzed Louisiana cane for the first 
time, and determined the nature of "cal." In fact, his name was known through- 
out the world in his day, as a successful investigator of Louisiana sugar cane. 
/ Nor should the renowned character, "N. Rillieux," the inventor of the ap- 
N paratus which gave to the world the economical evaporation now used everywhere, be 
/forgotten. He died a few years ago in Paris, full of honors. Every "effect" in 
) our sugar houses is but an application of the great principles which he first dis- 
pvered and covered in his first patent. A few of the leaders in ante-bellum days, 
survived the war and greatly aided in the resuscitation of the sugar industry. 
In 1840, the business of sugar brokerage was started in Xew Orleans by Jlr. 
Adolph Fontenette. Soon after, Mr. Robinson entered the business, followed 
quickly by Richard Milliken and John Flathers. The last two survived the war 
and died in recent years. Mr. Milliken has exercised a large influence upon the 
sugar industry of this State in liis relations of broker, factor and planter. Born in 
Waterford, Irclaml, in 1817, he came to America in 1830 and settled in New 
Orleans w ith his parents. He completed his education at Bardstown, Ky. Durinu' 
the Civil war he was first on Gen. Dick Taylor's staff, and afterwards in charge of 
the Confederate cojiper mines of Tennessee. He married, after the war. Miss 
Deborah Allen Farwell, sister of ITnited States Senator Farwell (of Maine) and 
Chas. A. Farwell of New Orleans. She survives him. Starting as broker 
in 1840, he finally succeeded in handling one-third of the sugar crop of 
the State. In 1870 he became also a factor and has since handled one-fifth of 
the State's output. In 1873, he became a planter by the purchase of "Unity" 
plantation. Since then he has bought "Waterford," "Fairfield," "Killona," "Cedar 
Grove," "Smithfield," "Clarkland," "Staunton," "Point Clear," "Hope," "Scars- 
dale," and "Belchasse." These places employ several thousand men, and have a 
yearly product of sugar well up into the millions of pounds. LTp to the day of 
his death, in 189G, he remained actively at work, in intimate connection with the 
foremost sugar planters of Louisiana, and always wielded a powerful influence in 
the development of this valuable industry. As factor and broker, he handled 
more sugar than any man in the South. Before his death he received Mr. Charles 
A. Farwell (his nephew) into full partnership with him in the factorage business, 
and turned over to Murphy & Farwell his brokerage business. 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 68 1 

Mr. James C. Murjiliy (now President of the Sugar Exchange) and Harry B. 
Farwell (Mr. Milliken's nephew) were both clerks in Mr. Milliken's office, and re- 
ceived their initiation in the sale of sugars and molasses under his tutelage. The 
firm of Milliken & Farwell continues the business of factors and managers of the 
numerous plantations. Mr. Charles A. Farwell, the junior member, is presi- 
dent of the Sugar Cane Growers' Association, and was "Eex" of the Carnival in 
1898. Mr. Milliken's widow, by her princely liberality, is perpetuating in enduring 
form the fame and name of "Milliken." "The Richard Milliken Memorial Hos- 
pital for Children," erected by this noble woman to the memory of her husband, 
in connection with the Charity Hospital of this city, will ever remain as a monu- 
ment of the greatness of the one and the liberality and philanthropy of the other. 

Another link connecting the sugar industry of the past with the present was 
Hon. Duncan Farrar Kenner, sugar planter, financier and statesman. His name 
is found issuing a call for the convention of sugar planters in Donaldsonvillo, 
in 1842, and again in 1877 prominent among those organizing the Sugar Planters* 
Association, of which Ijody he was elected president, holding the position to his 
death in 1888. He was foremost among the organizers of the Sugar Experiment 
Station, and held the position as president up to his death. He was a large and 
successful planter, a man of strong judgment, high intelligence and rare social 
qualities. Born as a ruler, he was equally influential in political, financial and 
planting circles. His widow still lives in this city. One of his daughters married 
General Joseph L. Brent, the hero, the successful planter, the chivalrous gentleman, 
once an honored planter and citizen of this State, president of our State Agri- 
cultural Society, and member of State Legislature, but now a citizen of Baltimore, 
Maryland. 

N^o history of the sugar industry since the war would be complete without 
mention of the brilliant services of the late Edward J. Gay, of St. Louis Planta- 
tion, Plaquemine, La. A member of the Sugar Planters' Association, president 
of the Sugar Exchange, member of Congress from the Third district of this 
State, and always a strong and able defender of the sugar indu.stry. He was a 
man of large abilities, handling his immense estate with excellent judgment and 
rare success. His death was a great blow to the State and to the sugar industry. 
Fortunately his mantle fell upon able shoulders, his son, Andrew H. Gay, assuming 
control of his sugar interests, which he has managed with great success, and his 
son-in-law, Andrew Price, taking his seat in Congress. Both are worthy successors 
of a truly great man. 



682 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

It would be a poor tribute to genuine worth to simply assert that Leon 
Godchaux was perhaps the leading sugar planter of his day. Starting in this 
country with no fortune but his strong will and unyielding persistency, he arose 
step by step to affluence and power. He amplified and organized three of the largest 
estates ever known in Louisiana and equipped them with up-to-date, capacious 
machinery. Elm Hall, Eeserve and Raceland, each with a capacity of 15,000,000 
pounds of sugar annually, will ever remain as monuments to the sagacity, the 
methodical habits, the untiring activity, the financial success of that truly wonderful 
man, Leon Godchaux. He died a few years since, regretted by the entire sugar 
world. His sons are managing his large estates with consummate ability. 

Contemporaneous with him in life and death was another large sugar planter, 
General William Porcher Miles, the scholar, the statesman, the planter, the gen- 
tleman "sans peur et sans reproche." Coming late in life from congressional and 
collegiate halls to assume charge of enormous estates, he brought with him the 
business habits of the latter and the cordial suavity of the former, and concen- 
trated them upon his wife's large inheritances, who was the daughter of Oliver 
Beirne, himself a progressive and prominent planter. Of course success attended 
him, and at his death a few years ago, all classes, from the obscure laborer to the 
millionaire, mingled their tears of sincere regret. "Earth never pillowed a nobler 
head and heaven never opened wide its gates to receive a purer soul.'' 

The sugar world has recently been shrouded in grief at the death of perhaps 
the most progressive scientific planter in this or any other State. The name and 
fame of Daniel Thompson, of Calumet, is commensurate with the cane sugar in- 
dustry everywhere. His early experiments with commercial fertilizers, his com- 
plete chemical control of his sugar house, his progress in every line of the sugar 
industry, long ago gave him a reputation which was quickly borne to foreign lands, 
and which created everywhere fresh enthusiasm among the workers of sugar. He 
was one of the executive committee of the Sugar Planters' Association, and of 
the Sugar Experiment Station. Mr. Thompson was a man of splendid abilities, 
methodical habits and genuine progress. He was ably assisted while living by his 
brilliant son, Wibray, upon whose shoulders his mantle has fallen. 

In studying the sugar industry, one is forced to emphasize the great good 
accomplished by the various organizations working in its interests. 

Before the war, the "Agricultural and Mechanical Association of Louisiana," 
which had for a time as its vice president the eminent jurist and planter. Judge 
P. A. Rost (father of our Judge Emil Rost, "a noble son of a noble sire"), held its 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 683 

annual fairs, and "had its committee upon the sugar industry," which made its 
annual report. From these very full reports, one can easily discern the immense 
stimulus and assistance given the planters of the State by this organization. 

But the organization which perhaps has accomplished the greatest good to the 
sugar industry was brought into existence in 1877, by a call from the leading 
planters of the State. It was named the "Sugar Planters' Association," of which 
Mr. Duncan F. Kenner was its first president, Hon. John Dymond its second, 
and Judge Emil Eost its present and third president. This association has held 
monthly meetings, discussing every phase of progress, and its publications have 
been productive of immense benefit to the planters of this and other lands. The 
present officers of the Sugar Planters' Association are as follows : President, Judge 
Emil Eost; First Vice President, Henry McCall; Second Vice President, L. M. 
Soniat ; Third Vice President, G. G. Zenor ; Treasurer, W. B. Schmidt ; Secretary, 
E. Dykers ; Executive Committee, Dr. W. C. Stubbs, W. B. Schmidt, John N. Pharr, 
John Dymond, W. J. Thompson. 

Next in order of time was the "Sugar Exchange" of New Orleans, whose 
building adapted to the wants of a modern exchange, was completed and dedicated 
on June 3d, 1884. Mr. Edward J. Gay was its first president, and Mr. D. D. 
Colcock its first secretary. To this exchange has been transferred the business 
formerly transacted on the levee, and here the buyers and sellers meet daily for 
the purpose of trade in sugar, syrup and molasses. 

The Exchange has had several presidents, but Mr. D. D. Colcock continues to 
be its secretary, and to his statistical information, rare intelligence and fearless 
action, much of the success of the Exchange is due. Mr. Colcock has also rendered 
invaluable service to the sugar industry by his able presentation of the tariff issues 
before the Congress of the United States. Mr. J. C. Murphy is at present president 
of the Sugar Exchange. 

Under the influence and through the appointment of a committee by the 
Sugar Planters' Association, the "Louisiana Scientific and Agricultural Associa- 
tion" was formed in 1885, which started the Sugar Experiment Station. For four 
years it was located at Kenner, La. Ten years ago it was moved to its present 
location, Audubon Park, New Orleans, La. This station has experimented in 
the field, laboratory and sugar house, and has published its results in numerous 
bulletins. It has covered every question pertaining to the sugar industry and 
aided in every development. It has been recognized by the State, and it is now 
Station No. 1 of the Louisiana State University and A. & U. College. Dr. W. C. 



684 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

Stubbs is and has been its director. He has a full corps of assistants. Mr. John 
Dymond is president of the Louisiana Scientific and Agricultural Association, 
which owns and controls the Sugar Experiment Station. 

The same association started in 1891 the Audubon Sugar School, for the pur- 
pose of making experts in the sugar industry. It has been successfully conducted 
and its graduates are now found filling responsible positions in almost every sugar 
country. It has recently been adopted by the State and made a part of the 
Louisiana State L'niversity at Baton Eouge, where, in connection with Sugar Ex- 
periment Station at Audubon Park, a most thorough course of four years of scientific 
and practical instruction is given. 

The Sugar Bowl, a journal devoted to the sugar interests of Louisiana, was 
started thirty years ago, and has since made weekly visits to the planters of the 
State. A few years ago its name was changed to "The Sugar Planters' Journal." 
It is edited by J. Y. Gilmore, and is published at 520 Poydras street. New Orleans. 

Twelve years ago, to meet the growing demands of the planters, a company 
was formed for the purpose of starting a first-class scientific and practical weekly 
journal devoted to the growth of sugar cane and its manufacture into sugar. 
This paper was called "The Louisiana Planter and Sugar Manufacturer," and has 
been ably edited by Mr. John Dymond, assisted by Dr. W. C. Stubbs, Mr. W. W. 
Pugh (the veteran sugar planter of Louisiana), and Mr. Wibray J. Thompson. 

This journal is now the leader of sugar thought in the world and goes in 
large numbers weekly to every sugar country. Its success is due to its able editor, 
Mr. John Dymond, who is also president of the State Agricultural Society, presi- 
dent of the Louisiana Scientific and Agricultural Association, and State Senator 
in our Legislature. Mr. Dymond has perhaps done as much to advance the sugar 
and other agricultural interests as any man in the South. 

A few years ago, "The Sugar Growers' Association" of this State was formed 
for the purpose of securing proper protection to sugar. Its membership includes 
nearly every planter in the State. Its president is Mr. Charles A. Farwell, of 
Milliken & Farwell, and its secretary is Mr. D. D. Colcock. It is doing yeoman 
service in properly protecting the sugar industry of this country at Washington. 

There are numerous planters, factors and brokers that are to-day prominent 
in the sugar industry and who are deserving of special mention here, but neither 
time nor space will permit it. To them we make the following closing remarks : 

The extent to which the production of sugar can be carried on in Louisiana is 
appreciated by but few of us, but we who reflect on the subject and feel such a 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 685 

deep interest in all that concerns the prosperity of this State, foresee with exulta- 
tion the day not far distant when boundless tracts, now covered with marsh or 
primeval forests, shall teem with plenteous harvests of the cane, when central fac- 
tories shall manufacture it into the purest sugars — yea, in a word, when the in- 
dustry and enterprise of our people shall succeed in developing to their full extent 
the resources which a bounteous Providence has lavished on this favored State. 
Then, let us hope, some future historian will do justice to our lives and services. 

CLOSING REMARKS. 

Taking a retrospective view of the sugar industry of Louisiana for the last 
fifteen or twenty years, it can be said with truth that there is no industry in the 
world that has made such progress. The organization of the Sugar Planters' Asso- 
ciation, in 1877, may be regarded as the starting point of the renaissance of the 
sugar industry. Since that time the Sugar Experiment Station has been estab- 
lished, whose teachings and experiments have illuminated the field and the factory. 
The Louisiana Planter and Sugar Manufacturer has been started, whose weekly 
visit to the home of every planter, manager, overseer, sugarmaker, etc., carries with 
it information upon every subject pertaining to the agriculture of sugar cane and 
the chemistry and manufacture of sugar. The Sugar Exchange lias been created 
in New Orleans, where the products of the plantation are quickly sold. Improved 
implements for breaking the soil and for the cultivation of cane, have been in- 
troduced and almost universally used. Improvement of soils and crops, both by 
scientific rotation of crops, involving the nitrogen gathering cow pea, and the exten^ 
sive use of commercial fertilizers, whose purity and guarantee are sustained by 
chemical analysis made by official chemists, without cost, are everywhere in evidence. 
Tonnage has been increased, and the cost of growing cane materially reduced. 

Small sugar houses are fast disappearing, and enormous factories with every 
modern labor and fuel saving apparatus, are to be found in every section. The 
output of sugar, both per acre and per ton of cane, has been greatly increased. 
New lands are being opened and old plantations better drained and cultivated. In 
fact, "expansion" in the cultivation of sugar cane in Louisiana and other Southern 
States, and sugar factories in the "expansion," is the only kind favored by the 
sugar planters of the South. Thousands of acres of land well adapted to the growth 
of sugar cane, are available in Louisiana, Texas and other Southern States. Capital 
alone is wanted to develop them and build the necessary factories. Everv dollar 
made in the sugar industry since the war, has gone into sugar houses and the im- 




686 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

provement of lands. Over $100,000,000 have thus been invested. The acreage 
devoted to sugar cane is yearly increasing, the present year will doubtless witness 
the harvesting of cane from over 300,000 acres. The crop of 1897 brought about 
$35,000,000, and gave employment directly and indirectly to nearly a half a million 
of people. Every dollar received was exchanged for labor, material, provisions 
and clothes. This large sum is paid out as fast as received, and a portion of it 
doubtless finds its way to every State in the Union, thus creating an inter-State 
commerce of nearly seventy millions of dollars. 

Our machinery comes largely from Pennsylvania, Tennessee, Alabama, Xew 
York and Illinois, for which we pay $6,000,000. To Mississippi and Louisiana 
we send, for lumber and bricks, $600,000. Kentucky, Tennessee, Missouri and 
Indiana draw on us annually, for mules and horses, over $1,000,000. The coal 
and oil furnished us by Pennsylvania, Alabama and West Virginia, cost annually 
$1,500,000. Minnesota, Missouri and Kansas give us our daily bread at an annual 
cost of $3,000,000. Illinois, Missouri, Kansas and Iowa feed our stock, but charge 
yearly for the same another $3,000,000. West Virginia, Ohio, Illinois, Missouri 
and Kentucky give us our wagons, carriages and agricultural implements, at the 
modest sum of $500,000. Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Missouri and Xebraska furnish us 
with meats, lard, etc., for $3,000,000. Wisconsin, Illinois and Indiana butter our 
bread and give us cheese for luncheon, but require in return $500,000. Texas, Mis- 
sissippi and Alabama, to say nothing of the refrigerator beef from the West, available 
only at our towns and cities, supply us with steaks, roasts and stews, and though at 
times they are quite inferior, cost the modest sum of $500,000. Alabama has a 
monopoly on the supply of lime for our sugar houses and for building purposes, and 
accordingly draws on us annually for $500,000. The cooperage for our sugar houses 
descends the great "Father of Waters" in flatboats, from Ohio, Indiana and Illi- 
nois, and annually mulcts the planters of $1,000,000. 

It is a custom here to sow cow peas upon one-third of our lands yearly, using 
at the rate of two bushels per acre, requiring nearly a quarter of a million of bushels 
annually, for which we send to Georgia, South Carolina and Tennessee and pay 
from $1.25 to $3.50 per bushel. Both our plant and stubble canes are fertilized 
regularly; therefore we send to Florida, South Carolina, Tennessee, Illinois, Mis- 
souri, Xebraska and Louisiana for phosphates, cotton seed meal and tankage, and 
credit them by cash paid, $1,000,000. 

Our boots and shoes are made in Boston, St. Louis, Xew York, Philadelphia, 
etc., and our shoemakers charge us $2,500,000 per year. We are clothed by Xew 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 687 

York, Chicago, Philadelphia and Baltimore, and as we all wear good clothes, we 
pay over $5,000,000 annually for them. If any money be left us we spend it in 
notions, fruits and sundries, which are gathered from Maine to California. 

The above is not a mere guess, but is a calculation based, after careful investi- 
gation, upon facts which abundantly justify every enumeration made. With this 
wide distribution of the money coming from the sugar industry of Louisiana, is 
there a citizen of any section of this Union that does not enjoy some benefit from 
it, directly or indirectly ? 



SUGAR PLANTATIONS OF LOUISIANA, WITH STATISTICAL DATA OF 

THEIR PLANTATIONS. 

By J. P. Smith. 

In preparing this table we are indebted to J. Y. Gilmore, Esq., for the use 
of his Sugar Journal. The matter was originally compiled for the tabular form, 
but from the mechanical necessity required by the character of this work we are 
obliged to print it in the form here adopted. The items, as they occur in succession, 
are generally self-explanatory. First is the name of the owner, then that of the 
plantation, post-office address, acreage, style of apparatus, daily capacity in tons, 
annual output and variety of cane grown. 

ASCENSION PARISH. 

Ayraud, H. T. & F. C. Sleepy Hollow. Barton. 

Babin, Leon. Donaldsonville. 

Barton, W. I. Riverside. Donaldsonville. 1,000 acres, 900 cult. Modern, up to 
date. Electric lighting. Daily capacity, 300 tons. Average annual output of 
plantation, 1,800,000 pounds. Ribbon. 

Barton, E. H. St. Emma. Barton. 1,300 acres. Modern. Daily capacity, 500 
tons. Average annual output of sugrir-house, 2,500,000 pounds. Red. 

Berthelot, V. & J. A. Chatham. Hohen Solms. 

Brown & Gondran. Linwood. Belle Helene. 800 acres, 500 cult. Sells cane. Red. 

Belle Helene Planting Co., Ltd. (G. B. Reuss,' Pres. ; J. C. Klos, Sec.) Ashland, 
Bowden and Texas. Belle Helene. '-^,447^ acres. Modern, up to date. Elec- 
tric lighting and narrow-gauge railroad. Daily capacity, 600 tons. Average 
annual output of plantation, 5,000,000 pounds. Red. 



688 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

Brown, C. C, widow. Eulalia. Hope Villa. 

Bourgeois, F. Cottage Farm. Belle Helene. 

Di.xon, Elisha D. Willow Grove. Hope Villa. 

Gramercy Sugar Factory Co. Mt. Houmas. Geismar. 

Humphreys, J. B. Southwood and Eiverside. Geismar. 

Haydel, Joseph. Gem. Darrow. 

Jacobs, Arthur & Bro. Stella. Donaldsonville. 1,300 acres, 900 cult. DifEusion 
process. Electric lighting. Daily capacity, 300 tons. Average annual output 
of plantation, 1,000,000 pounds; of sugar-house, 1,500,000 pounds. Bed and 
Ribbon, 
•^^'^andry, Abelard. Babin. Smoke Bend. 500 acres, all cult. Open train. Electric 
lighting. Daily capacity, 200 tons. Average annual output of plantation, 
750,000 pounds. Red. 
/ Landry, R. 0. Delicia. Smoke Bend. 

Duffel, Judge Henry L. Woodstock. Smoke Bend. 400 acres, all cult. Rents his 
plantation. Average annual output of plantation, 500,000 pounds. Red. 

Lemann, B. & Bro. Souvenir, Palo Alto, Perseverance, Crescent and Pentavin. 
Donaldsonville. 7,941 acres, 5,487 cult. Modern. Narrow-gauge railroad. 
Daily capacity, 550 tons. Average annual output of plantation, 10,000,000 
pounds; of sugar-house, 10,000,000 pounds. Red. (Data includes plantations 
in Assumption parish.) 

McCall & Legendre. McManor. McCall. 1,100 acres, 850 cult. Modern. Nar- 
row-gauge railroad. Daily capacity, 350 tons. Average annual output of 
plantation, 2,000,000 pounds. Red. 
, McCall Bros. Planting & Manufacturing Co., Ltd. Evan Hall. McCall. 3,500 
acres, 3,000 cult. Modern, up-to-date. Electric lighting and narrow-gauge 
railroad. Daily capacity, 800 tons. Average annual output of plantation, 
6,000,000 pounds. Red. 

Hermitage Planting & Manufacturing Co. Hermitage. Darrow. 2,200 acres, 
1,800 cult. Modern, up-to-date. Electric lighting and narrow-gauge railroad. 
Daily capacity, 700 tons. Average annual output of plantation, 3,000,000 
pounds ; of sugar-house, 3,750,000 pounds. Red and Purple. 

Marchand, Alex. Willow Grove. Darrow. 

Morgan, LT. E. Rearwood. Darrow. 
,/Nolan, J. T. St. Elizabeth. Donaldsonville. 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 689 

The Miles Planting & Manufacturing Co., Ltd. (Dr. W. P. Miles, Pres. ; S. B. 

Miles, Vice Pres.; H. C. Eustis, Sec. & Treas.) Monroe, Conway, Orange 

Grove, Donaldson, Eiverton, Rearwood and Clark. Burnside. 7,977 acres, 

6,483 cult. Modern, up-to-date. Electric lighting and narrow-gauge railroad. 

Daily capacity, 1,000 tons. Average annual output of plantation, 9,000,000 

pounds ; of sugar-house, 9,000,000 pounds. Red. 
The Miles Planting & Manufacturing Co., Ltd. New Hope, Ascension. McCall. 

1,506 acres cult. Modern, up-to-date. 500 tons daily capacity. 3,000,000 

pounds average annual output of the plantation. 4,500,000 pounds average 

annual output of sugar-house. Red. Narrow-gauge railroad and electricity 

used for lighting. 
Picard & Geismar. Waterloo. Geismar. 
Raphael, Pierre. Susanna. Gonzales. 
Reuss, G. B. Germania, Home, Elise. Hohen Solms. 2,500 acres, 2,000 cult. 

Modern, up-to-date; electricity used for lighting, and narrow-gauge railroad. 

500 tons daily capacity. Average annual output of plantation, 3,000,000 

pounds. Red. 
^ St. Martin, Captain J. E. Arlington and Pelico. McCall. 

Webster, Mrs. J. S. Point Houmas. Cofield. 950 acres, 829 cult. Steam train 

and vacuum pan. 400 tons daily capacity. 940,000 pounds average annual 

output of plantation. Rod. Electricity for lighting. 

IBERVILLE PARISH. 

Adler, A. & Co. Rebecca. Plaquemine. 825 acres, 600 cult. Modern. 700 tons 
daily capacity. Average annual output of plantation, 1,500,000 pounds; of 
sugar-house, 5,500,000 pounds. Purple. Electricity for lighting and narrow- 
gauge railroad. 

Behan, W. J. Alhambra. White Castle. 1,300 acres. Modern, up-to-date. Elec- 
tricity for lighting, and narrow-gauge railroad. Daily capacity, 600 tons. 
Average annual output of plantation, 3,000,000 pounds. Cuban. 

Berthelct, V. & J. A. Claiborne, Old Hickory and Cannonburg. Hohen Solms. 

Bethancourt & Sentilles. Forest Home. Bayou Goula. 

Billou, 0. D. Upper Eimer. Bayou Goulu. 

Barrow & Le Blanc. Star Pecan. Plaquemine. 700 acres, all cult. Steam train, 
open kettle. Daily capacity, 200 tons. Average annu.il output of plantation, 
900,000 pounds ; of sugar-house, 1,500,000 pounds. Red and White. 



690 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

Brown, I. D., heirs. Manchac. Sunshine. 1,3G2 acres, 900 cult. Steam train, 
open kettle. Daily capacity, 175 tons. Average annual output of plantation, 
600,000. Striped. 

Brun, Mrs. F. Eevenue. Island. 

Browne, H. S., widow. St. Gabriel. St. Gabriel. 

Brown & Hebert. Hermitage. Sunshine. 

Comeaux, R. G. Mayflower and York. Plaquemine. 5-10 acres, all cult. Steam 
train, open kettle. Daily capacity. 200 tons. Average annual output of plan- 
tation, 750,000 pounds; of sugar-house, 1,000,000. Eed and White. 

Duval, C. Mespilus. Plaquemine. 

Damare, A. & 6. Oakley. St. Gabriel. 1,400 acres, 700 cult. Steam train, 
vacuum pan. Daily capacity, 175 tons. Average annual output of plantation, 
750,000. Red. 

Folse, L. N. Texas. White Castle. 1,104 acres, 800 cult. Open kettle, steam 
train, with centrifugal. Electricity for lighting. Daily capacity, 250 tons. 
Average annual output of plantation, 750,000 pounds. Red. 

Gueymard, H. Hard Times. Island. 

Guyton, J. T. The Oaks. Bayou Goula. 

Gay, E. J., Planting and Manufacturing Co., Ltd. St. Louis, Tennessee, True Hope, 
Centennial, Little California. Plaquemine. 5,000 acres, 4,000 cult. Modern, 
up-to-date. Electricity for lighting, and narrow-gauge railroad. Daily ca- 
pacity, 1,000 tons. Average annual output of plantation, 5,000,000 pounds. 
Red and Striped. 

Gay, Andrew H. Union and Homestead. Plaquemine. 3,500 acres, 2,300 cult. 
Modern, up-to-date. Electricity for lighting. Daily capacity, 600 tons. 
Average annual output of plantation, 4,000,000 pounds ; of sugar-house, 4,500,- 
000. Eed and Striped. 

Gay, Andrew H. Augusta, Shady Grove, Live Oak and West Oak. Plaquemine. 
3,500 acres, 1,200 cult. Open, steam train. Daily capacity, 350 tons. Average 
annual output of plantation, 2,500,000 pounds. Eed and Striped. 

Hanlon, Maurice. Magnolia and Eureka. Bayou Goula. 1,300 acres, 900 cult. 
Modern. Electricity for lighting. Daily capacity, 250 tons. Average annual 
output of plantation, 1,250,000. Eed. 

Humphrey, J. B. Eescue. Island. 

Holloway & Postell. Evergreen. Plaquemine. 

Iberville Planting & Manufacturing Co. Anandale and Cora. White Castle. 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 691 

2,800 acres, 1,590 cult. Sells cane. Average annual output of plantation, 
4,000,000 pounds. Eed. 

Jollissaint, Joseph Jr. Greenback. Sunshine. 

Jackson, Mitchell. Eestalrig. Plaquemine. 

Levert, Amedee. Golden Eidge. Soulouque. 

Le Blanc, Simon. Monticello. St. Gabriel. 800 acres, 600 cult. Open kettle, centri- 
fugal. Daily capacity, 150 tons. Average annual output plantation, 600,000 
pounds. Eed. 

Landry, Theo. Lucky. Sunshine. 

Lorio, A. G. St. Elizabeth. Bayou Goula. 478 acres, d25 cult. Open kettle, 
steam train. Daily capacity, 110 tons. Average annual output of plantation, 
600,000 pounds. Eed and Striped. 

Landry & Dugas. Nottaway. Bayou Goula. 1,300 acres, 900 cult. Modern, 
up-to-date. Daily capacity, 400 tons. Average ann;ial output of plantation, 
1,250,000 pounds. Eed and Ribbon. 

I.eche, E. D. Dunboyne. Bayou Goula. 

Labarre, I^elson. Euphrozine. White Castle. 140 acres, 130 cult. Sells cane. 
Average annual output of plantation, 225,000 pounds. Eed. 

Le Blanc & Danos. Milly. Plaquemine. 1,140 acres, 750 cult. Steam train, 
open kettle. Daily capacity, 250 tons. Average annual output of plantation, 
1,000,000 pounds; of sugar-house, 1,335,000 pounds. Red, White and Striped. 

Lozano, Louis. Reliance. Plaquemine. 500 acres, all cult. ^lodern. Daily 
capacity, 200 tons. Average annual output of plantation, 600,000 pounds. 
Eed. 

Murrell (Geo. M.) Planting & Manufacturing Co., Ltd. Tally Ho, St. Marie, 
Glenmore and Augusta. Bayou Goula. 7,700 acres, 3,500 cult. Modern, up- 
to-date. Electricity for lighting, and narrow-gauge railroad. Daily capacity, 
800 tons. Ribbon and Purple. 

Martin, L. J. Bayou Paul. Iberville. 

Milliken, Mrs. D. A. Point Clear. Bayou Goula. 500 acres, all cult. Open pan. 
Daily capacity, 150 tons. Average annual output of plantation, 500,000 
pounds; of sugar-house, 500,000 pounds. Eed. 

Marionneaux, Edwin. Belfort. Plaquemine. 

Marionneaux, widow. Holly Farm, Plaquemine. 

Manville & Eobert. Irion. Plaquemine. 

O'Neil, W. J. Margaret. St. Gabriel. 



% 



692 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

Ourso, A. & J. H. Ella. Soulouque. 

Peterson, M. P. Long Point. Plaquemine. 

Plaisance, Alfred. Palo Alto. St. Gabriel. 

Richard, 0. Golden Gate. Sunshine. 300 acres, all cult. Open kettle, steam 
train. Daily capacit}', 100 tons. Average annual output of plantation, 335,- 
000. Red. 

Eoth & McWilliams. Medora. Plaquemine. 800 acres, all cult. Open kettle, 
steam train. Daily capacity, 12.5 tons. Average annual output of plantation, 
500,000 pounds. Red and White. 

Randolph, if. L. Blythewood. Bayou Goula. 

Robertson & Bros. Hunter Lodging. Plaquemine. 

Robertson, F. D. Homestead. 

Reuss, John, Planting Co., Ltd. AUemania. Greenfield, Retreat and Lower 
Eimer. Soulouque. 1,800 acres, 1,000 cult. Modern, up-to-date. Xarrow- 
gauge railroad. Daily capacity, 350 tons. Average annual output of planta- 
tion, 1,500,000 pounds; of sugar-house, 2,000,000. Red. 

Saunders, Gus & Co. Golden Ridge. Bayou Goula. 

Supple, J., Sons Planting Co., Ltd. Catherine, Richland and Kinsale. Bayou 
Goula. 2,580 acres, 2,100 cult. Modern, up-to-date. Electric lighting and 
narrow-gauge railroad. Daily capacity, 550 tons. Average annual output of 
plantation, 4,000,000 pounds. Red and Striped. 

Soniat, L. JL Cedar Grove. Dorceyville. 2,500 acres, 2,000 cult. Modern, up- 
to-date. Electric lighting and narrow-gauge railroad. Daily capacity, TOO 
tons. Average annual output of plantation, 3,500,000 pounds ; of sugar-house, 
5,000,000 pounds. Red. 

Tuttle, Mrs. J. S. Laurel Ridge. Whi^e Castle. 1.000 acres, 7G0 cult. Modern, 
up-to-date. Electric lighting. Daily capacity, 500 tons. Average annual out- 
put of plantation, 1,500,000 pounds. Red. 

Thirv, C. A., widow, 100-mile Point. St. Gabriel. 

Thibodeaux, 0. Oliva. Plaquemine. 

Trahan & Daigle. Aloysia. Dorceyville. 600 acres, all cult. Modern. Electric 
lighting and narrow-gauge railroad. Daily capacity, 400 tons. Average annual 
output of plantation, 1,250,000 pounds. Red and Ribbon. 

Ventress, W. W. & J. A. Magnolia. St. Gabriel. 400 acres, 350 cult. Sells 
cane. Average annual output of plantation, 750,000 pounds. Red and Ribbon. 

Ventress Bros. & Locke. Grenada. Sunshine. 1,200 acres, 800 cult. Modern. 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 693 

Electric lighting. Daily capacity, 300 tons. Average annual ouput of plan- 
tation, 2,000,000 pounds ; of sugar-house, 3,000,000 pounds. Red. 

Ware, Hon. James A. Belle Grove. White Castle. 3,100 acres. Modern, up-to- 
date. Electric lighting and narrow-gauge railroad. Daily capacity, 600 tons. 
Average annual output of plantation, 2,-500,000 pounds. . Creole. 

Wilbert's (A.) Sons' Planting & Manufacturing Co. Myrtle Grove, Star, Enter- 
prise, Crescent. Plaquemine. 5,600 acres, 2,500 cult. Modern, up-to-date. 
Electric lighting and narrow-gauge railroad. Daily capacity, 600 tons. Aver- 
age annual output of plantation, 3,000,000 pounds ; of sugar-house, 4,000,000 
pounds. Red and Striped. 

Magilliard, Dr. Unice. Donaldsonville. 800 acres, 400 cult. Open kettle. Daily 
capacity, 100 tons. Average annual output of plantation, 500,000 pounds. 
Red. 

Labarre & Magilliard. California. Donaldsonville. 1,000 acres, 500 cult. 

ASSUMPTION PARISH. 

Abraham & Prejean. Melrose. Labadieville. 

Aucoin, Captain J. F. Eugenie. Plattenville. 350 acres, all cult. Open kettle. 

Daily capacity, 150 tons. Average annual output of plantation, 36(t.t)()0 

pounds. Ribbon. 
Aleman, B., estate. Cosa Natural. Belle Rose. 
Babin, Louis, & Son. Happy Jack. Donaldsonville. 
Barton, Carroll. Magnolia, Belle Clos and Laurele. Paincourtville. 3,500 acres, 

1,400 cult, ilodern, iip-to-date. Electric lighting and narrow-gauge railroad. 

Daily capacity, 500 tons. Average annual output of plantation, 1,750,000 

pounds. Red. 
Boudreaux, Charles. Julia, Rosena, Belle Pointe and Henrietta. Napoleonville. 
Blanchard & Morray. "H. D." Belle Rose. 
Burbank, E. W. Avon. Belle Rose. 
Barrileaux & Blanchard. Poverty Pointe. Bertie. 

Barton, C. C. Little Texas. Albemarle. 2,400 acres, 1,000 cult. Modern, up-to- 
date. Electric lighting and narrow-gauge railroad. Daily capacity, 500 tons. 

Average annual output of plantation, 2,500,000 pounds. Ribbon and Red. 
Bourg, C. St. Vincent. Napoleonville. 
Beasley, J. W., estate. Wildwood. Napoleonville. 
Blanchard, M. Paincourtville. , ' • 



694 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

Blanehard, A. D. Bertha. Plattenville. 

Clifton, C. C. Olive Branch. Paincoiirtville. 630 acres, 320 cult. Open kettle. 
Daily capacity, 150 tons. Average annual output of plantation, 300 hogs- 
heads. Bed. 

Cox', T. D. St. Philomene. Belle Eose. 

Caneienne, Leo. Hard Times. Avoca. 775 acres, 400 cult. Open train. Daily 
capacit}^, 125 tons. 335,000 pounds average annual output of plantation. 
Striped. 

Chauffe, T., widow. Rosedale. Bertie. 

Dugas estate. Armelise. Paincourtville. 1,500 acres, all cult. Sells cane. Aver- 
age annual output of plantation, 225,000 pounds. Eed, Ribbon and White. 
Narrow-gauge railroad. 

Dugas & Le Blanc. Whitmell and Westerfield. Paincourtville. 6,400 acres, 2,400 
cult. Modern, up-to-date. Electric lighting and narrow-gauge railroad. Daily 
capacity, 600 tons. Average annual output of plantation, 6,000,000 pounds; 
of sugar-house, 7,800,000 pounds. Eed, Ribbon and White. 

Dugas, Drauzin. St. Claire. Paincourtville. 

Dugas, Dr. E. T. Guildive. Belle Rose. 625 acres, 300 cult. Sells cane. Average 
annual output of plantation, 600,000 pounds. Ribbon. 

Durand, Mrs. P. E. Supple Place. Belle Rose. 

Delaune, D. & Bro. St. Thomas. Albemarle. 

Delaune, F. & Bro. Delaune. Albemarle. 300 acres, 210 cult. Sells cane. 
Average annual output of plantation, 225,000. Striped. 

Frost & Folse. Cleveland. Labadieville. 520 acres, all cult. Sells cane. Average 
annual output of plantation, 1,000,000. Eed and White. 

Ford, Dr. J. D., estate. Bellewood. Laura. 

Foley, John B. Idlewild. Napoleonville. 

Folse, A. 0. & Co. Georgia. Tallieu. 

Francioni, Paul. St. Claire. Labadieville. 

Giriore & Blanehard. Claire. Paincourtville. 

Guillot, Edward. St. Faustin. Plattenville. 

Gross & Weber. Laurel Ridge. Labadieville. 

Gauthreaux, Maurice. Gauthreaux. Labadieville. 

Godchaux, Leon, estate. Elm Hall, Oceana, Foley and Maywood. Napoleonville. 
9,006 acres, 2,340 cult. (Oceana has 250 acres; Foley, 930; and Maywood, 
2,800.) Modern, up-to-date. Electric lighting and narrow-gauge railroad. 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 695 

Daily capacity, 1,400 tons. Average annual output of plantations, 10,000,000 

pounds. Eed and Striped. 
Hidalgo & Truxillo. Long Branch. Belle Rose. 460 acres, all cult. Sells cane. 

Average annual output of plantation, 375,000 pounds. Eed. 
Himel, Drauzin. St. Martin. Labadieville. 300 acres, all cult. Open kettle. 

Daily capacity, 12 hogsheads. Average annual output of plantation, 500 

hogsheads. Eed. 
Himel & Bourg. Vallance. Labadieville. 1,200 acres, 900 cult. Open steam train. 

Daily capacity, 200 tons. Average annual output of plantation, 1,000,00^^ 

pounds. Eed and White. 
Himel & Boudreaux. St. Eose. Labadieville. 

Himel, Oscar J. Himalaya. Tallieu. { 

Himel, T. P. Ida. Paincourtville. 
Klotz, A. Klotzville and Star. Klotzville. 
Kittredge, J. K. G. Eavenswood. Albemarle. 
Kock, E. & J. Belle Alliance, Scattery and Front. Belle Alliance. 4,500 acres, 

3,500 cult. Modern, up-to-date. Electric lighting and narrow-gauge railroad. 

Daily capacity, 900 tons. Average annual output of plantation, 4,000,000 

pounds ; of sugar-house, 6,000,000 pounds. Red and White. 
Kessler Bros. Voiron. Belle Rose. 1,100 acres, 800 cult. Open evaporator. Daily 

capacity, 350 tons. Average annual output of plantation, 1,250,000 pounds. 

Eed. 
Lauve, Captain E. E. Soadia. Belle Eose. 

Landrj', Anatole. Creole. Belle Rose. •" 

Landry, Thomas. Elmira. Plattenville. 
LeBlanc, Mrs. E. M. 'Eureka. Klotzville. 
LeBlanc, Emile E. Bellevue. Paincourtville. 
Landry & Dugas. Sweet Home. Paincourtville. 1,100 acres, 500 cult. Modern, 

up-to-date. Electric lighting. Daily capacity, 500 tons. Average annual 

output of plantation, 1,000,000 pounds; of sugar-house, 3,500,000 pounds. 

Ribbon and White. 
Lemann, B., & Bro. Belle Terre, Rodriguez and Dugas. Donaldsonville. Modern. 

Electric lighting. Daily capacity, 650 tons. Red. (Data given in Ascension 

parish.) 
Landry & Meyer. Cedar Grove. Labadieville. 1,000 acres, 600 cult. Modern. 

Daily capacity, 500 tons. Average annual output of plantation, 1,000,000 

pounds. Red. 



696 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

Lallande, A. Nellie. Plattenville. 450 acres, all cult. Modern. Daily capacity, 
500 tons. Average annual output of sugar-house, 1,250,000 pounds. Striped. 

Maurin, Robert. Ville du Bois. Belle J'.Tliance. 

Martin, R. C, Jr. Albemarle. Albemarle. 1,352 acres. Steam train and evapo- 
rators. Electric lighting. Daily capacity, 400 tons. Average annual output 
of plantation, 800,000 pounds. Red and White. 

Montet, Mrs. D. Paterville. Plattenville. 

Monnot, E. L. Elmfield. Napoleonville. 500 acres, 250 cult. Open pan, cen- 
trifugal. Daily capacity, 250 tons. Average annual output of plantation, 400,- 
000 pounds; of sugar-house, 1,000,000 pounds. White. 

Munson, E. P. Glenwood, St. Vincent and Julia. Napoleonville. 1,800 acres, 
1,200 cult. Modern, up-to-date. Electric lighting and narrow-gauge rail- 
road. Daily capacity, 500 tons. Average annual output of plantation, 2,000,- 
000 pounds; of sugar-house, 3,500,000 pounds. Red. 

Munson, H. A. Enola. Napoleonville. 2,100 acres, 600 cult. Sells cane. Aver- 
age annual output of plantation, 1,125,000 pounds. Red and Ribbon. 

Munson Bros. & Guion. Trinity. Napoleonville. 900 acres, 750 cult. Sells 
cane. Average annual output of plantation, 1,500,000 pounds. Red. 

Montet, D. & Co. Aurelie. Albemarle. 

Ory, L. Ingleside. Albemarle. 

Oakley Planting Co., Ltd. Oakley. Albemarle. 1,700 acres, 650 cult. Open train 
and vacuum pan. Narrow-gauge railroad. Daily capacity, 400 tons. 1,200,- 
000 pounds average annual output of plantation; 2,500,000 pounds of sugar- 
house. Red. 

Painchaud, Dr. E. F. Etienza. Belle Rose. 

Pugh, R. L., estate. Mt. Lawrence. Albemarle. 

Prejean & Dehon. Lula. Belle Rose. 600 acres, all cult. Modern. Electric 
lighting and narrow-gauge railroad. Daily capacity, 600 tons. Average annual 
output of plantation, 1,000,000 pounds; of sugar-house, 2,500,000 pounds. 
Red. 

Prejean, S. Half Way, home place and Bull Head. Donaldsonville. 1,220 acres, 
800 cult. Modern. Electric lighting. Daily capacity, 400 tons. Average 
annual output of plantation, 2,000,000 pounds. Red. 

Pugh, L. Madewood. Napoleonville. 

Pugh, Colonel W. W. Himalaya, Woodlawn and Texana. Bertie. 3,700 acres, 
1,500 cult. Vacuum pan. Daily capacity, 250 tons. Average annual output of 
plantation, 2,250,000 pounds. Red and Ribbon. 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 697 

Eodrigue & Thiac. Georgie. Plattenville. 

Eoussel & Naquin. Sans Nom. Labadieville. 700 acres, 600 cult. Open steam 

train. Daily capacity, 300 tons. Average annual output of plantation, 600,- 

000 pounds. Red and Ribbon. 
Rodigue, T. Belle Rose. Belle Rose. 
RatlifE, W. B. Locust Grove. Napoleonville. 
Roger, Ernest. Oakwood, Labadie. Thibodaui. 3,300 acres, 2,000 cult. Sells 

cane. Average annual output of plantation, 4,000,000 pounds. Red and 

Striped. Electric lighting. 
Savoie, Sabin. Ella. Belle Rose. 
Simoneaux, J. A. Angelina. Paincourtville. 
Simoneaux, C. P., & Bros. Church. Plattenville. 
Talbot, T., & Son. Cypress Grove. Napoleonville. 
Talbot, Louis. Manassas. Napoleonville. 
Templet & Landry. Leona. Plattenville. 
Truxillo, Mrs. A. Amelia. Paincourtville. 
Tete, Amedee, Jr. Magnolia Grove. Labadieville. 
Vives, Numa. Cecilia and Delia. Paincourtville. 800 acres. Open kettle. Daily 

capacity, 125 tons. Average annual output of plantation, 850,000 pounds. 

Striped and White. 

LAFOURCHE PARISH. 

Abraham, Simon. Home place, Theresa and Pecan. Raceland. 

Abbey & Highland Planting & Manufacturing Co. Abbey and Highland. Thi- 

bodaux. 
Parker & LeBlanc. Clotilda. Lockport. 1,080 acres, 550 cult. Modern. Daily 

capacity, 250 tons. Average annual output of plantation, 1,000,000 pounds; 

of sugar-house, 1,500,000 pounds. Red and Striped. 
Breaux, P. & L. Prosperity. Raceland. 
Beattie, Judge Taylor. Dixie. Thibodaux. 
Bourg, S. S. Ravenswood. Lockport. 
Brand, Elles. Waterproof. Lockport. 
Boudreaux, Adlard. Boudreaux. Lockport. 
Badeaux, J. T. Edna, Norah, Valentine and Elisha. Norah. 
Barker & Lepine. Laurel Valley and Melodia. Lafourche Crossing. 
Claudet, C. A. Bouverans. Lockport. 1,060 acres, 210 cult. Open steam train. 



698 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

Daily capacity, 100 tons. Average annual output of plantation, 500,000 
pounds. Striped. 

Caillouet, Ed., & Co. St. James. Thibodaux. 3,250 acres, 650 cult. Open 
kettle, centrifugal. Daily capacity, 200 tons. Average annual output of plan- 
tation, 750,000 pounds. Eed and Striped. 

Caillouet, T., & Sons. Orange Grove. Thibodaux. 1,850 acres, 800 cult. Mod- 
ern. Daily capacity, 200 tons. Average annual output of plantation, 1,500,- 
000 pounds. Red and Striped. 

Coignet, Mrs. G. A. Octavia. Lafourche Crossing. 500 acres, 175 cult. Open 
pan. Daily capacity, 100 tons. Average annual output of plantation, 170,000 
pounds. Eed and Striped. 

Doherty, Hiers, Edward. Webster. Lafourche Crossing. 

Delaune, M. Armantina and Delaune. Lockport. 

Dionne, George. Enterprise. Thibodaux. 

Foret, v., widow. Buckhorn. Lockport. 

Foret, Mrs. Elles. Felicia. Lockport. 1,400 arpents, 400 cult. Modern. Daily 
capacity, 300 tons. Average annual output of plantation, 1,000,000 pounds; 
of sugar-house, 1,500,000 pounds. Striped. 

Foret, L., & Bros. Ludivine. Norah. 

Foret, Traismond. Celina. Norah. 

Gaiennie. Bivouac. Thibodaux. 

Godeheaux, Leon, Co., Ltd. Eaceland, Evangeline, Upper Ten, Mary and Utopia. 
Eaceland. 19,000 acres, 4,000 cult. Modern, up-to-date. Electric lighting and 
narrow-gauge railroad. Daily capacity, 1,250 tons. Average annual output of 
plantation, 9,000,000 pounds; of sugar-house, 12,000,000 pounds. Eed. 

Golden Ranch S. & C. Co. Golden Ranch. Gheens. 60,000 acres, 2,000 cult. 
Modern, up-to-date. Narrow-gauge railroad. Daily capacity, 500 tons. Av- 
erage annual output of plantation, 2,500,000 pounds. Red. 

Harang, D. Choctaw. Larose. 

Howell, W. E. Waverly. Thibodaux. 2,000 acres, 1,050 cult. Modern, up-to-date. 
Electric lighting. Daily capacity, GOO tons. Average annual output of plan- 
tation, 2,500,000 pounds. Eed and Striped. 

Lafourche Sugar Refining Co., Ltd. Thibodaux. 

Levert & Morvant. Webre and Rienzi. Thibodaux. 3,500 acres, 1,500 cult. Mod- 
ern. Daily capacity, 400 tons. Average annual output of plantation, 2,500,000 
pounds. Red. 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 699 

LcBlanc, Joseph A., & Co. Reitabas. Lockport. 
Ledet, Emile, & Bro. Anna. Eaceland. 
LeBlanc, Ursin. White Eose. Eaceland. 

Lagarde, Major C. McLeod. Lockport. 800 acres, 700 cult. Modern. Daily 
capacity, 250 tons. Average annual output of plantation, 1,000,000 pounds; 
sugar-house, 1,250,000 pounds. Bed and Striped. 
Lagarde, Major C. Leighton. Thibodaux. 
Libby & Blouin. Bush Grove. Lafourche Crossing. 

Mathews. C. S. Georgia and New Hope. Eaceland. 5,000 acres, 3,000 cult. 
Modern, up-to-date. Electric lighting and narrow-gauge railroad. Daily ca- 
pacity, 1,500 tons. Average annual output of plantation, 7,500,000 pounds; 
of sugar-house, 9,000,000. Eed and Eibbon. 
Mathews, C. S., lessee. Gayoso. Eaceland. 800 acres, 700 cult. Average annual 

output of plantation, 500,000 pounds. Eed and Eibbon. 
Nicholls & Henderson, Eingfield. Thibodau.x. 
Naquin. Ozeme. St. Bernard. Thibodaux. 
Price, Andrew. Acadia. Thibodaux. 
Pittman, E. A. Oak Grove. Ariel. 
Eoger & Eobichaux. Coulon. Thibodaux. 1,396 acres, 1,300 cult. Sells cane. 

Average annual output of plantation. 3,000,000 pounds. Eed and Striped. 
Eoger, Thomas H. Home Cottage. Thibodaux. 260 acres, all cult. Sells cane. 

Average annual output of plantation, 500,000 pounds. Eed and Striped. 
Eoger, Ernest. Greenwood and Floriska. Thibodaux. 2,000 acres, 650 cult. 
Modern, up-to-date. Electric lighting. Daily capacity, 600 tons. Average 
annual output of plantation, 2,500,000 pounds. Eed and Striped. 
Seignoret, J. E. Seignoret. Pugh. 

Seely, John S. Forest Grove and French. Thibodaux. 700 acres, all cult. Open 
kettle. Daily capacity, 150 tons. Average annual output of plantation, 1,000.- 
000 pounds. Eed and White. 
Scally, David. Webster. Lafourche Crossing. 
Trosclair, Mrs. L. J. "L. T." Thibodaux. 
Tetrau, H. Artridge. Pugh. 
Toups, J. 0., & Sons. Lake View. Lockport. 
Toups, Prosper. Ariel. Ariel. 800 acres, 450 cult. Sells cane. Average annual 

output of plantation, 500,000 pounds. Eed. 
Theriot, Alex. Scuddy and home place. Ariel. 



700 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

Trosclair & Eobichaux. Laurel Grove and Trial. Thibodaux. 1,450 acres, 1,000 
cult. Modern. Electric lighting. Average annual output of sugar-house, 
5,000,000 pounds. Eed and Striped. 

Trosclair, L. J. Brand. Thibodaux. 

White, Judge E. D. Brousseau. Thibodaux. 

Williams, C. C. Sunny Side. Lafourche Crossing. 600 acres, all cult. Sells 
cane. Average annual output of plantation, 750,000 pounds. Eed. 

ST. JAMES PARISH. 

Anderman, Ed. M. Cabanosee. St. James. 700 acres, 450 cult. Sells cane. 

Average annual output of plantation, 800,000 pounds. Eed and White. 
Brignac, F. Paulina. Convent. 150 acres, 95 cult. Sells cane. Average annual 

output of plantation, 83,000 pounds. Striped. 
Barton & Himel. Buena Vista. Lauderdale. 2,000 acres, 1,200 cult. Modern. 

Daily capacity, 400 tons. Average annual output of plantation, 2,000,000 

pounds. Eed. 
Barton, E. D., estate. St. Clair. Welcome. 
Becnel, Joseph. Dupart. St. Patrick. 850 acres, 600 cult. Steam train, open 

kettle. Daily capacity, 200 tons. Average annual output of plantation, 525,000 

pounds. Eibbon. 
Bourgeois, E. Eapidan. Central. 350 acres, all cult. Modern. Electric lighting. 

Daily capacity, 850 tons. Average annual output of plantation, 1,500,000 

pounds; of sugar-house, 2,500,000 pounds. Eed. 
Bourgeois, J. 0. Tippecanoe. Union. 
Bourgeois, L. A. St. John. Union. 
Bourgeois, Thee, Jr. Grand Vue. Hester. 
Bourgeois, Vinzule. Sampson. Hester. 
Clain, Eugene. St. Joseph. Paulina. 
Charbonnier, E. Helvetia. Central. 
Donaldson Bros. Good Hope. Convent. 
Esidore, Mrs. M. Eed Hot. Mt. Airy. 
Ferchaud, J. B., estate. Elina. Lauderdale. 

Gaskin & Eolling. Pike's Peak. St. James. 3,765 acres, 900 cult. Modern, up-to- 
date. Electric lighting. Daily capacity, 500 tons. Average annual output of 

plantation, 2,500,000 pounds; of sugar-house, 3,000,000 pounds. Eed and 

Eibbon. 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 701 

Gramercy, C. S. F., Co. Goldeis Grove, David and Hester. Gramercy. 

Grangnard Bros. Sidney and Bonse Cour. St. James. 1,610 acres, 850 cult. 
Steam open train. Daily capacity, 300 tons. Average annual output of plan- 
tation, 1,200,000 pounds; of sugar-house, 1,500,000 pounds. Eed. 

Grace, G. J. St. Alice. Welcome. 

Hymel, L. Crescent. St. Patrick. 1,300 acres, 400 cult. Modern. Daily capacity, 
300 tons. Average annual output of plantation, £00,000 pounds; of sugar- 
house, 1,500,000 pounds. Eed and Eibbon. 

Hymel, Mrs. G. D., Jr. Jefferson. Logan. 

Himel, Mrs. E. B. St. Emilie. Welcome. 300 acres, 260 cult. Open kettle. 
Daily capacity, 250 tons. Average annual output of plantation, 333,000 
pounds. Eed. 

Hymel & Schnexnaydre. St. Emma. St. James. 1,200 acres, 400 cult. Steam 
open train. Daily capacity, 300 tons. Average annual output of plantation^ 
650,000 pounds. Eed. 

Hymel, Mrs. S., & Sons. St. James. St. James. 

Henderson, John, Jr. Bessie K. St. James. 

Jacobshagen, Mrs. M. Union. Union. 

Jacob, Jules J. Uncle Sam. Convent. 2,800 acres, 1,100 cult. Modern, up-to- 
date. Narrow-gauge railroad. Daily capacity, 500 tons. Average annual 
output of plantation, 3,000,000 pounds; of sugar-house, 5,000,000 pounds. 
Eed. 

Kahn, E. Belmont. Hester. 240 acres, all cult. 

Le Bourgeois, Joseph L. Mt. Airy. Mt. Airy. 3,900 acres, 900 cult. Sells cane. 
Average annual output of plantation, 1,350,000 pounds. Striped. 

La Pice, B. & E. B. Lauderdale. Lauderdale. 

Lebermuth & Israel Planting Co., Ltd. Saulsburg. Lauderdale. 1,970 acres, 900 
cult. Modern, up-to-date. Electric lighting and narrow-gauge railroad. Daily 
capacity, 1,000 tons. Average annual output of plantation, 1,500,000 pounds ; 
of sugar-house, 8,000,000 pounds. Eed. 

Laiche, L. G. St. Mary. Paulina. 

Lebermuth & Israel. Acadia. Lauderdale. 1,200 acres, 1,000 cult. Sells cane. 
Average annual output of plantation, 1,500,000 pounds. Eed. 

Miles Planting & Manufacturing Co., Ltd. St. James Eefinery and Armant. St. 
Patrick. Of St. James Eefinery plantation there are 2,600 acres, with 1,100 
in cult.; modern; daily capacity, 400 tons; average annual output of planta- 



702 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

tion, 3,000,000 pounds. Bed. Of the Arrnant plantation, there are 6,000 
acres, of which 2,000 are in cult.; modern, up-to-date; daily capacity, 1,000 
tons; average annual output of plantation, 4,000,000 pounds. Red. Both 
have electric lighting and narrow-gauge railroads. 

Martin, Misses. Belleviae. Paulina. 

Manuel, Albert. Lillie. Convent. 

Nicolle Bros. Home place. Convent. 

Ory, F. Celestine. Convent. 

Oneida Manufacturing Co., Ltd. (B. H. Pring, Pres.) Oneida. Hester. 2,340 
acres, 1,400 cult. Modern, up-to-date. Electric lighting. Daily capacity, 
500 tons. Average annual output of plantation, 3,000,000 pounds. Eed. 

Piper, M. A. Home place. Lagan. 

Pugh, John H. St. Elmo. Hester. 

Pugh, E. N. Wilton. Convent. 3,365 acres, 800 cult. Modern. Daily capacity, 
600 tons. Average annual output of planlation, 2,000,000 pounds; of sugar- 
house, 2,750,000 pounds. Eed. 

Poche, Joseph, & Co. Mayflower. Paulina. 

Plaisance, A. Stanley. Convent. 

Eoussel, August. Welcome. Welcome. 

Eodrigue, Eobert. Mascot. Lauderdale. ; 

Eoussel, Octave. St. Cecile. St. James. 

Eicaud, Charles. Dewey. Lauderdale. 

Eeulet, Mrs. B. Eeulet. Yacherie. 

Eeine & Chapman. Cleveland. Lutcher. 

Eeynaud F. Longview. Convent. 370 acres, 175 cult. Sells cane. Average 
annual output of plantation, 120,000 pounds. Eed. 

Sobral & Tucker. Oak Alley. St. Patrick. 1,380 acres, 700 cult, ilodern. 
Daily capacity, 250 tons. Average annual output of plantation, 1,500,0UU 
pounds ; of sugar-house, 2,000,000 pounds. Eed. 

Simoneaud, Mrs. 0. Faustina. Lauderdale. 

Scannel, Edward. St. Mary. Union. 

Torres, Felicien. Diamond. Yacherie. 

Tessier, J., estate. M. B. Canlroll, Bourbon, home place and St. Joseph. St. 
James and Convent postoffices. 

Tircuit, Eugene. St. Prisea. St. James. 

Troxler, Mrs. A., & Co. St. Joseph. St. Patrick. 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 703 

Vegas, A. B. Alta Vila. Central. 

Vredenburg, W. H. St. Rose. Convent. 4i0 acres, all cult. Open pan. Daily 
capacity, 150 tons. Average annual output of plantation, 225,000 pounds. Red 
and Striped. 

Vegas, John. Rich Bend. Lagan. 2,600 acres, 1,000 cult. Modern, up-to-date. 
Electric lighting. Daily capacity, 400 tons. Average annual output of plan- 
tation, 1,500,000 pounds ; of sugar-house, 2,000,000 pounds. Red and Ribbon. 

Webre, Steib & Co. Golden Ridge. Vacherie. 1,200 acres, 600 cult. Modern. 
Electric lighting. Daily capacity, 200 tons. Average annual output of plan- 
tation, 1,250,000 pounds. Red and Striped. 

Webre, Mrs. L. Anita. Vacherie. 

Webre, Melford. Central P. 0. 

Webre, Eugene. Central P. 0. 

Waguespack, F. & F. Home place. St. Patrick. 1,550 acres, 700 cult. Modern. 
Electric lighting. Daily capacity, 450 tons. Average annual output of plantation, 
1,200,000 pounds; of sugar-house, 2,250,000 pounds. Striped. 

Waguespack, F. Sport. Mt. Airy. 1,813 acres, 1,000 cult. Modern. Electricity 
for lighting, and narrow-gauge railroad. Daily capacity, 450 tons. Average 
annual output of plantation, 2,250,000 pounds; of sugar-house, 3,750,000 
pounds. Red. 

Waguespack, S., & Co. Felicite. St. Patrick. 

Walsh, James N. Lucy. Central. 

Waguespack, A. F. Succeed and Laura. St. Patrick. 550 acres, 475 cult. Modern. 
Electric lighting. Daily capacity, 250 tons. Average annual output of plan- 
tation, 1,000,000 pounds; of sugar-house, 1,500,000 pounds. Striped. 

Grand Point Settlement. C. Roussel, manager. Grand Point. Convent. 250 
acres, all cult. Sells cane. Average annual output of plantation, 600,000 
pounds. Red and Striped. 

ST. MARY PARISH. 

Adeline Sugar Factory Co. Adeline. Adeline. 6,000 acres, all cult. Modern, 
up-to-date. Electric lighting and narrow-gauge railroad. Daily capacity, 1,000 
tons. Average annual output of plantation, 8,000,000 pounds. Purple. 

AUeman, L. S. Lelia. Centreville. 

Alleman & Robicheau.x. Next Land. Centreville. 

Bradley Bros. Oakland. Berwick City. 



704 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

Berwick, 0. D. Johnson. Foster. 1,450 acres, 450 cult. Modern. Daily 
capacity, 250 tons. Average annual outpxit of plantation, 800,000 pounds. Red. 
and White. 

Boutle, T. P. Garden Spot. Centreville. 

Barnett, J. W. Shady Side. Centreville. 6,000 acres, 3,000 cult. Modern, up-to- 
date. Electric lighting and standard gauge railroad. Daily capacity, 1,200 
tons. Average annual output of plantation, 5,000,000 pounds ; of sugar-house, 
10,000,000 pounds. Eed. 

Baker, H. B. Arlington. Franklin. 1,200 acres, 700 cult. Sells cane. Average 
annual output of plantation, 750,000 pounds. Eibbon. 

Burguieres, J. M., estate. Cypremore, Florence and Inez. Louisa. 7,000 acres, 
3,000 cult. Modern, up-to-date. Electric lighting and standard-gauge rail- 
road. Daily capacity, 1,200 tons. Average annual output of plantation, 
7,000,000 pounds; of sugar-house, 10,000,000 pounds. Ribbon. 

Burguieres, Mrs. E. D. Ivanhoe and Alice B. Louisa. 4,200 acres, 1,700 cult. 
Modern, up-to-date. Electric lighting. Daily capacity, 600 tons. Average 
annual output of plantation, 5,000,000 pounds. Ribbon. 

Burguieres, Mrs. E. D. Crawford and Richland. Louisa. 3,000 acres, 1,500 cult. 
Modern, up-to-date. Electric lighting. Daily capacity, 500 tons. Average 
annual output of plantation, 4,000,000 pounds. Ribbon. 

Bosworth, Millard. Matilda. Cypremore. 1,390 acres, 1,000 cult. Sells cane. 
Average annual output of plantation, 2,000,000 pounds. Red and Striped. 

Baldwin & Co. Total Wreck. Baldwin. 3,000 acres, 1,500 cult. Modern. Elec- 
tric lighting. Daily capacity, 240 tons. Average annual output of plantation, 
1,000,000 pounds. Red. 

Birg, Joseph. East Campdown, Katie and Grendelbruck. Baldwin. 2,000 acres, 
1,600 cult. Modern, up-to-date. Electric lighting and narrow-gauge railroad. 
Daily capacity, 300 tons. Average annual output of plantation, 1,250,000 
pounds ; of sugar-house, 2,250,000 pounds. Red. 

Bourdier & Bellesslin. Waveland. Patterson. 650 acres, all cult. Modern. Elec- 
tric lighting. Daily capacity, 300 tons. Average annual output of plantation, 
1,500,000 pounds ; of sugar-house, 2,000,000 pounds. Red. 

Birg & Sutcliff Camperdown Central Refinery. Baldwin. Refinery. Electric 
lighting. Average annual output of sugar-house, 3,000,000 pounds. 

Bonvillain, A. A. Home place and Coteati. Glencoe. 

Clarke, Lewis S. Lagonda. Patterson. 3,000 acres, 1,000 cult. Diffusion 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 705 

process. Electric lighting. Daily capacity, 350 tons. Average annual output of 
plantation, 2,500,000 pounds; of sugar-house, 3,750,000 pounds. Ked. 

Claussen, Mentz & Bell. Maryland. Foster. 1,300 acres, 600 cult. Modern. Daily 
capacity, 200 tons. Average annual output of plantation, 800,000 pounds; 
of sugar-house, 1,850,000 pounds. Red. 

Caffery Central Refinery. Sterling. Franklin. Electric lighting. 

Caffery, D. Berthia. Franklin. 500 acres, 400 cult. Modern. Electric lighting. 
Daily capacity, 350 tons. Average annual output of plantation. 750,000 pounds. 
Red. 

Caffery Bros. Chattsworth. Franklin. 400 acres, 300 cult. Sells cane. Average 
annual output of plantation, 500,000 pounds. Red. 

Clarke & Lassus. Crescent. Patterson. 

Cocke, R.R. Garden City. Franklin. 2,200 acres, 750 cult. Sells cane. Average 
annual output of plantation, 1,125,000 pounds. Red. 

Davenport, John J. Locust Grove. Patterson. 

Delmas, Mrs. A. Hope. Patterson. 

Darrall, Dr. C. B. Avoca and Oakley. Morgan City. 

Dumesnil, Mrs. A. California. Baldwin. 

Darrogh, Mrs. J. L. Justine and Retreat. Centreville. 2,000 acres, all cult. 
Modern. Electric lighting and narrow-gauge railroad. Daily capacity, 500 
tons. Average annual output of plantation, 5,000,000 pounds. Red. 

Delhaye, Hubert. Edna. Charenton. 

Davies, H. M. Glen Orange. Amelia. 

Druilhet, Ernest. West Side and Little Mound. Centreville. 500 acres, all cult. 
Sells cane. Average annual output of plantation, 900,000 pounds. Red. 

Druilhet & Budreaux. Live Oak. Centreville. 80 acres, all cult. Sells cane. 
Average annual output of plantation, 200,000 pounds. Red. 

Delgado & Co. Albania. Jeanerette. 

Franklin Sugar Manufacturing Co., Ltd. Franklin P. 0. Modern refinery. Elec- 
tric lighting. Average annual output of sugar-house, 6,500,000 pounds. 

Foster Bros. Shady Retreat. Franklin. 

Foster & Bentz. Alice C. Franklin. 2,100 acres, 950 cult. Modern, up-to-date. 
Electric lighting. Daily capacity, 400 tons. Average annual output of plan- 
tation, 2,000,000 pounds ; of sugar-house, 3,000,000 pounds. Red and Striped. 

Hinckley, L. H., & Bro. Emma. Charenton. 

Habert, Rene. Central Park. Baldwin. 



7o6 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

Hope & Alexandre. Amelia. Patterson. 

Kemper, W. P., widow. Gleneoe. Glencoe. 1,300 acres, 850 cult. Modern. Elec- 
tric lighting. Daily capacity, 300 tons. Average annual output of plantation, 
1,500,000 pounds. White and Ribbon. 

iCemper, W. B. Choupique. Glencoe. 800 acres, all cult. Sells cane. Average 
annual output of plantation, 750,000 pounds. Red and Striped. 

Kramer, Louis, Francis and Susie. Franklin. 2,000 acres, 1,000 cult. Modern. 
Daily capacity, 300 tons. Average annual output of plantation, 1,750,000 
pounds. Red. 

Lagerman, Mrs. J. Johanna. Franklin. 

Larre, Pierre. Larra. Cypremont. 

Lunny, James. Daisy. Foster. 1,600 acres, 220 cult. Open kettle. Narrow- 
gauge railroad. Daily capacity, 100 tons. Average annual output of plan- 
tation, 300 hogsheads. Red. 

Levy, Lazan. Cote Blanche. Scally. 1,400 acres, all cult. Modern. Electric 
lighting. Daily capacity, 600 tons. Average annual output of plantation, 
1,750,000 pounds. Red. 

McCardle, S. T. Oak Hill. Baldwin. 

Marsh, Hebert & Trahan. Cherry Bank. Foster. 

Noveret, Mrs. C. E. Azema. Glencoe. 

Norman, William. Boneannier. Patterson. 

Oaklawn Sugar Co., Ltd. Oak Lawn and Oxford. Irish Bend. 5,500 acres, 3,800 
cult. Modern, up-to-date. Electric lighting. Daily capacity, 800 tons. 
Average annual output of plantation, 8,000,000 pounds. Red and Ribbon. 

O'Niell, Walter A. Linwood. Baldwin. 1,200 acres, 600 cult. Modern, up-to-date. 
Electric lighting and narrow-gauge railroad. Daily capacity, 350 tons. Aver- 
age annual output of plantation, 1,500,000 pounds; of sugar-house, 2,500,000 
pounds. Red. 

O'Niell, John A. Anastasia. Franklin. 560 acres, all cult. Sells cane. Average 
annual output of plantation, 600,000 pounds. Purple and Striped. 

Provost, Vileor. Provost. Cypremont. 300 acres, all cult. Mule power, open 
kettle. Average annual output of plantation, 80 hogsheads. Red. 

Patout, L. P. Vacherie and Elodie. Baldwin. 5,076 acres, 1,500 cult. Modern, 
up-to-date. Electric lighting and narrow-gauge railroad. Daily capacity, 350 
tons. Average annual output of plantation, 3,000,000 pounds. Striped and 
White. 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 707 

Pharr, Captain J. iST. Glenwild, Sorrel, Fairview, Alendale, Glen Orange and 

Lake View. Berwick City. 10,000 acres, 4,700 cult. Modern, up-to-date. 

Electric lighting and narrow-gauge railroad. Daily capacity, 1,000 tons. 

Average annual output of plantation, 4,000,000 pounds; of sugar-house, 

8,000,000 pounds. Red and Striped. 
Ferret, F. P. Yokely Farm. Franklin. 
Prevost, Mrs. Alix. Alix. Baldwin. 800 acres, 700 cult. Modern. Electric 

lighting. Daily capacity, 225 tons. Average annual output of plantation, 

1,250,000 pounds. Eibbon. 
Queen, B. F. Ella. Centreville. 
Eobicheaux, E. & 0. Light Land. Centreville. 
Eobicheaux & Bros. West Bellevue. Franklin. 
Rodrigues, Edward. Rodrigue. Baldwin. 
Rose, H. C. Oak Bluff. Franklin. 1,100 acres, 500 cult. Semi-modern. Daily 

capacity, 300 tons. Average annual output of plantation, 750,000 pounds; 

of sugar-house, 1,500,000 pounds. Red. 
Seyburne. Idlewild. Patterson. 
Shaffer, T. J. Anna. Franklin. 
Swenson, S. M. North Bend, Midway, Lone Magnolia. Foster. 6,321 acres, 1,600 

cult. Modern, up-to-date. Narrow-gauge railroad. Daily capacity, 400 tons. 

Average annual output of plantation, 3,500,000 pounds. Red. 
Schwan, V. Germania. Centreville. 1,200 acres, 800 cult. Modern, up-to-date. 

Electric lighting. Daily capacity, 250 tons. Average annual output of planta- 
tion, 1,500,000 pounds ; of sugar-house, 3,000,000 pounds. Red and Ribbon. 
Sanders, Dr. H. J. Luckland. Patterson. 1,800 acres, 1,050 cult. Modern, 

up-to-date. Electric lighting. Daily capacity, 375 tons. Average annual 

output of plantation, 3,000,000 pounds; of sugar-house, 3,100,000 pounds. 

Red and Ribbon. 
Tidal Wave Planting & Manufacturing Co., Ltd. Tidal Wave. Tidal Wave. 3,641 

acres, 1,000 cult. Modern. Daily capacity, 250 tons. Average annual output 

of plantation, 1,500,000 pounds. Red. 
Stansbury, L. Bertha. Foster. 
Southon, Walter J. Woodburn. Charenton. 
Todd, N. K. Garrett. Foster. 380 acres, all cult. Modern. Electric lighting. 

Daily capacity, 350 tons. Average annual output of plantation, 750,000 

pounds. Red and White. 



7o8 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

Todd, John K. Ellerslie and South Bend. Foster. 5,632 acres, 1,400 cult. Mod- 
ern. Electric lighting and narrow-gauge railroad. Daily capacity, 300 tons. 
Average annual output of plantation, 2,500,000 pounds. Ked and Purple. 

Thompson, Daniel. Calumet. Patterson. 6,000 acres, 2,000 cult. Modern, up- 
to-date. Electric lighting and narrow-gauge railroad. Daily capacity, 600 
tons. Average annual output of plantation, 5,000,000 pounds ; of sugar-house, 
5,500,000 pounds. Eed. 

Trimble, Charles H. Eutledge. Franklin. 

Underwood, Short & Bell. Bellevue. Franklin. 5,000 acres, 1,700 cult. Modern, 
up-to-date. Electric lighting. Daily capacity, 800 tons. Average annual 
output of plantation, 5,000,000 pounds. Eed and White. 

Walker, G. G. Buckeye. Centreville. 

Zenor, Oscar. Moro and Ingleside. Patterson. 587 acres, 400 cult. Sells cane. 
Average annual output of plantation, 787,500 poiinds. Eed. 

Zenor, George E. Eiverside. Patterson, 3,500 acres, 1,450 cult. Modern. Elec- 
tric lighting and narrow-gauge railroad. Daily capacity, 550 tons. Average 
annual output of plantation, 4,000,000 pounds; of sugar-house, 5,000,000 
pounds. Eed. 

Zenor, 0. & W. Avalon. Patterson. 1,250 acres, 650 cult. Semi-modern. Elec- 
tric lighting. Daily capacity, 300 tons. Average annual output of plantation, 
2,000,000 pounds ; of sugar-house, 3.000,000 pounds. Eed. 

Zenor, O'Brien & O'Brien. McKay. Patterson. 350 acres, 250 cult. Sells cane. 
Average annual output of plantation, 375,000 pounds. Eed. 

TERREBONNE PARISH. 

Buford, C. A. Forest Grove. Chacahoula. 

Boudreaux, Alfred estate. Front Lawn. Houma. 

Bocage, C. W. Belle Farm. Houma. 

Barrow & Duplantis. Myrtle Grove. Houma. 2,840 acres, 1,900 cult. Modern, 

up-to-date. 600 tons daily capacity. Average annual output of plantation, 

3,000,000 pounds. Eed. 
Bush & Tete. Sarah. Houma. 
Babin & Bro., John. Indian Eidge. Houma. 
Bonvallain, BannoiL Boykin. Houma. 

Bonvallain Bros. Argj'le, Eidgeland and Crescent. Houma P. 0. 
Cantrelle & Son, E. J. Cedar Grove. Houma. 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 709 

Cocke, R. W. Rebecca. Ellendale. 

Cambon Bros. Half Way and Great Caillou. Du Lac. 

Cook, Thomas W. High Ridge. Houma. 

Cage, Harry. Ranch. Houma. 

Caillouet & Maginnis. Ashland and Woodlawn. Houma. 11,000 acres, 2,500 cult. 
Modern, up-to-date. 1,000 tons daily capacity. Average annual output of 
plantation, 6,000,000. Striped and Purple. Narrow-gauge railroad and electric 
lighting. 

Casey, T. H. Oak Forest. Gibson. 

Dupont & Jolet. Orange Grove. Montegut. 

Ellender Bros. Hardscrabble and Hope Farm. Montegut. 

Fields, Eugene. Angella. Montegut. 

Foley & Foles. Flora. Houma. 

Gueno Bros. Presquile. Houma. 500 acres cult. Modern, 300 tons daily capacity. 
Average annual output of plantation, 1,500,000. Red and Striped. 

Gresham, Miss G. P. Lacache. Montegut. 

Greenwood Planting & Manufacturing Co. Greenwood and Oak Grove. Houma. 

Henry, Tresimond. Du Large. Houma. 

Hatch, W. S. Goatfield. Houma. 

Lottinger, F. Dulac. Dulac. 

Liretto, Leo. Orange Grove. Montegut. 

Levy, David. Isle of Cuba. Shriever. 

Lirette, Volcar. Bayou Cane. Houma. 

Lower Terrebonne Refining & Manufacturing Co. Central Factory, Montegut. 
Incorporated, 1891. Charles B. Maginnis, President; Henry G. Bush, Vice 
President and Manager; R. G. Bush, Secretary and Treasurer. Modern re- 
finery. 1,100 tons daily capacity. Average annual output of plantation, 10,- 
000,000 pounds. 

Marmande, B. estate. St. Eloi. Houma. 

Martin & Breaux. Live Oak. Dulac. 

Moore, John T. Planting Co., Ltd. Waubun, Julia and St. George. Shriever. 
7,100 acres, 2,500 cult. Modern, up-to-date. Electricity for lighting and 
narrow-gauge railroad. 1,000 tons daily capacity. Average annual output of 
plantation, 5,000,000 pounds. Red and Striped. 

McBride, J. M. Belle Grove. Ellendale. 

McCollam & Cocke. Cedar Grove, Bull Run and Poverty Flat. Ellendale. 



7IO STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

McCollam Bros. Ellendale. Ellendale. 1,400 acres, 700 cult. Modern. 400 tons 

daily capacity. Average annual output of plantation, 1,500,000. Bed. 
Maginnis & Le Blanc. Arragon. Montegut. 
Minor, H. C. estate. Southdown. Houma. 
Minor, H. C. estate. Holly Wood. Houma. 
Minor, William. Concord. Houma. 

Minor, John D. Laurel Farm, Eoseland and Waterproof. Houma. 
Eobicheaux & Bro., Joseph A. Eed Star. Montegut. 
Suthon, L. F. Honduras. Houma. 
Shaffer, William A. heirs. Crescent Farm. Ellendale. -3,500 acres, 1,400 cult. 

Modern, up-to-date. Electricity for lighting and narrow-gauge railroad. 500 

tons daily capacity. Average annual output of plantation, 3,500,000 pounds. 

Eed. 
Shaffer, J. J. Magnolia. Minerva. 1,000 acres. Modern. Electricity for lighting. 

300 tons daily capacity. Average annual output of plantation, 2,500,000 

pounds. Eed and Striped. 
Shaffer, J. D. Ardoyne and Eureka. Ellendale. 4,000 acres, 1,600 cult. Modern. 

500 tons daily capacity. Average annual output of plantation, 4,000,000 

pounds. Eed and Striped. 
Sanders, A. A. Magenta. Montegut. 
Sanders, Mrs. J. M. Live Oak. Montegut. 
StoufHet, Alidore. Hard Front. Houma. 
Theriot, J. T. Sunrise. Houma. 
Theriot & Champagne. St. Michol. Houma. 
Viguerie, A. E. Point Farm and Evergreen. Shriever. 800 acres, 450 cult. 

Average annual output of plantation, 900,000 pounds. Eed. 
Waguespack & Son, Louis. Cane Brake. Houma. 

WEST BATON ROUGE PARISH. 

Bird, Mrs. A. F. Shelter. Markoa. 

Brown, Capt. J. J. estate. Kelson. Arbroth. 

Bernard, Mrs. William L. Mark. 

Brown & Sharp. Choctaw. Cinclare. 

Chamberlain, W. B. Camp. Devall. 1,500 acres, 400 cult. Open-kettle. 150 

tons daily capacity. Average anniial output of plantation, 600,000 pounds. 

Eed. 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 711 

Chamberlain, Hugh. Batture. Devall. 

Cronan, John. Bellevale. Lobdell. 

Cazes, Bertrand. Gascon. Mark. 

Comeaux, V. Cleanwood. Bur Land. 

Devall, David. Orange Grove. Devall. 682 acres, 500 cult. Modern. 500 tons 

daily capacity. Average annual output of plantation, 1,000,000 pounds; of 

sugar-house, 3,000,000 pounds. Eed. 
Delahaye, Mrs. Alfred. Brusly Landing. 
Guesnard, A. Belmont. Lobdell. 775 acres, all cult. Modern. 300 tons daily 

capacity. Average annual output of plantation, 1,000,000 pounds. Red. 
Hogan, J. P. Cypress Hall. Devall. 
Hebert, Alfred, Sr. St. Joseph. Brusly Landing. 
Harris, Mrs. E. A. F. Poplar Grove. Port Allen. 1,100 acres, all cult. Modern. 

Electricity for lighting and narrow-gauge railroad. 500 tons daily capacity. 

Average annual output of plantation, 2,250,000 pounds; of sugar-house, 4,000,- 

000. Eed. 
Hill, John. Homestead. Port Allen. 1,400 acres, all cult. Modern, up-to-date. 

400 tons daily capacity. Average annual output of plantation, 2,000,000 

pounds. Red. 
Hill, George. Catherine and Barronza. Lobdell. 1,900 acres, 1,500 cult. Modern, 

up-to-date. Narrow-gauge railroad. 500 tons daily capacity. Average annual 

output of plantation, 2,500,000. Red. 
Kaufman, E. Lobdell. 
Kahao, M. J. Allendale. Lobdell. 2,700 acres, 1,300 cult. Modern. Electric 

lighting and narrow-gauge railroad. Daily capacity, 300 tons. Average an- 
nual output of plantation, 2,250,000 pounds. Red. 
Kahao & Co., John H. Westover. Lobdell. 2,700 acres, 1,265 cult. Modern, up- 
to-date. Electric lighted. Daily capacity, 500 tons. Average annual output 

of plantation, 2,000,000. Red. 
Laws, Harry L. Cinclare. Cinclare. Electric lighted and narrow-gauge railroad. 
Levert, August. St. Delphine and St. Mary. Mark. 3,000 acres, 1,200 cult. 

Modern. Narrow-gauge railroad. Daily capacity, 500 tons. Average annual 

output of plantation, 1,500,000 pounds; of sugar-house, 3,000,000 pounds. 

Ribbon. 
Levert, August. Antonia. Mark. 1,200 acres, 600 cult. Open pan and centrifugals. 

Daily capacity, 150 tons. Average annual output of plantation, 1,000,000 

pounds. Red. 



712 STANDAED HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

Lefebvre, V. M. Australia. Manchac. 1,500 acres, 1,000 cult. Modern. Daily 
capaeit}', 350 tons. Average annual output of plantation, 2,500,000 pounds^ 
White and Eed. 

Lefebvre, E. M. Eliza. Brusly Landing. 1,400 acres, all cult. Modern. Daily 
capacity, 350 tons. Average annual output of plantation, 2,500,000 pounds. 
White and Red. 

Landry, Emile. Mark. 

Landry, Alcee. Olivia. Mark. 

Milliken, Mrs. D. A. Smithfield. Devall. 2,100 acres, 1,550 cult. Modern, up- 
to-date. Electric lighting and narrow-gauge railroad. Daily capacity, TOO 
tons. Average annual output of plantation, 2,750,000 pounds: of sugar-house, 
3,250,000 pounds. Red. 

Martinez, A. J. Cinclare. 

Monticino, E. M. Viola. Lobdell. 450 acres, all cult. Open-kettle. Daily 
capacity, 125 tons. Average annual output of plantation, 675,000 pounds. 
Red. 

Pompaneaux, 0. Henrietta. Brusly Landing. 

Sharp, A. J. Red Eye. Cinclare. 

Sharp, A. J. Chenango. Mark. 

Stafford, Mrs. Samuel. Bel Air. Port Allen. 500 acres, all cult. Sells cane,. 
Average annual output of plantation, 375,000 pounds. Red and Ribbon. 

Thuillier, V. St. Joseph. Brusly Landing. 

Yickniar, Ernest. Anchorage. 550 acres, all cult. ^lodern. Daily capacity, 200 
tons. Average annual output of plantation, 1,000,000 pounds ; of sugar-house, 
1,250,000 pounds. Red. 

r 

E.\ST BATON ROUGE PARISH. 

Adler & Co., A. Ben Hur. Manchac. 2,770 acres, 1,800 cult. Narrow-gauge 
railroad. Sells cane. Average annual output of plantation, 4,000,000 pounds. 
Purple. 

Arbour, 0. R. Pennyville. Baton Rouge. 

Baton Rouge Sugar Co. Incorporated 1894. Baton Rouge. Diffusion process. 
Electric lighted. Daily capacity, 700 tons. Average annual output of sugar- 
house, G50,000. 

Barrow, Prof. D. U. Istrouma. Baton Rouge. 530 acres, 300 cult. Sells cane.. 
Average annual output of plantation, 720,000 pounds. Red. 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. in 

Barillier, Louis. Magnolia. Baton Kouge. 

Burris, George S. Oak Grove. Baton Rouge. 

Cooley & Zuber. Wilderness. Baton Rouge. 

Dixon, Vincent L. Hemstock. Baton Rouge. 

Dros & Thibodeaux. Butte a C'm'l. Baton Rouge. 

Dupree, Dr. J. W. Kenniore. Baton Rouge. 

Dougherty, Mrs. J. A. Estate. Highland. Baton Rouge. 3,G00 acres, 1,600 cult. 
Sells cane. Average annual output of plantation, 1,050,000. Red. 

Prieman, Z. T. Camp Harny. Baton Rouge. 

Gibbons, J. F. Elm Grove. Baton Rouge. 

Huguet, Dr. & Son. Hard Times. Baton Rouge. 

Hunstock, F. estate. Hope Villa. ; 

Loudon, A. Baton Rouge. 

Lefebvre, E. M. Longwood. Manchac. 1,800 acres, 1,150 cult. Modern. Nar- 
row- gauge railroad. Daily capacity, 600 tons. Average annual output of plan- 
tation, 3,000,000 pounds ; of sugar-house, 3,750,000 pounds. Red. 

Rhodes, L. P. Woodstock. Manchac. ; 

Sterling & Knox. Bellonia. Manchac. 

Shannon, D. H. Arlington. Baton Rouge. i 

Sharp, Thomas M. Baton Rouge. 

Stokes, J. A. estate. Baton Rouge. 

Sharp, Mrs. S. Oak Hill. Baton Rouge. 

Stokes, W. D. Baton Rouge. 

Slaughter, W. S. & Bro. Port Hickory. Port Hudson. 

Staring, Joseph. Doolittle and Bellonia. Baton Rouge. 1,270 acres, 1,100 cult. 
Sells cane. Average annual output of plantation, 335,000 pounds. Red. 

Womack, T. A. Chatsworth. Manchac. 2,100 acres, 1,100 cult. Modern, up-to- 
date. Electric lighted. Daily capacity, 400 tons. Average annual output of 
plantation, 2,000,000 pounds. Red and White. 

Yorke, E. A. Estate. Moss Side. Baton Rouge. 

RAPIDES PARISH. 

Burr, A. S. Corday. Lamourie Bridge. Open Pan. 
Blackman, Judge F. L. Wellswood. Loyd. 
Chambers, Josiah. Mooreland. 
Carnal, Louisa. Chickama. Lecompte. Open-kettles. 



714 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

Cannon, Clifton. Magnolia. Cheneyville. 

Flower, William P. Flowerton. Flowerton. 

Flower, D. S. Clarefield. Flowerton. 

Fitzpatrick, Joseph, agent. Lunenberg. Loyd. Steam train ; open-kettles. 

tiilmore & Maginnis. May. Loyd. 

llarris, William. Willow Glen. Alexandria. Open pan. 

Hardy, Miss Ida. Euwanee. Leeompte. 2,250 acres, 550 cult. Sells cane. 

Mayer & Weinberg. Ashton. Lamourie Bridge. Vacuum pan and centrifugal. 

Mathews, J. E. Chaseland. Leeompte. Open-kettles. 

Meeker, Joseph H. estate. Home Place. Meeker. 5,500 acres, 2,000 cult. 
Vacuum pan. Electric lighted and narrow-gauge railroad. Daily capacity, 
900 tons. Average annual output of plantation, 2,250,000 pounds; of sugar- 
house, 7,000,000 pounds. Red. 

Polk, Mrs. William. Elmfield. Mooreland. Open pan. 

Pickles, J. B. Sunny Side. Lamourie Bridge. 

Weems, E. V. Chetwood. Leeompte. Modern. Daily capacity, 600 tons. Average 
annual output of plantation, 4,000,000 pounds. Red. 

Weill Bros. & Bauer. Clio. Weill. Open pan. Daily capacity, 150 tons. Average 
annual output of plantation, 500,000 pounds. Red. 

ST. CHARLES PARISH. 

Boudreaux, P. E. New Hope. Sellers. 

Brou, A. & V. P. Providence. Killona. 1,250 acres, 400 cult. Open-kettle. 

Daily capacity, 175 tons. Average annual output of plantation, 700,000 pounds. 

Striped. 
Cambre, Mrs. L. Rose. St. Rose. 
Ellington Planting Co., Ltd. John Barkley, President; H. Barkley, Vice President; 

W. J. Barkley, Secretary and Treasurer. Ellington. Luling. 6,700 acres, 

2,000 cult. Modern, up-to-date. Electric lighting and narrow-gauge railroad. 

Daily capacity, 550 tons. Average annual output of plantation, 3,500,000 

pounds ; of sugar-house, 4,000,000 pounds. Red and .Striped. 
Godchaux Leon Co., Ltd. Diamond. New Orleans. 
Hymel, Joseph R. Hymelia. Killona. 
Haydel, U. E. Cane Land. Hahnville. 525 acres, 275 cult. Sells cane. Average 

annual output of plantation, 300,000 pounds. Ribbon. 
Keller, P. A. Home Place. Hahnville. 450 acres, 200 cult. Sells cane. Average 

annual output of plantation, 150,000 pounds. Ribbon. 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 71$ 

Keller Bros. Hahnville. Hahnville. 395 acres, all cult. Sells cane. Average an- 
nual output of plantation, 180,000 pounds. Eibbon. 

King, Flower & Co. Mosella. Boutfe. 

Kugler, J. C. Hermitage. St. Eose. 

Laneaux, D. & Son. Pelican. Hahnville. 480 acres, 200 cult. Sells cane. Aver- 
age annual output of plantation, 180,000 pounds. Red, Ribbon and White. 

Lorio, George. Star. Killona. 2,500 acres, 900 cult. Modern. Daily capacity, 
250 tons. Average annual output of plantation, 1,200,000 pounds; of sugar- 
house, 2,000,000 pounds. Purple, Ribbon and White. 

La Branehe Planting Co., Ltd. La Branche. Luling. 2,240 acres, 1,000 cult. 
Modern. 300 tons daily capacity. Average annual output of plantation, 1,250,- 
000 pounds ; of sugar-house, 2,000,000 pounds. Ribbon and White. 

Legendre, Emile. Ashton. Luling 2,500 acres, 1,300 cult. Modern, up-to-date. 
Electric lighting and narrow-gauge railroad. Daily capacity, 600 tons. Aver- 
age annual output of plantation, 3,000,000 pounds ; of sugar-house, 4,000,000 
pounds. Red. 

Lone Star Planting & Manufacturing Co. Lone Star. Luling. 1,100 acres, 450 
cult. Sells cane. Average annual output of plantation, 900,000 pounds. Red. 

Mary Planting Co., Ltd. Danjean, 0. B., manager and agent. Mary. Killona. 
1,400 arpents, 960 cult. Open train, vacuum pan. Narrow-gauge railroad. 
Daily capacity, 350 tons. Average annual output, 2,000,000 pounds ; of sugar- 
house, 2,250,000 pounds. Red. 

Murray, Hubert. Trinity. Killona. 1,600 acres, 1,000 cult. Modern, up-to-date. 
Daily capacity, 300 tons. Average annual output of plantation, 2,000,000 
pounds. Red, Ribbon and White. 

Milliken & Farwell. Waterford. Killona. 4,000 acres, 1,300 cult. Modern, up-to- 
date. Standard-gauge railroad and narrow-gauge railrpad. Daily capacity, 
400 tons. Average annual output of plantation, 2,500,000 pounds. Red and 
Ribbon. 

Morgan, H. Gibbs. Fairview. Kenner. 

Poche, Edward. Holena. Killona. 

Rost, Judge Emile. Drestrehan. Sellers. 3,000 acres, 2,000 cult. Modern, up- 
to-date. Electric lighting. Daily capacity, 300 tons. Average annual output 
of plantation, 1,750,000 pounds ; of sugar-house, 2,500,000 pounds. Red. 
Sarpy, Leon Estate. Prospect. Sellers. 
Soniat, E. L. Victoria. St. Rose. 
Landeche & Bros. Almedia. St. Rose. 



^^ 



7i6 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

Vial, L. A. Fashion. Hahnville. 270 acres, 140 cult. Sells cane. Average an- 
nual output of plantation. 106,000 pounds. Ribbon. 

Keller & Co. Modoc. Hahnville. 600 acres, 260 cult. Sells cane. 

Picard, A. E. Killona. 40 acres, all cult. Sells cane. Average annual output of 
plantation. 60,000 pounds. Red, Purple and White. 



PLAQirEMINE.S PARISH. 

Brandt, A. La Renseite. Xaorai. 

Belair Co., The. Belair and Fairview. Belair. 6,000 acres, 1,000 cult. Modern, 
up-to-date. Xarrow-gauge railroad. Daily capacity, 250 tons. Average an- 
nual output of plantation, 1,500,000 pounds ; of sugar-house, 2,500,000 pounds. 
Red. 

Cousin, B. Oak Point. Jesuits Bend. 

Denley, T. P. Fanny. Belair. 

Flower & Mann. Stella. Dalcour. 

Grabert, G. Cedar Grove. Jesuits Bend. 

Garr Bros. St. Claire. English Turn. 

Gordon, Raphael. Monticello. St. Sophia. 

Hynson, W. R. Alliance. Myrtle Grove. 

Kearney, J. P. Belle Chasse. Benjamin. 

Kenihvorth Sugar Factory. Orange Grove. Poydras. 

Kenilworth Sugar Estate. Promised Land. Poydras. 

Lothrop, E. L. Linwood. Dalcour. 

Lothrop, Irving S. Greenwood. Dalcour. 1,500 acres, 250 cult. Sells cane. 

Mathe, S. R. Mary. Dalcour. 

Milliken, Mrs. D. A. Scarsdale and Monplaisir. English Turn. 2,200 acres, 800 
cult. Modern, up-to-date. Electric lighting. Daily capacity, 225 tons. Aver- 
age annual output of plantation, 1,500,000 pounds. Red and Striped. 

Myrtle Grove Planting Co. Myrtle Grove, Deer Range, Star, Junior and St. 
Rosalie. Myrtle Grove. 

Martin, H. 0. Burbridge. St. Sophie. 

Perez, R. Ollie. Jesuits Bend. 

Turcan, H. B. Maud Olive, \aomi. 

Warmoth, H. C. Magnolia, Goucession, Woodland and Sarah. New Orleans. 

Wilkinson, Dr. C. P. Live Oak Grove. Jesuits Bend. 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS^ 717 

IBEKIA rARISH. 

Avery, D. Prospect Hill. Avery. 

Broussard, J. D. & Son. Marie Louise. Loreauville. 

Lehman, Stern & Co., Ltd. Hope. Jeanerette. 2,800 acres, 1,000 cult. Modern. 
Electric lighting and narrow-gauge railroad. Daily capacity, 500 tons. Aver- 
age annual output of plantation, 3,000,000 pounds. Eed. 

■Curtis, John C. Solitude. New Iberia. 

Caffery Central Factory. Peebles. Franklin. 

Daspit, A. P. Interlacken. Franklin. 

Hall & Co., Gilbert L. Grand Cote. Grand Cote. 2,500 acres, 1,500 cult. 
Modern. Daily capacity, 400 tons. Average annual output of plantation, 
1,500,000 pounds. Eed. 

Gonsoulin, Adrieu. Marie. Loreauville. 750 acres, all cult. Modern, up-to-date. 
Electric lighting and narrow-gauge railroad. Daily capacity, 800 tons. Aver- 
age annual output of plantation, 2,000,000 pounds; of sugar-house, 8,000,000 
pounds. Red. 

Guidry & Co., E. D. Cherry Grove. Patoutville. 

Hall Bros. Nelson. New Iberia. 

Kemper, C. D. Pasture Farm. Franklin. 

Landry, J. A. Elma. New Iberia. 743 acres, all cult, ilodern. Narrow-gauge 
railroad. Daily capacity, 400 tons. Average annual output of plantation, 
1,500,000 pounds. Red. 

Martin, J. F. Vida. New Iberia. 300 acres, all cult. Modern. Daily capacity, 
400 tons. Average annual output of plantation. 500,000 pounds; of sugar- 
house, 3,000,000 pounds. Red. 

Monnot, A. L. Vanfrey and Providence. Jeanerette. 2,000 acres, all cult. Mod- 
ern, up-to-date. Electric lighting and narrow-gauge railroad. Daily capacity, 
300 tons. Average annual output of plantation, 2,750,000 pounds; of sugar- 
house, 6,000,000 pounds. Red and Striped. 

Newman, Charles. Linden. Jeanerette. 

New Iberia Sugar Co., Ltd. Morbihan. New Iberia. 1,500 acres, all cult. Mod- 
ern, up-to-date. Electric lighting and narrow-gauge railroad. Daily capacity, 
800 tons. Average annual output of plantation, 2,000,000 pounds; of sugar- 
house, 7,000,000 pounds. Red. 

Patout & Son, Mrs. M. A. Enterprise, Lydia and Little Valley. Patoutville. 7,000 
acres, 3,400 cult. Modern, up-to-date. Electric lighting and narrow-gauge 



7i8 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

railroad. Daily capacity, 800 tons. Average anniial output of plantation, i,- 
000,000 pounds. Red. 

Patout, H. Laodiska. Patoutville. 

Pharr, E. A. Pharr. Burke. 

Pharr & Bussey. Loizel & Olive Branch. Olivier. 1,300 acres, 1,000 cult. Modern, 
up-to-date. Electric lighting, narrow-gauge railroad. Daily capacity, 700 
tons. Average annual output of plantation, 3,000,000 pounds; of sugar- 
house, 6,000,000 pounds. Eed. 

Provost, J. A. Right Way and Belle Grove. Olivier. 1,39-1 acres, 923 cult. Mod- 
ern, up-to-date. Electric lighting and narrow-gauge railroad. Daily capacity, 
600 tons. Average annual output of plantation, 1,750,000 pounds; of sugar- 
house, 3,000,000 pounds. Red and Striped. 

Romero & Bayard. Daisy. Patoutville. 

Romero, Oliver, widow. Buena Vista. New Iberia. 

Sanders, H. Shelby. Bayside. Jeanerette. 4,360 acres, 2,564 cult. Modern, up- 
to-date. Eletric lighting and narrow-gauge railroad. Daily capacity, 600 
tons. Average annual output of plantation, 3,500.000 pounds ; of sugar-house, 
5,000,000 pounds. Red. 

Segura, C. S., Factory Co., organized 1896. New Iberia. Modern, up-to-date. 
Electric lighting and narrow-gauge railroad. Daily capacity, 1,000 tons. 
Average annual output of plantation, 10,000,000 pounds. 

White, Mrs. S. J. Hulton. New Iberia. 

Sandager, P. E. Rosedale. Jeanerette. 2,000 acres, 800 cult. Sells cane. Aver- 
age annual output of plantation, 1,500,000 pounds. Red. 

ST. JOHN THE BAPTIST PARISH. 

Bloomfield, W. B. Angelina. Mt. Airy. 

Bougere, Mrs. A. D. San Francisco and Union. Lions. 3,500 acres, 1,200 cult. 

Modern. Daily capacity, 400 tons. Average annual output of plantation, 2,- 

500,000 pounds; of sugar-house, 3,000,000 pounds. Striped. 
Bougere, C. L. Gypsy. Laplace. 400 acres, 200 cult. Sells cane. Average annual 

output of plantation, 300,000 pounds. Striped. 
Becnel, Mrs. Max. Maxie. Edgar. 
Burch & Champagne. Glendale. Lucy. 800 acres, 700 cult. Open-kettle. Daily 

capacity, 150 tons. Average annual output of plantation, 1,000,000 pounds. 
. Striped. 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 719 

Caire & Co., E. J. Church Place. Edgar. 350 acres, 175 cult. Sells cane. Aver- 
age annual output of plantation, 335,000 pounds. Red. 

Caire, Graugnard & Co. Columbia and M. B. C. Edgar. 2,650 acres, 950 cult. 
Modern. Electric lighting. Daily capacity, 500 tons. Average annual output 
of plantation, 2,000,000 pounds ; of sugar-house, 3,500,000 pounds. Red. 

Chauffe, V., widow. Emilie. Lions. 350 acres, 220 cult. Sells cane. Average 
annual output of plantation, 300,000 pounds. Red. 

Edrington, Maurice. Corn Land. Bonnet Carre. G42 acres, 400 cult. Open 
steam train. Daily capacity, 250 tons. Average annual output of plantation, 
450,000 pounds. White. 

Dufresne, F. Molano. Lucy. 

Godchaux & Co., Ltd. Leon. Star, Belle Point, Reserve, Diamond, St. Peter and Le 
Blanche. Reserve. 13,000 acres, 5,600 cult. Modern, up-to-date. Electric 
lighting and narrow-gauge railroad. Daily capacity, 1,650 tons. Average 
annual output of plantation, 9,333,000 pounds; of sugar-house, 14,000,000 
pounds. Red. 

Gold Mine planting Co., Ltd. Gold Mine. Edgar. 

Granler, A. Aurelia. Wallace. 

Graugnard, Leon. Glencoe. Lions. 785 acres, 275 cult. Sells cane. Average- 
annual output of plantation, 300,000 pounds. Red. 

Haydel, Felix. White Rose. Edgar. 

Haydel, J. B., widow. Cash. Lucy. 

Hotard, 0. Bonsecour. Edgar. 

Johnson, Bradish, estate. Carroll. Wallace. 1,000 acres, cult. Modern. 
Daily capacity, 350 tons. Average annual output of plantation, 2,000,000 
pounds ; of sugar-house, 2,500,000 pounds. Red. 

Laplace B., widow. Laplace. Laplace. 3,833 acreSj 1,600 cult. Modern. Nar- 
row-gauge railroad. Daily capacity, 600 tons. Average annual output of plan- 
tation, 3,500,000 pounds ; of sugar-house, 4,000,000 pounds. Red and White. 

Labiche, Ozeme. Hope. Lions. 1,000 acres, 880 cult. Modern. Electric lighting. 
Daily capacity, 300 tons. Average annual output of plantation, 2,000,000 
pounds; of sugar-house, 2,250,000 pounds. Red. 

Le Brun, Joseph. St. Joseph. Laplace. 80 acres, 25 cult. Sells cane. Average 
annual output of plantation, 105,000 pounds. Red and Striped. 

Montegut, Albert. St. Anthony. Laplace. 400 acres, 200 cult. Sells cane. 
Average annual output of plantation, 375.000 pounds. Red. 



720 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

Montegut, Fernand. Java. Laplace. 425 acres, 225 cult. Sells cane. Average 
annual output of plantation, 375,000 pounds. Java and Bed. 

Montegut, L., Jr., & Bros. New Era. Laplace. 600 acres, 450 cult. Open kettle. 
Daily capacity, 150 tons. Average annual output of plantation, 750,000 
pounds. Red. 

'•Ory & Co., J. L. Woodland. Laplace. 1,500 acres, 900 cult. Modern. Narrow- 
gauge railroad. Daily capacity, 400 tons. Average annual output of plantation, 
2,000,000 pounds ; of sugar-house, 3,000,000 'pounds. Red. 

Robert Frumence. Fruit. Edgar. 

St. Martin & Perrot. Whitney. Wallace. 

Songy & Loup. Evergreen. Wallace. 

Webre, Frank. Fair Play. Wallace. 

Webre Co., Ltd., Joseph. Golden Star. Vacherie. 3,000 acres, 600 cult. Steam 
train, open kettle. Daily capacity, 200 tons. Average annual output of planta- 
tion, 600,000 pounds. White and Striped. 

Webster, Mrs. J. S. Terre Haute. Lions. 1,100 acres, 755 cult. Modern. Daily 
capacity, 400 tons. Average annual ovitput of plantation, 1,800,000 pounds; 
of sugar-house, 2,000,000 pounds. Red. 

VERMILLION PARISH. 

Buteaud, L. Abbeyville. 

Bonvillain, Godfrey. Slater. Ramsey. 

Becker, J. B. Rose Bush. Abbeyville. 

Briggs, Lofty T. Perseverance. Abbeyville. 

Bagley, M. & T. Lyons and Ramsey. Ramsey. 

Cade, William. Cade. Ramsey. 

Hebert, Remy. X. Y. Z. Abbeyville. 

Nilson, 0. M. Charity Place and Lilywood. Perry. 1,200 acres, 600 cult. Modern. 
Narrow-gauge railroad. Daily capacity, 500 tons. Average annual output of 
plantation, 2,000,000 pounds. Red. 

Nunez, Adrieu. Live Oak. Abbeyville. 

Rose Hill Planting & Refining Co. Rose Hill. Abbeyville. 1,088 acres, 520 cult. 
Modern, up-to-date. Electric lighting and narrow-gauge railroad. Daily ca- 
pacity, 500 tons. Average annual output of plantation, 1,500,000 pounds ; of 
sugar-house, 3,500,000. Red. 

Ramsey, Ambrose. Leona. Ramsey. 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 721 

Sokoloski, Joseph. Hope Mill. Henry. 
Stauffer, C. Little Rapids. Henry. 
Stansbury, U. W. Big Woods. Abbeyville. 
Vanslyke, William L. Evelyn. Abbeyvillt. 
Winston, Mrs. Thomas S. Rose Bower. Abbeyville. 
Young, Dr. F. F. Emeline. Abbeyville 

ST. M.iRTIN PARISH. 

Broussard, J. S. Ansa St. Clair. Breaux Bridge. 

Cade & Sniedes Bros. Oasis. Cade. 

Duchamps, E. A. Providence. St. Martinsville. 

Duchamps, E. D. Laniartinier. St. Martinsville. 

LeVert, J. B. St. John, l^ew Orleans. 12,000 acres, 6,000 cult. Modern, up-to- 
date. Electric lighting and narrow-gauge railroad. Daily capacity, 1,200 tons. 
Average annual output of plantation, 7,000,000 pounds. Red and White. 

Lobbe, Mrs. C, & Co. Andrew. Cade. 

Olivier, C. M. St. James. St. Martinsville. 

Pettebone, Payne, estate. John Peters, agent. Keystone. St. Martinsville. 3,000 
acres, 1,000 cult. Modern. Electric lighting. Daily capacity, 400 tons. Aver- 
age annual output of plantation, 1,250,000 pounds; of sugar-house, 2,500,000 
pounds. Red and Purple. 

Wilkins, R. B. Forest Home. Arnaudville. 

Martin, R., Sugar Co., Ltd. Ruth. Breaux Bridge. 2,000 acres, 1,400 cult. 
Modern, up-to-date. Electric lighting. Daily capacity, 600 tons. Average 
annual output of plantation, 1,500,000 pounds; of sugar-house, 2,250,000 
pounds. Red. 

Rousseau, F. Lawrence and Babon. St. Martinsville. 1,200 acres, 700 cult. Sells 
cane. Average annual output of plantation, 120,000 pounds. Red. 

ST. BERNARD PARISH. 

Burton, Richard. Sebastopol. St. Bernard. 

Godcheaux, Leon, Co., Ltd. Contresas. St. Bernard. (Data given under Reserve 

Refinery.) 
Kenilworth Sugar estate. Kenilworth, Creedmoor, Olivier, Magnolia, St. Mary, 

Florissant and Reggio. St. Bernard P. 0. 
Poydras Planting and Manufacturing Co. Poydras, Carnarvon and Millandon. 

Poydras. 



722 . STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

POINTE COUPEE. 

Anchorage Planting Co. Kelson. Arbroth. 

Bourgeois, P. F. & Son. Stonewall. Pointe Coupee. 

Cazayoux, C. M. Our Home. Waterloo. 

Delage, J. 0. St. Cloud. Waterloo. 

Glynn, Martin. Glynnwood and Arbroth. Arbroth. 2,100 acres, 1,600 cult. 
Modern. Xarrow-gauge railroad. Daily capacity, 300 tons. Average annual 
output of plantation, 700,000 pounds. Eed. 

Lorio, T. E. St. Claire. Anchor. 

Lorio, G. & A. A. Vernelia. Lakeland. 

Malarcher, Charles L. Jita. Pointe Coupee. 

Major, Arcade. Ventress. Waterloo. 

X. Y. W. & Security Co. Ingledale. Lakeland. 

Pitcher, Mrs; C. C. Alma. Lakeland. 2,400 acres, 2,000 cult. Modern. Electric 
lighting. Daily capacity, 300 tons. Average annual output of plantation, 
2,000,000 pounds. Eed and Striped. 

Phillips Bros. Oakland. Lakeland. 1,000 acres, 850 eiilt. Modern. Electric 
lighting. Daily capacity, 400 tons. Average annual output of plantation, 
1,250,000 pounds. Eed and Striped. 

Rougon Bros. Maysville. Lakeland. 

Richy, Joseph. New Road. 

Robertson, Arthur V. Nina. Hermitage. 560 acres, all cult. Sells cane. 

Lieux, Francois 0. Grand Bay. Hermitage. 420 acres, all cult. Modern. 
Electric lighting and narrow-gauge railroad. Daily capacity, 250 tons. Aver- 
age annual output of plantation, 800,000 pounds; of sugar-house, 1,750,000 
pounds. Red. 

Stoneaker, J. H. St. Maurice. Pointe Coupee. 

JEFFERSON P.\RISH. 

Burbank, J. A. Avondale. Waggaman. 

Godeheaus, Leon, Co., Ltd. St. Peter. Xew Orleans. (Data group with Reserve 
Factory. ) 

Milliken & Farwell. Fairfield. New Orleans. 1,500 acres, 900 cult. Modern. 
Electric lighting. Daily capacity, 350 tons. Average annual output of plan- 
tation, 1,500,000 pounds; of sugar-house, 1,500,000 pounds. Red. 

Southside Planting Co. South Side. New Orleans. 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 723 

St. Martin, E., widow. St. George. Carrollton. 
Willswood Co., Ltd. Willswood. New Orleans. 

AVOYELLES PARISH. 

Allen, W. T. Booneville. Burkie. 

Butler, P. W. Ashland. Burkie. 

Ewell, John, estate. Evergreen and Experiment. Evergreen. 

Foster, R. W. Fenner. Evergreen. 

Gremillion, E. E. Haydel. Evergreen. Open kettles. 

■Snellings, John. Irion. Burkie. Open kettles. 

Xnoll, C. F. Ellen Kay. Burkie. 

McCracken Bros. Powhontas. Eola. Modern. Daily capacity, 600 tons. Aver- 
age annual output of plantation, 1,500,000 pounds. Eed. 

Pearce, Stephon. Home place. Evergreen. Open kettle. 

Frith heirs. Hope. Evergreen. 

Eegard F. Martha. Cottonport. 

Sentell, G. W. Leinster. Burkie. Modern. Daily capacity, 600 tons. Average 
annual output of plantation, 1,600,000 pounds. Eed. 

ORLEANS PARISH. 

Levert & Herrell. Beka. New Orleans. 2,000 acres, 740 cult. Semi-modern. 

Daily capacity, 300 tons. Average annual output of plantation, 1,500,000 

pounds. Eed. 
Milliken & Eutledge. Stanton, Devron and Delacroix. Algiers. 2,500 acres, 1,481 

cult. Modern, up-to-date. Electric lighting and narrow-gauge railroad. Daily 

capacity, 550 tons. Average annual output of plantation, 3,000,000 pounds; 

of sugar-house, 3,500,000 pounds. Eed. 
Sugar Experiment Station. Audibon Park. New Orleans. 
Trudeau, Mrs. Louise. Aurora. Algiers. 

ST. LANDRY PARISH. . 

Augusta Sugar Co., Ltd. St. Peter. Barbreck. Modern. Daily capacity, 500 tons. 

Average annual output of plantation, 1,500,000 pounds. Eed. 
Boagni, Dr. V. Sackett, St. Mary, Oakland. Opelousas. 
Butler, M. A., widow. Camp Hamilton. Opelousas. 
Fisher, A. T. St. Lucy. Washington. 



724 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

Gordon, William C. Delana. Elba. 1,611 acres, 600 cult. Open steam train,^ 
with centrifugals. Daily capacity, 125 tons. Average annual output of planta- 
tion, 350,000 pounds. Red. 

Littell & Hebert. Magnolia Grove. Opelousas. 

McBride & Devillier. St. Mary. Port Barre. 

Payne, J. U. & Co. Barbreck. Barbreck. 

Pickem, George P. Poplar Grove. Opelousas. 

Eaymond Bros. & Bailey. Xanjemoy. Washington. 

St. Charles College. College Farm. Grand Coteau. 

Qubedeau & Bernard. Live Oak. Armandville. 

Young & Hiniel. Anchorage. Barbreck. 

LAFAYETTE PARISH. 

Breaux, Col. G. A. Oakburn. Lafayette. 

Billaud, Martial. Home place. Broussardville. 

Cayard. Andrew. Homo. Lafayette. 

Dupuis, E. V. Augusta. Carencro. 

Gumbel, S., & Co. Carencro. Carencro. 

Gerac Bros. Francisca. Lafayette. 

Lafayette Sugar Manufacturing Co. Lafayette. Modern refinery. Daily capacity,. 

750 tons. Average annual output of sugar-house, 8,000,000 pounds. 
Landry, R. C. Leona. Broussardville. 
Landry, Roseniond. Irma. 

ADDENDA TO THE ARTICLE OX SUGAR, BY J. P. SMITH. 

(1.) J. W. Barnett was the first in the State to erect two "Deming"' super- 
heat clarifiers and two 8 and 10 feet vacuum pans. 

(2.) Captain J. X. Pharr was the first in the State to erect a "Deming" super- 
heat clarifier. 

(3.) Y. Provost still uses his old open kettle sugar house with mule power, 
which is said to be the oldest in operation in the State. Has been built 25 years, 
with no improvements. His cane is made mostly into molasses and is renowned 
for its extra quality. 

(4.) Hon. Walter A. O'Niell was the first in the State to erect the "der- 
rick" for unloading cane carts. 

(5.) "Total Wreck" plantation, owned by Baldwin & Co., was once the property- 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS.. 725; 

of M. Agricole Fuselier, and is mentioned by "Cable"' in his "Strange True Stories 
of Louisiana." 

(6.) "Georgia and New Hope" plantations, now owned bv C. S. Mathews, 
forms a tract of land which was, in part, previously owned by Judge George 
Mathews and has ever since remained in the Mathews family. Judge George 
Mathews was very prominently identified with the development of the State, being 
the first chief justice of the Territory of Louisiana and chief justice of the State 
until his death. 

(7.) J. F. Martin, of Iberia Parish, was the first man in the State to erect 
a central factory and depend entirely upon outside patronage for his cane. 

(8.) "Australia" plantation, owned by V. M. Lefebvre, in W. Baton Rouge, is 
the highest point of land in the parish, and here was made the first settlement. 

(9.) "St. Louis" plantation, in Iberville Parish, owned by E. J. Gay Planting 
and Manufacturing Company (Limited), has been in the Gay family since the 
beginning of the nineteenth century, and the same may be said of "Bel-Air" plan- 
tation, now owned by Mrs. Samuel Stafford, in W. Baton Rouge Parish. 

(10.) "Elm Hall" plantation, in Assumption Parish, now owned by the Leon 
Godchaux Company (Limited), was the first plantation in the State to have a 
vacuum-pan plant and make loaf sugar. It was then owned by Dr. Kittredge. The 
present owners were among the first in the State to adopt the Rilleux system of 
evaporating cane juice. 

(11.) "Little Texas" plantation, in Assumption Parish, now owned and 
operated by C. C. Barton, lies within the old historic "League Square," — a tract of 
land granted to a Catholic priest by the Spanish government for religious purposes. 
Titles of land within this .square can be easily traced to the time of the Spanish 
grant, hence the question of their validity has never arisen. On this plantation 
exists a large Indian mound, which is used as a burial ground by the Pugh and 
Phillips families, its center being marked by a large live oak, entirely sheltering 
with its massive, outstretched limbs, the graves beneath. 

(12.) Webre, Steib & Co. (Limited), in the Vacherie, own and have in their 
possession a "madstone," and claims it to be the only one in the South, which they use 
to cure the bites of snakes and dogs. Some phenomenal cures have been made. It has 
never been known to refuse affiliation with the venomous bites of snakes and dogs. 
This stone was found in the heart of a deer by a Natchitoches Indian and presented 
to Mr. Durio, a planter on the Mississippi Eiver, who had, on a number of occa- 
sions befriended this Indian, and received this as his reward. Sylvester Webre pur- 



726 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

chased the stone from Mr. Durio, and it has been handed down to the present 
generation. 

(13.) '"Evan Hall" plantation, in Ascension Parish, owned by McCall Bros. 
Planting & Manufacturing Company, has always remained within the family. 
They hold the original grants from the Spanish government. 

(14.) Lower Terribonne Refinery & Manufacturing Company and J. M. Bur- 
giiieres are the only two in the State wlio have 12-foot vacuum pans. 

(15.) Capt. John T. Moore"s plantations are located on the highest point in 
Terrebonne Parish, having an elevation of eight feet and giving natural drainage. 
This is the only instanc-e of such note in the parish. 



RICE MILLS OF LOUISIAXA. 

Bv J. P. Smith. 

The following is a list of the rice milling companies in the State of liouisians 
in operation at the close of the year 1899 : 

American Rice Milling Co., Ltd., Crowley, La. 

Acadia Rice Milling Co., Ltd., Rayne, La. 

Crowley Rice Milling Co., Ltd., Crowley, La. 

Estherwood Rice Mill Co., Ltd., Estherwood, La. 

Eagle Rice Mill Co., Crowley, La. 

Gueydon Rice Mill Co.. Ltd., Crowley, La. 

Jennings Rice Milling Co., Jennings, La. 

Lake Charles Rice Milling Co., Ltd , Lake Charles, La. 

Marks Rice Milling Co., Ltd., Crowley, La. 

New Iberia Rice Milling Co., Ltd., New Iberia, La. 

People's Independent Rice Milling Co.. Ltd., Crowley, La. 

Pelican Rice Milling Co., Ltd., Mermenton, La. 

Riverside Irrigation and Milling Co., Ltd., Riverside, La. 

Welshe Rice Milling Co., Ltd., Welshe. La. 

Wall Rice Milling Co., Ltd., Lake Charles, La. 

In New Orleans are as follows : 

Crescent Citr Rice Mill. 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 727 

David Rice Mill. 

Dixie Rice Mill. 

Lanaux Rice Mill. 

Levy Rice Mill. 

National Rice Milling Co. 

Orleans Rice Mill. 

People's Rice Mill. t 

Planters' Rice Mill. 

Rickert Rice Mill. 

Socola Rice Mill. 

Thompson Rice Mill. 

Pickett Rice Milling Co., Ltd., the pioneer rice mill in what is now the tre- 
mendous rice-producing and milling section of Crowley and its environs, was 
organized December, 1893, and chartered February, 1894, with S. A. Pickett, P. S. 
Lovell, J. A. Williams, John Green, M. Abbott, Jack Frankel and John F. Shoe- 
maker as stockholders. In October, 1895, i*^ was reorganized into the present com- 
pany, known as the Crowley Rice Milling Co., Ltd., and began operation December 
3, 1895, with the following officers: Miron Abbott, president; J. F. Shoemaker, 
vice president ; John Green, secretary and treasurer. The present officers are : Mi- 
ron Abbott, president; J. Frankel, vice president, and John Green, secretary and 
treasurer. 

The establishment of thi.- mill gave a considerable impetus to the milling 
industry in this locality, and revolutionized old methods by beginning the milling 
of rice at home, the starting of competition and the protection of the rice farmers. 
This is the pioneer mill of Crowley, the great rice-growing center, and first to 
operate successfully and establish a home market. First year's milling was 4,000 
sacks and the season of 1899-1900 exceeded 100,000 sacks. The very latest of ma- 
chinery being used and the mill being lighted throughout by electricity. 

People's Independent Rice Mill Co., Ltd., was organized in July, 1896, with the 
following officers : A. Kaplan, president ; M. Abbott, vice president ; John Green, 
secretary and treasurer. Present officers are: A. Kaplan, president; M. Abbott, 
vice president ; C. J. Bier, secretary and treasurer. Modern, up-to-date machinery was 
installed and the mill well lighted by electricity. "Grinnell" fire extinguishers and 
its own water-works throughout its buildings. Twelve hundred sacks daily capacity. 
Season output of 1899-1900, 160,000 sacks. 



728 STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 

Gueydon Eice Mill Co., Ltd., was organized in July, 1899, and began operation 
in October, with the present officers, viz. : A. Kaplan, president ; J. P. Gueydon, vice- 
president, and C. J. Bier, secretary and treasurer. Eight hundred sacks daily 
capacity. Modern machinery and lighted by electricity. 

The Eagle Rice Mill was built in 1894 and was then known as the Star mill. 
In 1896 Mr. J. E. Piatt became sole owner and from that date the mill has been 
known as the Eagle Rice Mill. It is equipped with the latest machinery, lighted 
by electricity, 1,000 barrels daily capacity, and output of season for 1899-1900 was 
about 80,000 sacks. 

American Rice Milling Co., Ltd., was organized August 15, 1899. The follow- 
ing are its officers : J. J. Thomas, president ; J. W. Roller, vice president, and C. J. 
Freeland, secretary and treasurer. Modern machinery, with latest simplified im- 
provements and lighted by electricity. Twelve hundred barrels daily capacity, and 
output of season for 1899-1900 was about 75,000 sacks. This was the first mill 
in Crowley to install a successful plant for burning hulls, utilizing them for fuel. 

Marks Rice Milling Co., Ltd., was incorporated June 30, 1898, with the follow- 
ing officers: J. D. Marks, president; Judge J. M. Goggin, vice president, with 
$20,000 capital stock. Present officers are: J. D. Marks, president; L. Sternber- 
ger, vice president ; Jno. D. Belton, superintendent and manager, with $40,000 cap- 
ital stock. Very latest and most modern machinery; lighted throughout by elec- 
tricity; 1,200 sacks daily capacity, and output for the season of 1899-1900 about 
100,000 sacks. The Marks Rice Milling Co. are now successfully using hulls for 
fuel. 

Estherwood Rice Mill Co., Ltd., was organized July 1, 1899, with William Miller 
as president, J. F. Morris, vice president, and F. A. Combes, secretary and treasurer. 
Modern, up-to-date machinery; lighted by electricity; 1,200 sacks daily capacity;. 
100,000 sacks output for season of 1899-1900. 

Lake Charles Eice Milling Co. Incorporated 1892, with 6. A. John as president 
and Howard Ackerman, secretary and treasurer. Its present officers are : Christian 
M. Meyer, president; J. Henry Dick, vice president; George G. Bauer, treasurer,. 
B. Snydaur, secretary. Modern, up-to-date machinery ; lighted by electricity ; 3,000 
sacks daily capacity, with output Jot season of 1899-1900 estimated at 200,000 
sacks. 

Wall Rice Milling Co., Ltd., was incorporated July 26, 1898, with officers a& 
follows: William B. Wall, president; Charles J. Wall, vice president, and W. C. 



STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS. 729 

Wall secretary and treasurer. Modern, np-to-date machinery ; lighted by electricity ; 
1,200 sacks daily capacity, and output of season of 1899-1900 about 75,000 sacks. 

Acadia Eiee IMilling Co., Ltd., was incorporated June 19, 1889, with officers as 
follows: Hon. E. B. Howley, president; Ed Sampson, vice president, and E. Daboval, 
Jr. manager and treasurer. Seven hundred sacks daily capacity of their fine, mod- 
ern mill, and an estimated output for tlie season of 1899-1900 of 40,000 sacks. This 
is the oldest mill in Southwest Louisiana. 

New Iberia Eice Milling Co., Ltd., was incorporated in May, 1899, with the follow- 
ing officers, viz. : J. P. Suberbielle, president ; Leon Dreyfus, vice president, and 
William L. Burke, secretary. The mill is equipped with the latest of machinery, 
and lighted by electricity. Three hundred sacks Saily capacity, and output for season 
of 1899-1900 is estimated at 20,000 sacks. 



INDEX 



TO NAMES OF PERSONS REFERRED TO IN THIS VOLUME. 



Authors merely cited are not indexed. French names having the preposition '"de" will gener- 
ally be found under those letters of the alphabet respectively commencing the final or surname. 
Many names have no initials, and they are indexed independently, although some of them 
may refer to the persons whose names ar^ given in full elsewhere. Where a prominent name is 
once introduced it is likely to occur ou following pages throughout that passage of history, and 
it is not necessary in such cases to enumerate every page where it occurs. Where a name 
occurs, therefore, several times ou the same page, the page is indicated but once in the index. 



Abbadie, d', 20, 649. 

Aby, J. C, 281. 

Adair, Gen., 133, 137. 

Adams, Christopher, 301; C, Jr., 

665; D. W., 155; Lionel, 284. 
Adiiinson, Rev. L. G., 248. 
Ailien, Dr. Gayle, 224. 
Aime, Valcour, 665, 668-9. 678. 
Alderman, E. A., 253. 
Aldige, Amelie, 642. 
Aleix, J. C, 617. 
Alexander, James, 132. 
AUard, 140; Faurie, 93. 
Allen. Henry W., 164. 
Almonaster, 89. 
Almonaster y Roxas, 417 et seq., 

440 et seq., 464, 487; Andres, 31. 

109. 
Amelot, 89. 
Ancion, A. M., 414. 
Andrews, J. W., 448. 
Andry & Boudousquie, 665. 
Angell, John G., 165; S. M., 323; S. 

R., 224; S. W., 224. 
Aragon, Pedro, 229. 
Archinard, Alfred, 623; J. J., 167. 
Argotte, Antoine, 89, 93. 
Armant, J. B., 670, 679. 
Armas, Michel de, 271. 
Armesto, Andreas Lopez de, 229. 
Arms, Wm. E., 281. 
Arnauld, Felix, 93. 



Artaguette, Chevalier, 16; Diron 

de, 10, 17. 
Ascensio. Father, 486. 
Aubry. 20, 21, 22, 25. 
Audubon, John James. 365. 
Auguste, James, 628. 
Augustin, Brig. Gen., 145; Major, 

152; Major John, 190, 195, 280; 

Col. W., 162. 
Austin, Dr., 150, 223. 
Athanase, Father, 480. 
Atwood, Oscar, 248. 
Avequin. J. B.. 650, 680. 
Axson, A. F., 212, 217. 



B. 



Bach, Father, 486. 

Badger, A. S., 115, 164, 627. 

Bailey, Admiral, 431. 

Baker, 191; Joshua G., 414; M. A., 
379: Mrs. Marion, 284; Page M., 
277, 282, 370; Julie K. W., 379. 

Bakewell. A. G., 439.. 

Baldwin, Arthemise, 643; Baldwin 
& Co.. 724; Joshua, 237. 

Banks. N. P., 159, 240. 275. 

Barkley, Ella, 642. 

Barnett. J. W., 724. 

Barnwell, Wm., 447. 

Barr. J. C, 501. 

Bartlett. F. A., 162, 281; Napier, 376. 

Barton, C. C, 725; Edward, 214. 

Battle, A. D., 281. 



730 



INDEX. 



73L 



Baudoin, Father, 482. ■ | 

Bayon, Jerome, 271. 

Beard, C, 217, 221. 

Beardslee, James, 270. 

Beaubois, Father, 13, 454. 

Beauharnais, Chevalier de, 17. 

Beaujeu, 8. 

Beauregard, P. G. T., 155, 376, 628, 
637. 

Beer, William, 236, 436-7. 

Behan, Bessie, 642; William J., 
128, 165, 626. 

Belanger, Alfred, 124. 

Belden, J. G., 224; Webster, 224. 

Bell, 125; John, 150. 

Bellechasse, Col., 93, 111, 131-3. 

Bemiss, J. H., 449; Samuel M., 220. 

Benjamin, Judah P., 402, 679. 

Benjamin & Slidell, 415. 

Bennett, Dr., 206. 

Berceier, E. L., 145. 

Bertonniere, La, 93. 

Besancon, P., 271. 

Bettison, Ulrlc, 242. 

Beyer, George E., 43. 

Bickel, David A., 145. 

Bickham, Charles J,, 223. 

Bienvenu, Antonio, 88; Charles, 
425. 

Bienville, Jean Baptiste De Moyne 
de, in numerous places where 
early history is referred to. 

Bingaman, Col., 472. 

Birckhead, Wm. N., 273. 

Blaize, H., 160. 

Blake, Mrs. Sarah Polk, 626. 

Blanc, Adele, 642; Abp., 243, 419, 

484, 486; Alciabiade de, 114. 
Blancs, de, The, 194. 
Blanchard, Newton C, 414. 
Blanque, Jean, 317. 
Bliss, W. W. S., 263. 
Bluche, Captain, 141. 
Boarman, Vira, 643. 
Bofflnger, John N., 290. 
Bohne, George G., 617. 
Bollman, Erick, 132. 
Bond, Frank S., 309. 
Bonzano, M. F., 425; W. F., 420. 
Booth, A. B., 167. 
Booth, John Wilkes, 468. 
Boothby, C. W., 241, 425. 
Bore, Etienne de, 33, 93, 110, 128, 
257, 646 et seq. 



Bossu, 19, 185. 

Bouligny, Francisco, 34. 

Boulmont, Virgil, 448. 

Boutte, Hilaire, 119. 

Bowman, Elisha W., 494. 

Boydf'll]; Sam, 637. 

Boyer, P. C, 450. 

Boze, J. A., 623. 

Bradbury, D^id, 124. 

Bradford, 133; C. M., 150, 152; 
David, 425; E. A., 413. 

Braud, 21 et seq., 84; Dyosio, 88. 

Braughn, Corinne, 644. 

Breaux, G. A., 162; Joseph A., 414. 

Breedlove, J. P., 448. 

Brent, John F., 619; Joseph L., 681. 

Briant, W. A., 617. 

Brickell, D. W., 221, 223; Warren, 
217. 

Brislan, John, 243. 

Brittin, Mrs. A. A., 643; Adele, 6|4. 

Brockmeyer, Father, 491. V" < 

Brodtman, W., 124. 

Brooke, General, 168. 

Brown, John F., 421; Miss Marion, 
242. 

Bruce, Captain, 287. 

Bruno, Father, 481. 

Bruns, John D., 222; L., 223. 

Bruscoli, Catherine, 454. 

Brusson, Benjamin, 162. 

Bryant, Gridley, 298. 

Buck, Charles F., 279, 610; W. H., 

386. 
Buckner, Alice, 643; Edith, 643; 

Katie, 641. 
Buddecke, C. T., 155. 
Buisoniere, de la, 17. 
Bullard, Dr. D., 144. 
Burbridge, J. W., 637. 
Burgeres, The, 679. 
Burguieres, J. M., 726. 
Burke, E. A., 277. 
Burner, William, 270. 
Burns, John, 157. 
Burr, Aaron, 129, et seq. 
Burthe, D. F., 311; Louis, 617. 
Butler, B. F., 113, 155, 240, 601. 
Butler, Col., 140. 
Buys, General de, 147. 

C. 

Cable, George W., 368, 464. 
Cabosche, Dr., 224. 



732 



INDEX. 



•Cade, Overton, 425. 
Cadillac, Lamonthe, 10. 
Calder, J. H., 616. 
■Caldwell, James, 127; James A,, 

467; James H., 515, 588, 589. 
Galena, Francisco de la, 229. 
Calhoun, J. V., 241. 
Calvo, Casa, 34, 37. 
Cambiso, John, 488. 
Cammack, C. W., 616. 
Campbell, Alexander, 508; John A., 

401; J. C, 618, 619; Henry P., 

217. 
Campbell, Gen., 28. 
Canonge, 272. 
Capdevlelle, Armand, 272; Paul, 

128. 
Cardenas, Louis, 483. 
Carleton, H. G.. 280, 282. 
Carondelet, 54, 91, 94, 124, 127; 

Baron de, 32; Francis L. H. de, 

206. 
Carpenter, Professor, 390. 
Carriere, Oliver, 628. 
Carrigan, J. B., 435. 
Carroll, Mother Austin, 229; Gen., 

137. 
Carter, J. B., 240, 241. 
Cartier, Adolf, 224; Jules, 224. 
Cassard, Valentine, 642. 
Cassergues, 89. 
Castellanos, Dr., 444. 
Castillon, Mrs., 443-5. 
Cavanagh, John, 160. 
Cavarets, The, 652. 
Cecil, Father, 13, 228. 
Cefalu, N. B., 623. 
Celoron, de, 17. 
Cenas, Blaise, 426; Dr., 218. 
Chabert, 89. 
Chaffe, Penelope, 643. 
Chaile, Stanford E., 224. 
Chaise, Auguste de la, 33, 80, 82, 89. 
Chalaron, Frank J., 168; J. A., 167, 

439. 
Chamberlain, Holbrook, 247. 
Chambery, Dupuy de, 211. 
Champagny, 25. 
Chapelle, Abp., 487. 
Chapman-Blake (institution), 245. 
Chase, Philander, 495. 
Chastant, A. B., 316. 
Chateaubriand, 45. 
Chateaumorant, Marquis de, 8. 



Chatry, J. F., 160. 

Chauveau, Lieut., 141. 

Chenet, H. S., 245.-- 

Chepart, 14. -^^ 

Choppin, Samuel, 211, 212, 217, 221. 

Chotard, Major, 140. 

Chretiens, The, 194. 

Churchill, W. H., 618. 

Clceri, 382. 

Cirilio, Father, 483. 

Clack, 155. 

Clague, Richard, 382. 

Claiborne, John 150. 

Claiborne, W. C. C, in connection 

with nearly all the early history 

after 1803. 
Clapp, Rev., 500, 507. 
Clark, Daniel, 257, 584; G., 162; 

Thomas A., 415. 
Clarke, Charles P., 497. 
Clay, Henry, 214, 428; Henry M., 

147. 
Clinch, C, 150. 
Clouets, de. The, 194. 
Cochrane, Alexander, 138. 
Codrington, Admiral, 138. 
Coffee, General, 137. 
Cohn, Joseph, 277. 
Coiron, 678; Emile, 653; John J., 

652, 668. 
Colcock, D. D., 683, 684. 
Coleman (Com'r), 656; John P., 281; 

Willis P., 527. 
Collens, Thomas W., 363. 
Collot, 34. 

Conery, Peter, Jr., 616. 
Conrad, Mrs. Charles, 253. 
Constant, Colonel, 135. 
Conway, 240; J. R., 128. 
Coppen, Major, 152. 
Coppinger, General, 167. 
Cornelius, Rev., 500. 
Gotten, G. B., 270. 
Cottreaux, E. P., 439. 
Coulon, George D., 382. 
Cox, Frank, 385. 
Craft, Augustus, 534. 
Craig. Josie, 643. 
Craighead, Erwin, 280. 
Crawcour, I. L., 217. 
Crawford, Lieutenant, 141. ' 

Cripps, Thomas, 159. 
Cronan, D., 160. 
Grossman, A. D., 128. 



C^ 



it. 



INDEX. 



733 



Crozat, 10; Manuel, 271. 
Cruzat, J. W., 616. 
Czackert, Peter, 488. 

D. 

D'Abbadie, 20, 649. 

Dagobert, Father, 27, 482. 

Dahmer, John, 124. 

Daly, T., 124. 

Daquin, Major, 139, 140, 141. 

Daspit, J. C, 245. 

5aunoy, 89. 

Javidson, Dr., 214. 
Davasac, Jules, 232. 
B3,ve7,ac, 140. 

5avion, Father, 42, 45. 

Davis, Dr., 225; John, 466, 471, 478; 

Martin V., 425; M. E. M., 377; 

Rev., 504; S. S., 322; Thomas E., 

377; Winnie, 642. 

Day, J. Madison, 150; Robert S., 

642. 
Debalions, The, 194. 
De Bar, Ben, 616. 
De Bore; see Bore. 
De Bow, J. D. B., 150, 565, 615. 
De Breuil, 649, 678. 
De Clouets, The, 194. 
Definiels, N., 317. 
Degruys, Verloin, 669. 
Deiler, J. Hanno, 279. 
Dejeans, The, 194. 
Delahoussayes, The, 194. 
De Lemos, Fernando, 365. 
Delery, Dr., 207. 
Delia Valle, G., 155. 
Dellavallade, A. M., 617. 
Deming, H. C, 128. 
Demoruelle, Stella, 644. 
Denegre, Walter, 644. 
De Nekre, Raymond, 484. 
Denis, Aice, 642; Henry, 416; 

Louise, 644. 
Derbigny, G., 665. 
Derby, George, McC, 246. 
De Roaldes, Dr., 450. 
De Romes. J. C, 271. 
Deron, Madame, 239. 
De Soto, 40. 

Destrehan, 136, 649, 651. 
De Villeneufve, Le Blanc, 362. 
Devron, Gustav, 616. 
Dietz, Theodore, 273. 
Dillard, J. H., 246. 



Dimitry, Alex., 237, 365; Charles P., 

375; John, 375. 
Dixon, Brandt V. B., 254. 
Doane, Colonel, 145. 
Doerillier, 130. 
Dominipa, Captain, 141. 
Donalson, 93. 
Dorteuille, 235". 
Doriocourt, 89. 
Dorsey, Sarah A., 376* 
D'Orsiere, 131-3. 
Dotterer, W. C, 289, 307. 
Dow, Lorenzo, 494. 
Dowler, Bennett, 206. 
Dowling, James M., 421. 
Downing, R. H., 414. 
Dreux, Charles D., 152-3; Guy, 93. 
Druillet. Haydee, 645. 
Dryfous, Felix, 116. 
Drysdale, A. J., 385. 
Dubourg, P. F., 317, 318; William, 

484. 
Dubreuil, 649. 
Du Champ, 656. 
Ducros, Jose, 88. 
Dufau, Louis, 239. 
Dufossat, 89. 
Dufour, Cyprian. 156; Horace L., 

414; William C, 166, 168. 
Duhy, Charles W., 270. 
Dumartrats, The, 194. 
Dunbar, Louise, 642. 
Duncan, Dr., 214; Rev. S., 248. 
Dupaquier, Dr., 224. 
Duplessis, 89, 140; Francis, 93. 
Du Pratz, Le Page, 40, et seq.; 390. 
Dupre, George W., 280. 
Dupres, The, 194. 
Durell, Judge, 276, 432. 
Durio, 725-6. 
Durno, Mrs. A. G., 380. 
Duverger, 89. 
Dyer, T. W., 245. 
Dykers, R., 683. 

Dymond, John, 652, 670, 683, 684. 
Dwyer, Nellie, 643. 
E. 
Eads, Capt., 574. 
Ealer, J. E., 145. 
Earhart, Frank B., 421. 
Easton, Warren, 241. 
Edmund, Major, 167. 
Edwards, Daniel, 525; Colonel Dan, 

160; James D., 525. 



734 



INDEX. 



Egan, J. C, 212. 

Elder, John R., 305. 

Elfert, M. T., 619. 

Elkin, Lewis, 239. 

Elliott, Chaiiee, 643; John B., 224. 

Ellis, T. C. W., 414, 416; W. G., 623. 

Elmore, Minor, 280; William A., 

153, 425. 
"E. P.," 196. 
Epinay, de la, 10. 
Ernonville, D', 89. 
Eshelman, B. F., 167, 624; Fannie, 

642. 
Eustis, 191; George, 409; James B., 

409, 411; Kittie, 644; Norman, 

290; William, 409. 
Everett, 239. 
Ewing, Robert, 281. 

F. 

Fabre, A., 150. 

Fagot, Samuel, 665. 

Fairchild, Lydia, 643. 

Fairfax, J. W., 281. 

Farragut, 154, 156. 

Farwell, Charles A., 644, 680, 684; 

Harry B., 6S1. 
Faurie, Joseph, 93. 
Featherman, Professor, 390. 
Febiger, Rosa, 645. 
Fellows, J. Q. A.. 609. 
Felton, G. H., 247. 
Fenner, 191; Charles E., 253; E. D., 

216, 217, 218, 221. 
Ferrell, L. C, 245. 
Ferrier, Louise, 645. 
Ficklen, John R., 251, 373, 616. 
Field, Martha R., 380. 
Fillmore, Millard, 472. 
Fink, John D., 461. 
Finley, Lydia, 644. 
Finn, Henry J., 273. 
Fischer, Fred, 124. 
Fisk, Alvarez, 436: S. W.. 152, 155. 
Fitzpatrick, John, 128; Mayor, 117. 
Flanders, B. F.. 128, 271. 
Flathers, J. N., 680. 
Flaujeac, Lieut., 141. 
Fleurian, Carlos Juan Bautiste, 88. 
Flood, Dr., 140; William H., 273. 
Flower, Walter C, 128. 
Flowers, The, 679. 
Flynn, James, 617. 
Foerster, George, 278; John, 519. 



Fontenette, Adolph, 680. 

Foote, Henry S., 425. 

Ford, Mrs. Mary, 215. 

Fornaris, S. V., 291, 293. 

Forno, Captain Henry, 145. 

Forstall, 89; L. E., 159; Edmund J., 

615. 
Forsyth, Mrs. H. D., 246. 
Forsythe, Noel, 644. 
Fortier, 93, 668; Alcee, 195, 234, 251, 

255, 364, 372, 616. 
Fortiers, The, 679. 
Foster, Governor, 470. 
Foucault, 19, 23, 25. 
Foucher, 89, 136. 
Fourchy, Paul, 628. 
Frederichs, William, 617. 
Frellsen, 617. 

French, B. F., 436; Jonas H., 128. 
Freret, F. G., 167; William, 128, 156. 
Frontenac, 7. 
Fusilier, Agricole, 725; A. (widow), 

665; G. L., 665. 
Fusiliers, The, 194, 679. 



Gabain, Eduard von, 278. 

Gagne, 119. 

Gaines, 415; Edmund P., 144; Myra 

Clark, 257. 
Gallier, 430. 
Gaily, Major, 145. 

Galvez, 53; Bernardo de, 27, 544-550. 
Gandolfo, Angelo H., 489. 
Garcia, 679. 

Garic, Juan Bautista, 88, 89. 
Garinere, Fagot de la, 88. 
Garland, Henry L., 416. 
Garlands, The, 194. 
Garrick, James, 93. 
Garrs, The 679. 
Gasquet, Evelyn, 642. 
Gates, I. E., 308. 
Gaudet, C. A., 212; F. B., 212. 
Gay, Andrew H., 681; Edward J., 

528, 681, 683, 725. 
Gayarre Charles, 10, 11, 20, 22, 232, 

363, 364, 615. 
Gehl. Myrtle, 643. 
Geier, George, 124. 
Genet, 33. 
Genois, C, 128. 
Gerards, The, 194. 
Gibbs, General, 138. 142. 



INDEX. 



^ 



fyojH^'- 



r3o 



Gibson, John, 270; Major, 135; R. L., 

155, 251. 
Gi£fen, Robbie, 644. 
Giles. Richard P., 273. 
Gill, Charles G., 616; Thomas M., 

Jr.. 414. 
Gilmer, Mrs. E. M., 285. 
Gilmore, J. Y.. 167, 626, 684, 687. 
Girault, J. F., 162. 
Girod, Nicholas, 94, 128. 
Gladden, Col., 152, 155, 161, 609. 
Gleises, Louis, 94, 126. 
Glenny, Nora, 641, 645. 
Glover, Townsend, 653. 
Godberrys, The, 679. 
Godchaux, Leon, 682, 725. 
Gooding, 0. R., 157. 
Gordon, 191; John B., 626; Gordon 

& Forstall, 668. 
Gossett & Johnson, 670. 
Gournay, P. P. de, 186. 
Graham. D. R., 225. 
Grant, John, 289; Nannie, 645; W. 

M., 281. 283. 
Gravier, Bertrand. 183; John, 182. 
Gregory, F. W., 242. 
Grevemberg, Charles, 665. 
Grevembergs, The, 194. 
Grimes, John R., 415. 
Grirot, Ben M., 159. 
Gruber, John F., 124. 
Grymes. 416; Colonel, 471; John 

Randolph, 397. 
Guerin, 93. 
Gueringer, Ed. J., 617. 
Guion, 191. 

Guillotte, \. Vaslin, 128. 
Guirot, A. J., 421. 
Gunari, Maj. N., 159. 

H. 

Hachard. Madeleine, 227-8. 

Hacket, Francis, 235. 

Hahn, Michael, 149, 164, 425. 

Hale, Dr., 390. 

Hall, Dominie A., 143; Dominick, 

416; Harry H., 416. 
Halliday, A. M., 297. 
Hammond, William J., 292. 
Hampton. Wade, 134. 
Hancock, Edward C, 636. 
Hardie, Isabelle, 644. 
Harman, Thomas L., 93. 
Harney, Colonel, 147. 



Harris, Alexander, 292; James C, 
623; J. L., 246; T. 0., 284. 

Harrison, JB15; James A.. 374. 

Harrison, J. H., 248. 

Harrod, 265. 

Hart, Sophie C. 246. 

Harvey, C. C, 309. 

Hasset, Thomas, 484. 

Hassinger, Georg. 279; Jacob, 278, 
279. 

Hava, Jean G., 628. 

Hay, L., 159. 

Hayden, James T.. 450. 

Hayes, Harry, 150. 

Haynes. Colonel. 140. 

Hayward, Bertie. 643. 

Hearn, Lafcadio, 185, 369. 

Hearsey, J. H., 277, 279. 284. 

Heath, E., 128. 

Hebert, P. 0., 637. 

Hefferman, Vincent. 157. 

Heim, Abe, 279. 

Hemecourt, de, Dr., 224. 

Henderson, G. W., 248; Hunt, 64.5. 

Hennen, 416; Alfred, 399, 415, 615; 
David, 415. 

Hennessey, D. C. 117. 

Henriqueux, F. H., 145. 

Henscheidt, G., 448. 

Herbert, P. 0., 161. 

Hernsheim S., 534. 

Hester, Dr. A., 217; Harry, 613. 

Hickson, Mrs. W. H., 626. 

Hill, H. A., 248. 

Hoa, A., 665. 

Hodge. B. L., 155. 

Hodgdon, George M., 168. 

Hodgson, W. L, 624. 

Hoffman, M. W.. 298. 

Holbrook, 275. 

Holcombe, William H., 224, 372. 

Hollander, Mr., 143. 

Holliday, Dr., 223. 

Holmes, N., 157. 

Holt, Alfred C, 217; Joseph, 212. 

Hood, Duncan N., 166. 

Hopkins, Henry, 133. 

Houston, Sam, 144. 

Howard, Charles, 469; Mrs. Char- 
lotte; Frank T., 439; Frank T., 
643; Joe, Sr., 275. 

Howe, Judge W. W., 100, 615. 

Hoxey, C. P., 624. 

Hoyt, Stephen, 128. 



736 



INDEX. 



Hubert, Father, 488. 

Hudson, Julian, S81. 

Hughes, William L., 168. 

Hull, James F., 495; Miss, 239; M. 

C, 273. 
Humbert, Gen., 142. 
Humbrecht, Erasme, 487. 
Humphreys, Captain, 141. 
Hunt, Colonel, 145; Randall, 150; 

Thomas, 218, 223. 
Hunter, T., 150. 
Huntington, E. W., 150, 413. 
Hurd, Colonel, 155. 
Hurt, A. D., 252. 
Hutchinson, A. C, 292, 302. 
Hyams, H. M., 150. 



Iberville, 8. 9. 
Iver, M., 124. 

J. 

Jacobs, 679; Charles A., 665. 

Jackson, Gen., 136 et seq., 415. 

Jallot, Dr., 214. 

Jamison, Dr. D., 450; Cecilia V., 378. 

Janin, Louis, 615. 

Janssens, Abp., 489; Francis, 486. 

Janvier, Charles, 643. 

Jefferson, Joseph, 467; President, 

37, 50, 57, 58, 415 et passim. 
Jennings, Cora, 642; Edith, 641; N. 

R., 239. 
Jewell, Edwin L., 281. 
Johnson, 191; William, 472; W. W., 

162. 
Johnston, William P., 251, 253, 371, 

387; A. S., 46, 155-6, 265; Thomas 

B., 426. 
Joliet, 7. 
Jones, 93; E., 110; Evan, 584; 

James, 223; Joseph, 205, 212, 223; 

Prof., 245; T. H., 124; Thomas A., 

138. 
Joor, Dr., 390. 

Joubert, Emma, 641; Louise, 643. 
Jourdan, 444. 
Joutel, 8. 
Jrazabal, 28. 
Juliette, Mother, 458. 
Jugeaut, 140. 
Julio, 382. 
Jumonville, 19. 
Jurgens (free kindergarten), 246. 



K. 

Kahn, Henrietta, 644. 

Keane, General, 138, 142. 

Kearny, J. Watts, 246. 

Keeting, Charles W., 628. 

Keifer, J. Warren, 168. 

Kellogg, W. P., 114, et seq.; Gov- 
ernor, 164, et seq. 

Kelsey, H. L., 272. 

Kendall, John W., 272, 274; John 
H., 251. 

Kennedy, Colonel, 155; H., 128; Jo- 
seph M., Jr., 159; Joseph N., 425; 
William, 219. 

Kenner, Duncan F., 472. 650, 665, 
681, 683; W. B., 665. 

Kenners, The, 679. 

Kerlerec, 16. 

Kernan, Bertha Miller, 282; Peter 
J., 282. 

Kernion, 89. 

Kerr, Dr., 140, 214; Lieutenant, 141; 
Lewis. 130, 132. 

Kidder, Bessie L., 246. 

Kilpatrick, Perrine, 644. 

Kindelon, Adam, 489. 

King, Alfred C, 213; Fred D., 414; 
Grace, 373, 616; Grace Elizabeth, 
378; J. E., 162; (sugar mfr), 652; 
W. H. C, 276. 

Kittredge, Dr., 725. 

Kock, Erskine, 644. 

Kocks. The, 679. 

Kohnke, Quitman, 213. 

Kruttschnitt, E. B., 242; Alma, 643. 



Labarres, The, 679. 

Labatut, Dr. Isadore, 223. 

La Bertonniere, 93. 

Labranche, Louis, 665. 

La Branches, The, 679. 

Labuzan, Charles A., 159; General, 

155. 
Lacoste, Major, 138, 140. 
Ladaviere, Father, 484. 
Laatte, Pierre, 136; John, 136. 
Lafittes, The, 144. 
Lafreniere, 20. 
Laidlaw, Mrs. P. G., 154. 
Lallande, Ethelyn, 644; Juniata, 

644. 
Lambert, General, 138, 142. 



INDEX. 



Lanaux. I>aure, 644. 

Landreaux, P., 665. 

Landry, A. C, 190. 

Landrys, The, 679. 

Lane. N. L., 532. 

Langdon, Colonel, 145. 

Langlois, A. B., 390. 

Lanusse, 89. 

Lapice, P. M., 656, 665, 669, 670, 679. 

Lara, Manuel Diaz de, 229. 

Lamed, Sylvester, 500. 

Laronde, Colonel de, 140. 

Laroussini, Alys, 643. 

Laroussini, Marietta, 645. 

La Salle, 41, 47; Robert, Cavalier 

de la, 7. 
Lastrapes, The, 194. 
Latour, Major, 140. 
Laussat, 37, 93, 418. 
Lauve, Etienne, 665. 
Lavender, Prof., 239. 
Lavergne, H., 665; P., 93. 
Lavillebeuvre, U., 159. 
Law, John, 11, 579. 
Lawrence, Jason, 316. 
Lay, Louis, 160. 
Lea, James J., 281. 
Leacock, Rev. Dr., 152, 162, 495. 
LeBlanc, Alfred, 293; Commander, 

16; de Villeneuve, 52, 362. 
LeBlancs, The, 194. 
Le Blond de la Tour, 172. 
Le Boulanger, Marie Anne, 454. 
Le Bourgeois, The, 679. 
Le Breton, 89. 
Le Due, 656. 

Lee, Finney & Bradford, 413. 
Lee, Fitzhugh, 168. ^ 
Leeds, Charles J., 128, 162, 525; 

John, 525. 
Le Febvre, V. M., 725. 
Le Fevres, The, 679. 
Le Gardeur, Major, 165. 
Lemonnier, Yves, 317. 
Lemos, Gayoso de, 34. 
Leovy, Henry J., 394. 
Le Page du Pratz; See Du Pratz. 
Le Pailleur, Abbe, 461. 
Le Pitit, Father, 49. 
Leppert, William, 283. 
Leray, Francis X., 486. 
Leroy, H. J., 150, 394(?). 
Le Sassier, 23. 
Leseuer, 15. 



Leslie, F. W., 448. 

Lesseps, The, 679. 

Le Vasseur, 205. 

Leveque, Joseph M., 285. 

Levert, Mathilde, 642. 

Le Verts, The, 679. 

Levy, Charles E., 306. 

Lewis, Ernest, 224; Hampden S., 
212, 450-1; E., 450; John L., 128. 
152, 159, 161; W. J., 145. 

Lincoln, Capt., 147. 

Lines, D. Arthur, 224; David M., 
224. 

Lislet, L. C. E. Moreau, 317-8, 404. 

Livandais, 89, 110. 

Livingston, 191; Edward, 132, 136- 
140, 182, 405-7, 415-6, 471; Rob- 
ert R., 35. 

Lockridge, Col., 150. 

Lockyer, Capt., 138. 

Loeber, Dr., 224. 

Logan, Samuel, 224; Virginia, 643. 

Lombard, Gervais, 180; Gen., 167. 

Longstreet. James, 115, 164. 

Lopez, Charles, 224. 

Loris, 89. 

Louaillier, Louis, 136, 143. 

Loubois, Major, 15. 

Liouque, Charles, 416. 

Lovell, Gen. M., 156, 162. 

Low, Clarence F., 246. 

Ludlow, Noah M., 466-7. 

Lula, Pepe, 262. 

Lumsden, Francis A., 272. 

Lusher, Mrs., 242. 

Lussan, A., 363. 

Luzenberg, C. A., 215, 219. 

M. 

Macarty, Augustin, 94, 128, 317. 
MacCarthys, The 652. 
Macheca, M., 295. 
Madnell, Charles, 225. 
Maenhant, Constantius, 486. 
Maginnis, A. A., 167, 533, 620; John 

H., 533; Josephine, 642; Wm. F., 

645. 
Magner, Joseph, 611. 
Maher, Thomas F., 414. 
Maisonade, Father, 488, 491. 
Malcolm, Admiral, 138. 
Mandeville, Marigny de, 89. 
Manning, Thomas C, 410. 
Marbois, Barb6, 36. 



738 



INDEX. 




Markham, T. R., 501. 

Marks, Captain, 145; Edward, 167; 

I. N., 637; S. F., 155; Sol, 612. 
Marquette, Father, 7, 41, 48. 
Marquis. 23. 
Marr, Robert H., 416. 
Marshall, Judge, 416. 
Mantels. The, 194. 
Martin, 191; Dr., 214; Judge, 54, 415- 

6; F. X., 364, 396, 586, 615; J. F., 

725; Labin, 628; Paul B., 397. 
Masdevall, 206; Dr., 214. 
Maspero, George, 622-3. 
Matas, Rudolph, 224. 
Mather, James, 94; Joseph, 128; 

Mayor, 444. 
Mathes, C. L., 160. 
Mathews, C. S., 725; George, 725. 
Matthews, Farquhar, 448; Mary, 

644. 
Matthieu. Dr.. 224. 

aurian, J. B., 271, 486; Judge, 419; 

Charles A., 610-1. 
May, Thomas, 603; Thomas P., & 

Co., 276. 
Maybin. J. A., 237. 
Mayer, Charles R., 224. 
Mayfield, Robert B., 385. 
Mayronnes, The. 679. 
Mazan, Chevalier de, 649. 
Mazange. 89. 
Mazureau, Etienne, 408. 
McAlpine, R., 425. 
McBurney, Sam, 160. 
McCabe Philip, 124. 
McCall Brothers, 726; Henry, 683. 
McCalls, The, 679. 
McCann, David. 526; James J., 617. 
McCarthy, Harry, 468. 
McCarthys, The, 185. 
McCarty, 131. 
McClelland, W. H., 626. See Mc- 

Lellan. 
McCollams, The 679. 
McComb, H. S., 637. 
McConnell, Dr., 214. 
McCutcheon, P. B., 213. 
McCutchons, The, 679. 
McDonogh, John, 242, 415, 451, 509, 

550. 
McEnery, 115. et seq. 
McGary, W. L., 618. 
McGee, Dr., 44. 
McGillivray, 53. 



McKaraher, James. 270. 

McKeehan, David, 269. 

McKee, Col., 147. 

McKeon, Frank, 273. 

McKinley, President, 168. 

McKnight, Logan, 425. 

McLellan, Wm. H., 314. See also 

McClelland. 
McNair, Robert, 237. 
McNeal, Chess6, 119. 
Mead, Cowles, 133. 
Meilleur, J. S., 162. 
Meissonier, Pierre, 94. 
Menge, Pauline. 644. 
Mendez, 33; Antonio. 650, 678. 
Mercer, William N., 214. 459, 498. 
Mercier, Alfred, 215, 366; Armand, 

628. 
Merriam, Walter, 636. 
Merrick, Edwin T.. 412, 416. 
Merrifield, Alden S., 270. 
Mervoyer, 239. 
Merz, Val, 279, 617. 
Meurin, 482. 

Meurinie, de la. Father, 482. 
Meyer. John A., 124; J. E. J., 533. 
Miangohara, Juan, 162. 
Michel Heymann (Free Kinder- 
garten), 162, 246. 
Michinard, Paul, 213. 
Mignot, Father, 487. 
Miles, 156; Gen., 150; Albert B. 

222, 450; Belinda, 644; Susan, 

642; William P., 682. 
Milhet, Jean. 21, 22. 
Millaudon, 679; L., 665. 
Miller, (Commissioner), 679; Ethel,. 

644; Henry C, 412; James F., 128; 

Thomas D., 433. 
Milliken, Mrs. Deborah, 446; & 

Farwell, 681, 684; Richard, 680. 
Millington, Frank, 225. 
Miltenberger, Lucia, 642. 
Minor, 191. 
Minors, The, 679. 
Miro, Estevan, 30, 53, 90, et al. 
Mitchell, Rev. E. C, 247; Philip,. 

124. 
Moeller, Hugo, 278. 
Moise, James C, 414; Theodore S.,. 

382. 
Molinary, Andres, 383-4. 
Moni, Father, 419; J. A. L., 485. 
Monroe, Frsbnk A., 414, 416; Johm 



INDEX. 



To'.) 



^ 



T., 128, 157, 159; John J., 113. 
Montagut, E., 128. 
Montahue, Gabriel, 425. 
Montgomery, W. W., 665. 
Moore, Governor, 151; I. D., 414. 
Morales, 89. 
Morgan, Benj., 585; Capt., 140; 

Thomas A., 668, 679; Thomas W., 

448. 
Morin, 650. 
Morphy, Paul, 611. 
Morris, John A., 469. 
Morse, 191; Isaac E., 149. 
Moulton, Alfred, 292. 
Mouton, Alexander, 302, 420; Col., 

155; Governor, 144, 151. 
Moutons, The, 194. 
Mowry, John, 269. 
Mullen, James I., 489. 
Mumford, William B., 156-7. 
Murphy, Charles J., 160; James C, 

681, 683. 
Murray, Thomas, 153. 
Musgrove, E. B., 622. 
Muys, de, 10. 

N. 

Nathan, G. McD., 289. 

Navarre, Dr., 214. 

Navarro, 89. 

Newcomb, Josephine L., 254; H. 

Sophie, 242, 254. 
Newman, J. K., 312. 
Nicholls, 191; Government, 113; 

Francis T., 414, 625; Col., 135 ct 

seq. ; Virginia. 642. 
Nicholson, 275; Eliza J., 379; 

George, 379. 
Nolte, Arthur, 213. 
Norris, Lieut., 141. 
Norwood, C, 269. 
Nott, 191; G. A., 212. 

O. 

O'Brian, P. B., 162. 

O'Brien, E. J., 620. 

O'Connor, Tom, 124. 

Odin, J. M., 486. 

Ogden, 191; Frederick N., 164;^ 

Judge, 153; Henry D., 150, 156;' 

R. N., 414; Peter, 132. 
Ogden George M., 136. 
Oliver, Jean, 484; J. B., 665. 
Olivets, The, 194. 



Olivier, Adolphus. 153. 
Olliphant, S. R., 212. 
O'Malley, D. C, 282. 
O'Neill, Walter A., 724. 
Oppenheimer, Col., 167. 
Ordway, Mrs. E. W., 614. 
O'Reilly, Alejandro, 24, 89; Gov., 

53, 88, 394, 417, 464, 544, 545, etc. 
Orne, 89. 
Ortega, 89. 

Orthwein, Charles F., 293-5. 
Ovrenshine, Col., 167. 
Owen, W. G., 212; William M., 376, 

624. 
Oxnard, B. A., 642. 

P. 

Pacaud, Mathurin, 317. 
Packard, T. W., 679. 
Packenham, Edward, 138. et seq. 
Packwood & Benjamin, 669. 
Palfrey, Edward, 152, 439, 191; H. 

W., 160; Julia, 644. 
Palmer, Dr., 153. 
Palmer, Rev. B. M., 439, 499. 
Parham, F., 450. 
Parker (Commander), 138. 
Parmlee, Oliver, 259. 
Parnele (Parmlee?), Mrs., 154. 
Parrott, Mrs. Walker, 438. 
Patterson (Commodore), 139. 
Patton, G. Farrar, 212. 
Pauger, 12. 

Paulding, Cornelius, 503. 
Payne, Annie. 642. 
Pedesclaux, Pierre or Peter, 110, 

443. 
Pena, de la, 89. 
Penalvert, Louis de, 34, 483-4. 
Penicaut, 9. 
Peniston, Anthony, 217; Thomas, 

217. 
Penn, Evelyn, 645. 
Penriee, John, 270. 
Percaux, Gustave, 145. 
Perchg, Abp., 382; Napoleon J., 486, 

489. 
Peretti, Achille, 383. 
Perez, 89, 93. 
P6rier, Gov., 14, 42, 46, 80 et seq., 

124, 172, 205. 
Perkins, John, 615; T. H., 298; 

Messrs., 658. 
Pernot, Francois, 317. 



740 



INDEX. 



Perrin, E., 314. 

Perry, Alfred W., 212; Col., 141. 

Peters, Samuel J., 237, 431, 436. 

Petesch, Father, 488. 

Petit, 26; Pierre, 93, 128; Father, 

481. 
Peytavin, Duprelong, 316. 
Pfeiffer, John, 124; Peter & Co., 

278. 
Pharr, John N., 683, 724. 
Phelps, Albert G., 314; Ashton, 283; 

Mrs. Ashton, 246. 
Piatt, Col., 140. 
Pickles, Thomas, 297. 
Picton, J. M. W., 217, 237. 
Piernas, 89. 
Pilie, Louis H., 125. 
Pine, Major, 140. 
Pinta, J. B., 317. 
Piseros, The, 652. 
Pitot, James, 93, 94, 584. 
Place, Lucius W., 150. 
Placide. Thomas, 616. 
Planche, Major, 137, 141. 
Poche, F. P., 189, 190; P. F., 195. 
Poincy, Paul, 382. 

Poitevant, Emily, 643; John, 642. 
Polks, The, 679. 
Pollock, Oliver. 27, 545, 550. 
Pollocks, The, 185. 
Pond, Preston, 155. 
Pontalba, 89; Madam, 464. 
Pontchartrain, 8. 
Pool, Carlton, 283. 
Porter, 191. 
Postl, Karl, 236. 
Powell, Gen., 155. 
Powers. A. G., 381. 
Poydras, Julien. 27, 361, 451, 584. 
Poyfarre, 89. 
Pratt, Charles M., 247. 
Price, Andrew, 681. 
Proctor, S. R., 665. 
Prentiss, Misses, 245. 
Prieur, Denis, 128. 
Provost, v., 724. 
Pugh, W. W. 684. 
Pughs, The, 679. 
Puig, Felix, 645. 
Purse. D. G., 653. 

Q. 
Queyrouze, Leon, 628. 
"Quicksilver," 278. 
Quincy, S. M., 128. 



Quintero, Lamar C, 195. 
Quitman, Gen., 147. 

R. 

Rafinesque, 390. 

Randolph. R. A., 212. 

Rapier, Thomas G., 276, 283. 

Rapp, J. H., 245. 

Rareshide, Harry, 620. 

Raymond, Guy S., 245. 

Reed, James, 157; L. C, 251. 

Regglo. Francisco M., 88, 89. 

Regnier, 111. 

Reichart. Col., 155. 

Reid. J. M., 150. 

Reif, Richard, 136, 258. 

Renaud, Paul F., 291. 

Rendon, 650. 

Rennie, Col., 142. 

Reynaud, D., 450. 

Reynolds. Capt., 135; W. H., 527. 

Richardson. 176; Cora, 641; F. D., 

670: James P., 642; John B., 624; 

R. D., 270: Scuday, 376; T. G., 

220; Mrs. T. G., 250. 
Richardson, Ida A.. 220. 
Rickert, Frank, 519. 
,Riddell, John L.. 223. 426; Prof., 

390. 
Riesland. Judge, 149. 
Riggios, The, 652. 
Riellieux, Norbert, 669, 680. 
Rightor, Henry, 283, 375, 613-4; X. 

H., 414. 
Rivery, Pierre A., 110. 
Rivoire, Emil. 195. 
Robb, James, 299, 302. 
Robin, C. C, 390. 
Robinson, 680; F. H., 323; Tully, 

426; W. M., 280. 
Rochefort, 232. 
Rochemore, 19. 
Rogers. Sophia, 645. 
Rodriguez. 89. 
Roffignac. Joseph, 128, 211. 
Rogers, William 0., 238, 240, 242; 

Wynne. 414. 
Rollins. Dr., 214. 
Roman, A. B., 665; A. L., 190, 194; 

Alfred, 376; E., 665; J. T., 665;. 

Silvestre. 665: S. M., 665. 
Romans. The. 679. 
Romanski. Henry, 281, 284. 
Rosati, Guiseppe, 484-5. 



INDEX. 



741 



Roselius, 416; C, 150; Christian, 400. 

Ross, Col., 140; John W., 281, 284. 

Host, 191, 416; Emil, 651, 679, 683; 
Pierre A., 410, 659, 665, 678, 682. 

Rouen, Simon, 239. 

Rouquette, Adrien, 41, 56, 365; Do- 
minique, 365. 

Rousillion, Abbe, 485. 

Rousseau, 28. 

Rouvilliere, de la, 84. 

Roy, Wm., 627. 

Rusey, Col. de. 147. 

Russell, William, 154. 

S. 

Saint-Denis, 11, 15. 

Salcedo, Juan Manuel de, 34. 

Sanarelli, Giuseppe, 209. 

Sanders, M. J., 293. 

Sarrazin, Jules J., 244. 

Saucier, Arthur, 628. 

Saunders, E. D.. 416. 

Sauve, 679. 

Sauvole, 9. 

Sauvolle, 205. 

Savary, 140. 

Schlesinger, Joseph, 618. 

Schmidt, May, 644; W. B., 683. 

Schreiver, John G., 641. 

Schwan, Gen., 167. 

Scot, James B., 318. 

Scott, S. M., 155. 

Seaman, Kate, 246. 

Searcy, D. J., 323. 

Sedella Antonio de, 31, 483-5. 

Seebold, M. M., 386. " 

Seghers, Dominique, 407. 

Seguin, James D., 610. 

Seidner, Jacob, 124. 

Seiferth, Herman J., 284. 

Seinecke, Ferdinand, 278. 

Semmes, Thomas J., 150, 413. 

Senac, Father, 17. 

Serano, 89. 

Seymour, Wm., 281. 

Shakespeare, Joseph A., 104-5, 116, 

128, 526; Anita, 641. 
Sharp, Robert, 374. 
Shaw, 436; Capt. John, 131; J. A., 

237. 
Sheerer, Mary G., 385. 
Shepley, G. F., 128, 159. 
Shepperd, R. D., 665. 
Sherman, D. W., 155. 



Sherridan, Teresa, 450. 
Shields. James, 147. 
Short, George, 273. 
Shute, 236. 
Sibilski, M., 278. 
Sibley, Dr., 47, 54, 55. 
Sigur, Laurent, 316. 
Simms, Capt., 653. 
Simons, The, 194. 
Sinnot, Ella, 642. 
Slidell, 416; John, 145. 
Slocomb, C. H., 637; Cuthbert, 439. 
Sloo, Thomas, 237. 
Smith, A., 162; Gertrude R., 385; 
G. S., 618; Mrs. H. M.. 154; How- 
ard, 217; J. Kilty, 136; J. Pinck- 
ney, 280; Mrs. J. Pinckney, 626; 
Marshall J., 386; Persifer F., 145, 
148, 162, 624; Samuel, 637; S. A., 
212; Sol, 467; William B., 373. 

Smyth, A. W., 222, 421, 425. 

Sneed, Gordon L., 169. 

Snyder Brothers, 295. 

Sohmalinsky, Mrs. F., 460. 

Solis, 33, 650, 678. 

Soniat, Charles T., 189, 190, 195; L. 
M., 683. 

Soniats, The, 679. 

Soria, Annie, 644. 

Souchon, Edmond, 212, 230. 

Soule. N., 162; George, 225; Pierre, 
156-7, 415-6. 

Spellman. Carrie, 642. 

Spencer, L. C, 244. 

Spillard, Rev. D. J., 245. 

Spindler, O. F., 294. 

Spotts, Lieut., 141. 

Stafford, Mrs. Samuel, 725. 

Stauffer, Willie, 643. 

St. Cosme, 46. 

St. Denys, 89. 

Steele, Wm. M., 284. 

Stehle, Thad. G., 623. 

Stein, L., 159; O. H., 283. 

Steinhardt, S., 295. 

Stevenson, Richard, 421. 

Stewart, Andrew, 502; Minnie, 642. 

Stith. Gerard, 128. 

Sturcken, Charles F., 160. 

St. Lette. 23. 

Stoddart, Major, 50, 55. 

Stone, Warren, 218, 450; Mrs. V. S., 
247. 

Story. Benjamin, 145. 



743 



INDEX. 



St. Paul, Henry, 167; Capt., 150; 

John, 414. 
Straight, Seymour, 247. 
Stroud & Jones, 270; John, 160. 
Stuart, Ruth McEnery, 378. 
Stubbs, W. C. 683-4. 
Suydam, Miss, 242. 
Swartwout, 132. 
Swoop, Julian, 526. 
Szymanski, Col., 162. 



Talen, Eric, 281. 

Tappan, B. S., 150. 

Tarleton, T. T., 212. 

Tarpley, C. S., 298-9. 

Taylor, James F., 416; Miles, 655; 

Zachary, 147 et seq. 
Taxile, Dr., 224. 
Teinturier, 232. 
Ten Broeck, Richard, 472. 
Teresa, St., 455-6. 
Thayer, Fred N., 616. 
Theard. George H., 414, 617; Sydney 

L.. 208, 213. 
Thomas. Gen., 137. 141. 
Thompson, Daniel, 682; T. J., 519; 

Wilbray J., 683-4; W. N., 519. 
Thurmann, 191. 
Tilton, Caroline, 253. 
Tobin, John, 645. 
Tonatre, Just, 628. 
Tonti, 41. 205. 
Tonty, Henri de, 7, 9. 
Tour, de la, 14, 172. 
Touro, Judah, 435, 448, 507. 
Tousac, Chevalie de, 139. 
Toutant, J., 665. 
Townsend, Mary A., 376. 
Towsley, Charles W.. 289. 
Tracy, E. L., 152, 155, 160. 
Tranchepain, Marie P., 14, 454. 
Trelford, Thomas, 145. 
Trepagnier. Norbert, 637. 
Trideaux, 93. 
Trudeau, A., 159. 
Truslow, Charles P., 291. 
Tulane, Paul, 251. 
Turpin, Charles, 628. 
Twichell, Jerome, 501. 
Twiggs, David E., 154. 
Twitchell, Dr., 218. 
Tyler, Philo B., 425-6; Robert, 277. 



U. 

Ulloa, Antonio de, 20. 

Unzaga, Gov., 229, 544; Luis de, 26. 

Urquhart, 191. 



Vanbenthuysen, May, 643. 
Vanderhoff, George, 468. 
Van Horn, Miss Belle, 615. 
Van Slooten, William, 212. 
Vaudreuil, Marquis de, 18, 52, 124, 

185, 581. 
Ventresses, The, 679. 
Vergennes, Count de, 206. 
Veron, J. B., 317. 
Vezin, Olivier de, 88. 
Vidal, Jose M., 34. 
Villere, 93; Andole, 665; Calliste, 

665; Charles A., 190; Felix. 665; 

Gabriel, 665; Joseph, 23, 25; Jules, 

665; Col., 190, 193; Major. 137, 140. 
Villeres, The, 679. 
Villiers, 19; Chevalier de, 89. 
Vincenne.<?, 17. 
Vines, Richard, 205. 
Voorhies, Albert, 416; Robert D., 

224; The, 194. 

W. 

Waggamans, The, 679. 

Waguespacks, The, 185. 

Waldo, Miss, 246. 

Walker, 191; Alexander, 144, 281, 
367; I.„F., 160; Joseph, 615; Nor- 
man, 171, 283, 614; Judge, 150. 

Walls, W. Edward. 245. 

Walmsley, S. P., C18, 641. 

Walsh, Patrick, 484. 

Walton, J. B.. 162, 624. 

Warmouth, H. C, 164, 310, 627. 

Warner, Beverly, 374, 497; Charles 
D., 418. 

Warriner, M. & R., 293. 

Wasdin, Dr., 208. 

Washington, Col., 19. 

Waterman, Charles M., 128. 

Waters, May, 645. 

Watkins, 93; John, 94, 128; Lynn 
B.. 414. 

Walters, J. S., 169-70. 

Webre, Steib & Co., 725; Sylvester, 
725. 

Weichardt, 278. 

Weigel, Lieut., 157. 



INDEX. 



743 



Weis, Julius, 448, 450; Simon, 290. 

Weitzel, G., 128. 

Welhams, The, 679. 

Wells, Jefferson, 472. 

Westfeldt, P. M., 385. 

Wheat, C. R., 161; J. T., 497. 

Wheeler, A. B., 644. 

Whann, Mrs. L. A., 154. 

Wharton, T. D., 281, 283. 

Whital, Charles W., 509. 

White, 191; C. B.. 211-2; Maunsel, 

299, 300. 
Whitness, C. A., 637. 
Whitney, B., 532. 
Wiener, Dr., 277. 
Wikstrom, B. A., 283, 384-5. 
Wilde, Jenny, 386. 
Wildey, Thomas, 320. 
Wilkinson, 418; C. P., 212; Gen., 

38, 130 et seq., 546; N. N., 616; 

Theodore S., 652. 
Wilkinsons, The, 679. 
Williams, Dr., 206; Espy, W. H., 

375; Gen., 157; W. P., 159. 
Williamson, C. H., 497. 
Wilmot, Maud, 645. 
Wilson, R. T.. 308. 
Wiltz, Louis A., 128; Louise, 64.3; 
■ May, 644. 



Wingfield, James H., 122. 
Winship, Lydia, 643. 
Witherspoon, A. J., 502. 
Wogan, C. M., 623. 
Wolff, Solomon, 416. 
Wood, A. T.. 428; Elmer E., 166-8. 
Woodruff, Clark, 298. 
Woods. James B., 291. 
Woodward, Ellsworth, 386-7; Thom- 
as J., 645; William, 386-7. 
Workman, Judge, 132. 
Woulfe. James J., 617-8. 
Wright, Sophie B., 244. 
Wyndham, 239. 



You, Dominique, 259. 
Youennes, John, 113. 



Zacharie, J. W., 150, 152; Stephen, 

258. 
Zell, Virginia, 645. 
Zenor. G. G., 683. 
Zerbau, Dr., 426. 
Zeringue, C, 665. 
Zeringues. The, 679. 



ILLUSTRATIONS. 



•/Blakely, A. R., 460. 

I' The New St. Charles Hotel, 466. 
.'Craig, R. E., 578. 
tLe Blanc, J. E., 684. 
^Maginnis, Charles B., 130. 
KMathews, C. S., 414. 
/MoCall, Henry, 664. 

Milliken, Richard, Frontispiece. 
I Moore, John T., 300. 



»4'almer. Rev. B. M., 480. 
<<Patout, L. P., 230. 

Pitkin, J. R. G.. 426. 
•^Rost, Emile. 406. 
K^anders, H. J.. 646. 
v'^Tuttle, James S., 102. 
KWaguespack, Felicien, 185. 
•liesidence, 196. 



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